Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.24 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 4 28 2842666 2842516 2026-10-26T14:00:37Z MediaWiki message delivery 983498 /* Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon */ new section 2842666 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == Paid part-time Administrative Officer position with WikiJournal == [[WikiJournal User Group|WikiJournal]] is an open-access, nonprofit scholarly publisher hosted on Wikiversity. It uses the wiki format to allow authors to write and develop scholarly articles directly online. Submitted articles then undergo formal academic peer review and, when accepted, are published as citable journal articles while remaining freely accessible. WikiJournal is seeking expressions of interest in a new part-time '''Administrative Officer''' position. The officer would support the project's day-to-day organizational work, including: * Setting up and administering a system for tracking contractor hours and issuing payments. * Coordinating the contracting, onboarding, timekeeping and payment of technical editors and other contractors. * Maintaining financial, contractor and administrative records. * Assisting with grant administration, budget tracking and reporting. * Following up on board action items, deadlines and recurring obligations. * Supporting recruitment and other operational tasks as needed. This is a remote, flexibly scheduled contractor role averaging approximately '''6 hours per week'''. Compensation is proposed at '''US$25 per hour''', with up to approximately '''320 hours (US$8,000) available over the year'''. Applicants may be based internationally, although appointment will depend on WikiJournal being able to establish a practical and legally appropriate contracting and payment arrangement in the applicant's country of residence. Relevant experience may include administrative organization, bookkeeping or financial administration, contractor or personnel coordination, nonprofit or grant administration, Wikimedia participation, academic publishing, and open-access work. Applicants are not expected to have experience in every area. For the complete role description and further details, see [[WikiJournal User Group/Administrative officer]]. Those interested should reply in the '''[[Talk:WikiJournal User Group#Call for interest: Administrative Officer|Call for interest: Administrative Officer]]''' discussion by '''30 September 2026''', briefly describing their relevant experience, any connection to WikiJournal or related communities, and their general availability. Expressions of interest received later may still be considered if the position has not been filled. Recommendations of potentially suitable candidates are also welcome. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mikael Häggström|contribs]]) 20:00, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-09-23|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-09-23T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-09-23T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-09-23|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] 12:58, 15 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 12:23, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080985 --> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Demote [[Wikiversity:CheckUser policy]]? == I am proposing that we demote that policy to a standard page, mostly for two reasons: # Considering the few amount of custodians and the size of this wiki, I'd say that this project is considered too small to have any CUs, and relying on the stewards would be a more logical choice. # We haven't elected two CUs in a few years. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:53, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :Reasonable. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 17:09, 4 October 2026 (UTC) :I don't see much point in demoting it. Even if we are not currently (or recently) using the policy, it is there should a need ever arise. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 18:24, 23 October 2026 (UTC) == General Questions and Reference Questions == <p>Hey everyone,</p> <p> My apologies in advance if these questions are oblivious or their responses readily apparent, but I figured I'd ask just to be safe.</p> <p> '''Questions'''</p> <p> 1. Should pages have inline citations and a reference section? A [[Fundamentals of Neuroscience/What is Neuroscience|majority of pages]] I have explored have neither, while [[Neurobiology of emotion|others have a more traditional approach to references]].</br> 2. Are there widely-used templates for weasel-words, references, etc.? </p> '''CONTEXT''': I migrated from Wikipedia, so I'm not entirely sure what the norms/roc are here.</br> Thanks in advance,</br> [[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 18:40, 12 October 2026 (UTC) :You're asking fine questions. I posted {{tl|welcome}} to your talk page which I think will help you. To answer your direct questions: :#This project spun out of [[:b:]] and both here and there, you can post original research. This does not mean that you can post just anything, so if you want to post an educational resource and you want to justify claims you make with inline citations, that's great. If you want to include a bibliography, that's also quite helpful for readers. Generally, the way that Wikiversity works in practice is that individual users make a resource and then tend to work on it solo and have broad latitude about what you can do and how it looks. :#You can take al look at [[:Category:Templates]] and the subcat [[:Category:Maintenance templates]]. At Wikipedia, it's very common to point out issues with tone or uncited claims. That's not really as common here. We [[:d:Q7780480|do not have an equivalent]] of [[:w:en:Template:weasel]], but we do have a [[Template:Citation needed|local version]] of [[:w:en:Template:Citation needed]]. :―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 20:31, 12 October 2026 (UTC) ::Thanks for the heads up on both accounts; I'm happy to join forces with all y'all! ::[[User:SamLaxarox|SamLaxarox]] ([[User talk:SamLaxarox|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SamLaxarox|contribs]]) 23:39, 12 October 2026 (UTC) ==Agent editors== What about inviting agents to edit this wiki? And they would need a human being responsible for them. [[User:Michael Ten|Michael Ten]] ([[User talk:Michael Ten|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Michael Ten|contribs]]) 06:31, 17 October 2026 (UTC) == October 2026 Wikimedia Café: legal issues on Commons, and WMF Board selection process == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities in October. In a change from the usual Café practice, this month's sessions will have different topics. Anyone who meets the Café attendance criteria is welcome to attend either or both sessions. Session A will happen on Saturday, 24 October 2026 at 15:00 UTC ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1792854000 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe. This session will feature [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:PBradley-WMF Wikimedia Foundation lawyer Phil Bradley-Schmieg]. We will discuss legal issues on Wikimedia Commons, including complexities of international law. (I am hoping that in a future month, a similar Café session will be offered at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific.) Session B will happen on Sunday, 25 October 2026 at 03:00 UTC ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1792897200 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific, we will discuss [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2027/Proposed_eligibility_criteria proposed changes to how Wikimedia Foundation Board candidates are selected]. The latest proposals are much different from the earlier July 2026 proposals. The due date for feedback on current proposals is 27 October, and Wikimedians are welcome to participate on the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2027/Proposed_eligibility_criteria proposal talk page] regardless of Café attendance. Please see the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Café] page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! To subscribe or unsubscribe for Café notices on your talk page please [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 go here]. <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">༄ᨒ𖠰 Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 06:22, 18 October 2026 (UTC) == A new cosmological model == I would like to publish independent research that challenges the standard cosmological model. Does this fall within the scope of the "Original research" space? And what precautions should I take to ensure the page is not considered an inadmissible personal work, and is not open to modification by other users? [[User:Wb525|Wb525]] ([[User talk:Wb525|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wb525|contribs]]) 11:53, 20 October 2026 (UTC) : This sounds like it could be [[Wikiversity:Original research|original research]]. Some things to note: :* Sometimes what an author considers original research turns out to be original theory :* Some qualities that may help to ensure viability: objectivity, use of simple language, careful use of peer-reviewed citations, and minimal use of genAI with careful attribution/acknowledgement if AI is used per [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence]] :* Consider starting with a sub-page in user space e.g., [[User:Wb525/Subpage name]] :* As an open knowledge project, Wikiversity content is openly editable by others : -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 23:05, 20 October 2026 (UTC) == Interface administrators policy== This is a discussion of potential changes to [[Wikiversity:Interface administrators]] policy. Please refer to: "For now, Wikiversity does not have a need for permanent or long term interface administrators. Accordingly, interface administratorship may only be granted temporarily by bureaucrats (between 14 and 120 days based on discussion, at the discretion of that bureaucrat and perceived need)." --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 05:14, 23 October 2026 (UTC) === Temporary rights duration === I propose that temporary rights be granted for a duration of from one day to one year. (to conform with selections in [[Special:UserRights]] in the pull down menus.) --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 05:14, 23 October 2026 (UTC) ==== Discussion ==== *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:56, 23 October 2026 (UTC) * {{support}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:56, 23 October 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} as proposer.--[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 16:30, 23 October 2026 (UTC) * {{neutral}}; if we're changing the time period again, this time to align with the drop-down options, then I suggest that the policy require that nominators request one of the following time-frames supported by a corresponding plan of work: ** 1 day ** 1 week ** 1 month ** 3 months ** 6 months ** 1 year : -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 02:01, 25 October 2026 (UTC) === Temporary rights extention === I propose that we clarify that temporary rights can be extended. If the community approves of an extension, it can be granted more than once. The temporary rights can repeatedly be extended, for new temporary durations. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 05:14, 23 October 2026 (UTC) ==== Discussion ==== *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:56, 23 October 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} for more than one extension. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:56, 23 October 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} as proposer. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 16:30, 23 October 2026 (UTC) * {{Neutral}} because I'm not sure what the practical difference is between applying for an extension and applying for the right. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 02:04, 25 October 2026 (UTC) *: On a nomination or IA request, a member may question what timeframe a candidate may request, or the candidate may state what timeframe they need for IA rights. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 02:51, 25 October 2026 (UTC) === Permanent IA === There has been a suggestion of permanent IA rights. Another suggestion is that there should be at least two members with such rights. Please express your preference. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 05:14, 23 October 2026 (UTC) ==== Discussion ==== *{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 13:56, 23 October 2026 (UTC) * {{support}} for having at least two members because there shouldn't be only one. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:59, 23 October 2026 (UTC) * Conditional {{support}} with the understanding that there be a minimum of 2 (if only 1 is remaining, the other perm is set to temp until a 2nd becomes active) and perm can only be granted after having a temp. I also think a perm nom should have a requirement to demonstrate need - for example show activity logs so that the community can assess that IA is needed long term. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 17:55, 23 October 2026 (UTC) *: You mean that we may have at least 2 permanent IAs, but if one is removed, the other one's is set to temporary until another IA is appointed, makes sense? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:34, 23 October 2026 (UTC) *::Yes, I meant that if the second IA is no longer active, the remaining IA would be reset to 1 year temporary. That should give enough time to find a second perm IA. That 1 year could be extended, if it takes more time to find a second. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:15, 24 October 2026 (UTC) *:::Once the community approves a perm IA, there is no need to renominate. A crat can just reset the time to temp until the conditions are met, and reset to perm when we have two or more. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] ^{[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]} 04:25, 24 October 2026 (UTC) * {{Neutral}}. Perhaps if there are users who make effective use of IA rights across multiple temporary periods, permanent rights could be useful. My hunch is that is unlikely in the foreseeable future for en.wv to manifest two users who simultaneously maintain that level of engagement. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 02:09, 25 October 2026 (UTC) == Server switch - Your wiki will be read-only for a short time soon == <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2026-10-28|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2026-10-28T15:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2026-10-28T15:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. You can contribute to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=Centralnotice-tgroup-read_only_banner&task=view&language=&filter=&action=translate translation or proofreading] of this banner text. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' * You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2026-10-28|en}}. * If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': * Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> [[user:Trizek_(WMF)|Trizek_(WMF)]] 14:00, 26 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=30513874 --> 97h8iw99r516gt1ms28kehhzmf8o8ep 0 23345 2842743 2535823 2026-10-27T00:02:48Z ~2026-57145-51 3113374 /* External resources */ 2842743 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center;font-size:5em;">初級の日本語</div> ---- <div style="text-align:center;font-size:2em;">Shokyū no Nihongo</div> ---- <div style="text-align:center;font-size:2em;">Beginner Japanese</div> {{LeftTOC}} {{languages}}{{Template:secondary education}} {{clear}} == Content summary == This learning project will provide an introduction to the Japanese language. == Goals == This learning project offers learning activities to enable you to: * Understand some basic elements of the Japanese language * Learn the pronunciation of Japanese * Understand the various writing systems * Learn the syllabaries of Japanese == Introduction == ''Before continuing, please see [[Computing in Japanese]] to determine if your computer and browser are configured properly for viewing course-related material.'' === Conventions === Throughout this course, Japanese terms are presented in two forms: the Japanese scripts, and romanized forms ('''rōmaji'''), which are '''bolded'''. Japanese terms written in the Japanese scripts are always followed by '''rōmaji'''. Meanings of Japanese terms and their English equivalents are ''italicised''. : 話す '''hanasu''' (''to speak'') : 食べる '''taberu''' (''to eat'') Sample Japanese sentences will be formatted to help you understand how the parts of speech work together. : {{color|blue|日本語}}'''は'''{{color|green|話します}}{{color|red|か}}。 {{color|blue|Nihongo}} '''wa''' {{color|green|hanashimasu}} {{color|red|ka}}. : ''{{color|red|Do}} [you] {{color|green|speak}} {{color|blue|Japanese}}{{color|red|?}}'' : Literally: '' '''Speaking of''' {{color|blue|Japanese}}, {{color|green|speak}}{{color|red|?}}'' Japanese can be said to use SOV (Subject-Object-Verb, '' 'I Japanese like' '') sentence structure, compared to the English SVO (Subject-Verb-Object, '' 'I like Japanese' ''). Although this is not always true, it may help the beginner to establish a baseline from which to delve into the Japanese Language. == Lessons == === Introduction === # [[/Introduction to the Japanese Language/]] # [[/Introduction to the Japanese Writing System/]] # [[/Kana/]] # [[/Kanji/]] # [[/Pronunciation of Japanese/]] === Grammar === # [[/Existence and Copula/]] # [[/Particles/]] # [[/Adjectives/]] # [[/Verbs/]] # [[/Godan Verbs/]] # [[/Ichidan Verbs/]] # [[/Particles used with verbs/]] === Applied Japanese === # [[/Looking For Someone/]] # [[/Politeness/]] == Further reading == After the first five grammar lessons you have learned enough grammar to form simple sentences. Try learning words you find interesting by looking them up in a dictionary such as [[wikt:|wiktionary]]. If you want some guidance try: * {{bi|Japanese}} * {{bi|Japanese/Vocabulary|Japanese – Vocabulary}} contains vocabulary organized by topic. * The [[wikt:Wiktionary:Japanese Swadesh list|Japanese Swadesh list]]. A Swadesh list is a list of words which are essential to most languages. * [[wikt:Appendix:1000 Japanese basic words|1000 Japanese basic words]]. == External resources == * [http://www.guidetojapanese.org Tae Kim's Japanese Guide to Japanese Grammar]. * JLPTCARDS - Hiragana & Katakana Flashcards [[Category:Japanese]] [[Category:Humanities courses]] jlns6k52dgt19vuskvj01trxi2fbjyg 2842744 2842743 2026-10-27T00:03:44Z ~2026-57145-51 3113374 /* External resources */ 2842744 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center;font-size:5em;">初級の日本語</div> ---- <div style="text-align:center;font-size:2em;">Shokyū no Nihongo</div> ---- <div style="text-align:center;font-size:2em;">Beginner Japanese</div> {{LeftTOC}} {{languages}}{{Template:secondary education}} {{clear}} == Content summary == This learning project will provide an introduction to the Japanese language. == Goals == This learning project offers learning activities to enable you to: * Understand some basic elements of the Japanese language * Learn the pronunciation of Japanese * Understand the various writing systems * Learn the syllabaries of Japanese == Introduction == ''Before continuing, please see [[Computing in Japanese]] to determine if your computer and browser are configured properly for viewing course-related material.'' === Conventions === Throughout this course, Japanese terms are presented in two forms: the Japanese scripts, and romanized forms ('''rōmaji'''), which are '''bolded'''. Japanese terms written in the Japanese scripts are always followed by '''rōmaji'''. Meanings of Japanese terms and their English equivalents are ''italicised''. : 話す '''hanasu''' (''to speak'') : 食べる '''taberu''' (''to eat'') Sample Japanese sentences will be formatted to help you understand how the parts of speech work together. : {{color|blue|日本語}}'''は'''{{color|green|話します}}{{color|red|か}}。 {{color|blue|Nihongo}} '''wa''' {{color|green|hanashimasu}} {{color|red|ka}}. : ''{{color|red|Do}} [you] {{color|green|speak}} {{color|blue|Japanese}}{{color|red|?}}'' : Literally: '' '''Speaking of''' {{color|blue|Japanese}}, {{color|green|speak}}{{color|red|?}}'' Japanese can be said to use SOV (Subject-Object-Verb, '' 'I Japanese like' '') sentence structure, compared to the English SVO (Subject-Verb-Object, '' 'I like Japanese' ''). Although this is not always true, it may help the beginner to establish a baseline from which to delve into the Japanese Language. == Lessons == === Introduction === # [[/Introduction to the Japanese Language/]] # [[/Introduction to the Japanese Writing System/]] # [[/Kana/]] # [[/Kanji/]] # [[/Pronunciation of Japanese/]] === Grammar === # [[/Existence and Copula/]] # [[/Particles/]] # [[/Adjectives/]] # [[/Verbs/]] # [[/Godan Verbs/]] # [[/Ichidan Verbs/]] # [[/Particles used with verbs/]] === Applied Japanese === # [[/Looking For Someone/]] # [[/Politeness/]] == Further reading == After the first five grammar lessons you have learned enough grammar to form simple sentences. Try learning words you find interesting by looking them up in a dictionary such as [[wikt:|wiktionary]]. If you want some guidance try: * {{bi|Japanese}} * {{bi|Japanese/Vocabulary|Japanese – Vocabulary}} contains vocabulary organized by topic. * The [[wikt:Wiktionary:Japanese Swadesh list|Japanese Swadesh list]]. A Swadesh list is a list of words which are essential to most languages. * [[wikt:Appendix:1000 Japanese basic words|1000 Japanese basic words]]. == External resources == * [http://www.guidetojapanese.org Tae Kim's Japanese Guide to Japanese Grammar]. * [https://jlptcards.com JLPTCARDS - Japanese Flashcards - Hiragana & Katakana Flashcards] [[Category:Japanese]] [[Category:Humanities courses]] j6057286ojz0tth4rlmb3e22vwv5ove 0 40603 2842673 2281204 2026-10-26T15:09:11Z Grumpityowl 3113337 Added more resources people can use and fixed a spelling mistake 2842673 wikitext text/x-wiki {{nav3|Wikiversity|Wikiversity:School of Mathematics|School of Mathematics:Primary School Mathematics}} ==Adding two single digit numbers== When teaching young students how to add you will need to use physical items to help them understand how addition works, use items that are similar to avoid confusing younger children. It is very important that they understand the number system before trying to add or subtract. The following is an example of how to show a child how to add. I have two blocks, Mary has two blocks, if Mary gives me two blocks how many blocks do I have? First show that you do in fact have two blocks, then show that Mary (or whatever the name of the person is) also has two blocks. Have the children count the number of blocks you have and the number of blocks Mary has. Have Mary give you two blocks, now have the children count how many blocks you have. You have four blocks and now Mary has zero blocks. Some children may be able to understand addition better if you teach subtraction at the same time, some may notice that Mary has zero blocks while others may not make this connection, this depends completely on each child. This block example should be done multiple times until every student understands how to add two single digit numbers together, if some students have trouble understanding the concept have them hold the blocks and do the above block example with each other, help them count the blocks they have. When the basic concept of adding has been introduced via a physical method children should be encouraged to learn the combinations of single digit numbers - so that addition no longer relies on counting blocks (or fingers). Especially important for mental subtraction is to learn the combinations of numbers that add to give 10. When these basics have been taught and before moving on to adding 2 digit numbers children must learn place notation (ie that 25=20+5). Once this is learnt children can progress to adding 2 (and more) digit numbers. It needs to be explained that when you have 10 in the units column you must 'carry' that over to be 1 in the 10s column. Note that this means that 25+97 is MUCH harder than 12+13. Depending on the child it can be useful to do this in binary as there are far fewer number combinations to remember, though this can confuse some children. Due to place notation addition is usually carried out right to left: 45 +37 === 82 === 1 With the 1 underneath representing a carried digit. It is possible to do addition left to right: 45 +37 ==== 70 12 ==== 82 (adding the tens first). Children taught this way will usually work out for themselves the shorter way of writing it out. == Other Resources (For Practice) == * [https://www.mathplayground.com/][http://www.mathblaster.com/coolmath/ https://www.mathplayground.com/] * [https://www.teachyourmonster.org/][http://www.mathplayground.com/ https://www.teachyourmonster.org/] * [https://allinonehomeschool.com/start-today/][http://www.coolmathgameskids.com/games/category/math/ https://allinonehomeschool.com/start-today/] * https://www.starfall.com/h/index-kindergarten.php [[Category:Pages moved from Wikibooks]] [[Category:Primary education]] obby18nih4a5wln10jloybz4c0nalt3 2842674 2842673 2026-10-26T15:19:52Z Grumpityowl 3113337 /* Other Resources (For Practice) */ 2842674 wikitext text/x-wiki {{nav3|Wikiversity|Wikiversity:School of Mathematics|School of Mathematics:Primary School Mathematics}} ==Adding two single digit numbers== When teaching young students how to add you will need to use physical items to help them understand how addition works, use items that are similar to avoid confusing younger children. It is very important that they understand the number system before trying to add or subtract. The following is an example of how to show a child how to add. I have two blocks, Mary has two blocks, if Mary gives me two blocks how many blocks do I have? First show that you do in fact have two blocks, then show that Mary (or whatever the name of the person is) also has two blocks. Have the children count the number of blocks you have and the number of blocks Mary has. Have Mary give you two blocks, now have the children count how many blocks you have. You have four blocks and now Mary has zero blocks. Some children may be able to understand addition better if you teach subtraction at the same time, some may notice that Mary has zero blocks while others may not make this connection, this depends completely on each child. This block example should be done multiple times until every student understands how to add two single digit numbers together, if some students have trouble understanding the concept have them hold the blocks and do the above block example with each other, help them count the blocks they have. When the basic concept of adding has been introduced via a physical method children should be encouraged to learn the combinations of single digit numbers - so that addition no longer relies on counting blocks (or fingers). Especially important for mental subtraction is to learn the combinations of numbers that add to give 10. When these basics have been taught and before moving on to adding 2 digit numbers children must learn place notation (ie that 25=20+5). Once this is learnt children can progress to adding 2 (and more) digit numbers. It needs to be explained that when you have 10 in the units column you must 'carry' that over to be 1 in the 10s column. Note that this means that 25+97 is MUCH harder than 12+13. Depending on the child it can be useful to do this in binary as there are far fewer number combinations to remember, though this can confuse some children. Due to place notation addition is usually carried out right to left: 45 +37 === 82 === 1 With the 1 underneath representing a carried digit. It is possible to do addition left to right: 45 +37 ==== 70 12 ==== 82 (adding the tens first). Children taught this way will usually work out for themselves the shorter way of writing it out. == Other Resources == * [https://www.mathplayground.com/][https://www.mathplayground.com/ Math Playground] * [https://www.teachyourmonster.org/][http://www.mathplayground.com/ Teach Your Monster] * [https://allinonehomeschool.com/start-today/][https://allinonehomeschool.com/ All in One Homeschool] * [https://www.starfall.com/h/index-kindergarten.php Starfall] [[Category:Pages moved from Wikibooks]] [[Category:Primary education]] p1li2fvujusly81jkcyrupl6nro0mw3 0 64088 2842670 2742301 2026-10-26T14:17:05Z ~2026-57165-42 3113336 Added definite articles to a few nouns in the list for consistency; deleted two duplicate nouns from the list 2842670 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Chapter 8 (Destinations)== ===Activities (Actividades)=== *'''nadar''' - to swim *'''escalar las montañas''' - mountain climbing *'''comer en el restaurante''' - eat at a restaurant *'''jugar en el parque''' - play in the park *'''tomar el sol en la playa''' - sunbath at the beach *'''visitar un museo''' - visit a museum *'''ir de compras''' - to go shopping *'''ver una película''' - to see a movie *'''lección de piano''' - piano lesson (lesson of piano) *'''Me quedo en casa.''' - I stay at home. ===Places=== *'''la biblioteca''' - library *'''el café''' - café *'''el campo''' - countryside *'''la casa''' - house, home *'''en casa''' - at home *'''el centro comercial''' - mall *'''el cine''' - movie theater *'''el gimnasio''' - gym *'''la iglesia''' - church *'''la mezquita''' - mosque *'''las montañas''' - mountains *'''el parque''' - park *'''la piscina''' - swimming pool *'''la playa''' - beach *'''el restaurante''' - restaurant *'''la sinagoga''' - synagogue *'''el templo''' - temple, Protestant church *'''el trabajo''' - work, job *'''la comisaría/la estación de policía''' - police station *'''el planetario''' - planetarium *'''la panadería''' - bakery ===Words describing to go somewhere=== *'''a''' - to *'''a la, al''' - to the *'''¿Adónde?''' - Where? (to) *'''a casa''' - to home '''Note''': ''A la'' is feminine and ''al'' (a + el) is masculine. ===Going out=== *'''¿Con quién?''' - With whom? *'''con mis/tus amigos''' - with my/your friends *'''solo(a)''' - alone ===Time phrases=== *'''¿Cuándo?''' - When? *'''después''' - afterwards, after *'''los fines de semana''' - on weekends *'''los lunes''' - on Mondays *'''los martes''' - on Tuesdays *'''tiempo libre''' - free time ===Origins=== *'''¿De dónde eres?''' - Where are you from? *'''de''' - from, of ===Other words=== *'''generalmente''' - generally *'''¡No me digas!''' - Don't tell me that! *'''para''' - in order to ===Ir (to go)=== ''Ir'' in Spanish, means ''to go''. It is one of a handful of verbs that conjugates irregularly and doesn't have the same rules as the regular conjugations. Below is the conjugation forms of ir: *'''voy''' - I go *'''vas''' - you go (singular) *'''va''' - he/she goes *'''vamos''' - we go *'''vais''' - you go (plural) *'''van''' - they go '''Note''': Usted (Ud.) & ustedes (Uds.) are still conjugated in the 3rd person form. ===Vocabulario adicional=== *'''el banco''' - bank *'''el club''' - club *'''la farmacia''' - pharmacy *'''la oficina''' - office *'''el supermercado''' - supermarket ===Cultural Insight (Public transportation)=== Like most major cities in the world, the large cities in Spanish-speaking countries have their own public transportation system. Mexico City's Metro is one of the busiest and largest in the world. Many choose to ride busses and metros because of the horrific traffic commonly seen in Latin American countries and recently, due to high gas prices. ===Country Focus (Honduras)=== [[Image:Flag of Honduras (2022–present).svg|150px|right]] [[Image:LocationHonduras.png|noframe|right|150px]] '''Honduras''' (Spanish: Honduras) is a democratic republic in Central America. It was formerly known as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras (now Belize). The country is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Ocean at the Gulf of Fonseca, and to the north by the Gulf of Honduras, a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea. Archaeologists have demonstrated that Honduras had a rich, multi-ethnic prehistory. An important part of that prehistory was the Mayan presence around the city of Copán in western Honduras, near the Guatemalan border. A major Mayan city flourished during the classic period (150-900) in that area. On his fourth and final voyage to the New World in 1502, Christopher Columbus reached the Bay Islands on the coast of Honduras. It soon became part of the growing Spanish Empire. [[Image:Tegucigalpa from La Leona.jpg|150px|left|thumb|Tegucigalpa morning skyline.]] The wealth of cultural expression in Honduras owes its origins primarily to being a part of Latin America but also to the multi-ethnic nature of the country. This influences all aspects of the culture: customs, practices, ways of dressing, religion, rituals, codes and norms of behavior and belief systems. '''Factbox''': -Official Language: Spanish -Other Languages: English, Native American languages [[Image:Exterior Fuerte de Omoa Honduras.jpg|150px|thumb|right|One of the many Spanish forts that dot Honduras.]] -Capital: Tegucigalpa -Government: Democracy -Area: 112,088 sq km (43,278 sq mi) (102nd) -Population: 7,810,848 (93rd) -Religion: Christianity (mainly Catholic, few Protestant and Mormon) 97.3%, Buddhism 0.1%, other (Non-religious, Animism, Islam) 2.6% -Human Development: 0.732 (112nd, MEDIUM) -Independence: September 15, 1821 -Currency: Lempira [[Category:Spanish One]] o8tghwgahxunp9pun69ukt4xfk1jcb6 0 80827 2842729 1687895 2026-10-26T22:41:53Z ~2026-57355-53 3113370 /* History */ 2842729 wikitext text/x-wiki {{sports}} [[File:Freestyle swimming2.gif|thumb|left|A freestyle swimming stroke.]] For living creatures, a '''swimming''' is a way of moving in [[water]]. For human, swimming is an activity that can be both useful and recreational. Its primary uses are bathing, cooling, fishing, recreation, [[exercise]], and [[sport]]. In the sport you can swim butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, or freestyle. ==History== [[File:Swimming competition.gif|thumb|Swimming competition for kids.]] Based on information from Wikisporta Swimming has been known amongst humans since prehistoric times, the earliest record of swimming dates back to Stone Age, from around 7,000 years ago.<ref>[https://wikisporta.org/wiki/Renang Article about swimming on Wikisporta, an encyclopedia dedicated to sports] wikisporta.org ''Access date 27 Oktober 2026''</ref> Competitive swimming started in Europe around 1800 and was part of the first modern 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, though not in a form comparable to the contemporary events. It was not until 1908 that regulations were implemented by the International Swimming Federation to produce competitive swimming.<ref>{{cite book | last = Kehm | first = G | title = Olympic Swimming and Diving:Great Moments in Olympic History | pages = [http://books.google.com/books?id=U2Kr_xFY2eUC&pg=PA14 14] | publisher = The Rosen Publishing Group | year = 2007 | isbn = 1404209700 }}</ref> {{wikipedia|Swimming|Swimming}} {{commons|Category:Swimming|Swimming}} {{wiktionary}} {{sports}} ==Other pages== *[[Winter swimming]] ==References== {{reflist}} {{Physical exercising}} [[Category:Fitness]] [[Category:Healthy lifestyle]] tcbbrw0evl5sf3nge5kgk4w60jqfh1w 0 98610 2842806 2818820 2026-10-27T09:39:51Z Jtneill 10242 /* Readings */ Update for 2026 2842806 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 11: Growth psychology|eleventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:USA 10090 x10105 Antelope Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture considers: * psychological motivation for personal growth and self-actualisation * [[w:Humanistic psychology|humanistic psychology]] and [[w:Positive psychology|positive psychology]] Take-home message: * Focusing on strengths and encouraging growth is more productive than trying to cure weakness ==Outline== * Paradigms in psychology * Humanistic psychology ** Self-actualisation ** Actualising tendency <!-- * Humanistic motivation --> * Positive psychology ** Happiness ** Meaning * Criticisms ==Paradigms in psychology== [[File:WebKit logo.svg|thumb|185px|'''Figure 1'''. The organismic valuing process (Rogers) works like an inner compass, guiding each person towards growth and alignment with their values.]] Psychology is a young science compared, for example, to physical and medical sciences. Although psychological questions have been philosophically debated for millenia, the systematic application of modern scientific principles to psychological problems was first developed in the late 19th century. Several paradigms of thinking have evolved since in psychology (Fleuridas & Krafcik, 2019; Sutich, 1968): * 1st force: '''Psychoanalytic''' - explains behaviour through psychodynamic processes * 2nd force: '''Behaviourism''' - an empirical approach countering vagaries of psychoanalytics * 3rd force: '''Humanistic''' - addresses limitations of behaviourism with a holistic view * Contemporary developments: ** Cognitive psychology ** Social psychology ** Neuroscience * 4th force: '''Transpersonal''' - explores spiritual and transcendent experiences that go beyond the self * Emerging forces: ** Ecopsychology ** Indigenous/decolonising perspectives ==Humanistic psychology== Humanistic psychology was championed by [[w:Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow]], [[w:Carl Rogers|Carl Rogers]], and [[w:Category:Humanistic psychologists|many others]] during the 1950s and 1960s. Maslow became known for his description and investigation of self-actualisation. Rogers pursued similar ideas, emphasising the fully functioning person and the organismic valuing process. ===Self-actualisation=== Self-actualisation refers to the fulfilling of one's potential and is understood as the highest motivation. A seed may have the genetic potential to grow into a large, healthy tree, but the outcome will depend on its opportunity and nurturing. Similarly, human beings have inner motivation to achieve their physical and psychological potential (e.g., manifest their unique talents and abilities). But Maslow argued that less than 1% of people self-actualise. Why? It might be too much of a challenge to just meet basic needs, let alone higher needs. Or people might get stuck/obsessed with the lower needs and not connect to the higher meaning/purpose. ===Actualising tendency=== Rogers argued that humans have an innate will to growth that guides people to undertake new and challenging experiences. A fully functioning person uses their organismic valuing process (like an inner compass; see Figure 1) to determine whether specific experiences will promote one's growth or not. A person is most likely to develop full functioning when offered unconditional, rather than conditional, positive regard during their upbringing and subsequent social relations. A fully functioning person experiences congruence between their ideal and actual self. ==Positive psychology== Positive psychology emphasises identification and development psychological strengths and uses a scientific approach to promoting psychological wellbeing. ===Happiness=== ====Types==== Originally proposed by the Ancient Greeks (Aristotle) and reiterated by Martin Seligman, happiness can be understood as consisting of three components: * '''Hedonic pleasure''' (the good life) - these are intense, short-term pleasure, but positive affect is about 50% heritable, difficult to change (see hedonic treadmill), and subject to habituation; it is arguably the shallowest form of happiness * '''Eudaimonia''' (the engaged life) - this is a deeper satisfaction which comes from intrinsic engagement in creative and interesting problems that drawn on strengths and talents, but also nurture learning and development. In this type of happiness, people experience psychological flow. * '''Meaning/purpose''' (connection with values) - this is the deepest and most important aspect of happiness. It is having a reason/purpose for being, a why to live for, a passion often for something bigger, beyond the self. ====World Happiness Report==== The lecture discusses the [[w:World Happiness Report|World Happiness Report]]: * Imagine a ladder with steps numbered from 0 at the bottom to 10 at the top * The top of the ladder (10) represents the best possible life for you and the bottom of the ladder (0) represents the worst possible life for you * On which step of the ladder would you say '''you personally''' feel you stand at this time? * What do you estimate the '''global average''' satisfaction score is out of 10 (based on equal weighting of 143 countries)? * What do you estimate the '''Australian average life satisfaction''' is out of 10? * Where do you think '''Australia ranks''' out of 143 countries? Explanatory factors (descending order of importance): * GDP per capita * Social support * Healthy life expectancy * Freedom to make life choices * Perceptions of corruption * Generousity ===Meaning=== [[File:Viktor Frankl USD Alcalá 1972.jpg|200px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Viktor Frankl speaking at the University of San Diego, 1972]] [[w:Existential psychology|Existential psychology]] emphasises the importance of meaning for motivation and wellbeing. [[w:Viktor Frankl|Viktor Frankl]] (see Figure 2) goes as far as arguing that meaning/connection to a higher purpose is the key/essential ingredient for optimal psychological functioning and wellbeing. [[w:Logotherapy|Logotherapy]] was developed by Frankl as a psychotherapeutic method which helps people connect with meaning in their lives. These ideas are famously captured in Frankl's book ''[[w:Man's Search for Meaning|Man's Search for Meaning]]'' which is commonly in the top recommended psychology books. ==Criticisms== * '''Incomplete''': Humanistic view emphasises only one part of human nature. People also have potential to harm themselves and others. * '''Unscientific''': Humanistic theorists use vague and ill-defined constructs (less true of positive psychology). * '''Ambiguity of inner guides''': Origins and accuracy of actualising tendency unclear, challenging its reliability for guiding behaviour. ==Multimedia== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evoGjRseK8w Maslow on peak experiences] (YouTube) (4:02 mins): An interview with Maslow about his research on peak experiences * [https://www.youtube.com/embed/9FBxfd7DL3E?start=38&end=1227 The new era of positive psychology] (Martin Seligman, TED/YouTube) (19:49 mins): Explains the origins, purpose, and promise of positive psychology * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fD1512_XJEw Viktor Frankl: Search for meaning] (YouTube) (4:22 mins): On the importance of meaning in people's lives ==Readings== * Chapter 14: Growth motivation and positive psychology ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1gr6_6wIbctwBABPkxUerGn2adAaOYaRbUXxmfc_fngw/edit?usp=sharing Growth psychology] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/growth-motivation-and-positive-psychology Lecture slides] (Slideshare, 2016) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Interventions and review|Interventions and review]] (Next lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Tutorial) ; Wikipedia People * [[w:Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi|Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]] * [[w:Viktor Frankl|Viktor Frankl]] * [[w:Barbara Fredrickson|Barbara Fredrickson]] * [[w:Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow]] * [[w:Carl Rogers|Carl Rogers]] * [[w:Martin Seligman|Martin Seligman]] * [[w:Category:Humanistic psychologists|Humanistic psychologists]] (Category) * [[w:Category:Positive psychologists|Positive psychologists]] (Category) Topics * [[w:Existential psychology|Existential psychology]] * [[w:Eudaimonia|Eudaimonia]] * [[w:Gestalt psychology|Gestalt psychology]] * [[w:Happiness|Happiness]] * [[w:History of psychology|History of psychology]] * [[w:Holism|Holism]] * [[w:Humanistic psychology|Humanistic psychology]] * [[w:Man's Search for Meaning|Man's Search for Meaning]] * [[w:Paradigm shift|Paradigm shift]] - [[w:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions|The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]] * [[w:Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] * [[w:Self-actualization|Self-actualisation]] * [[w:Transpersonal psychology|Transpersonal psychology]] * [[w:World Happiness Report|World Happiness Report]] ; Wikiversity Categories * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Happiness|Happiness]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] Chapters * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Eudaimonic well-being|Eudaimonic well-being]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Growth through adversity|Growth through adversity]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Mystical experiences and emotion|Mystical experiences and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/National and cultural happiness|National and cultural happiness]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Peak experiences and emotion|Peak experiences and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/PERMA model of well-being|PERMA model of well-being]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Book chapter category) * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Spiritual|Spiritual motivation]] (Book chapter, 2010) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Spiritual and religious motivation|Spiritual and religious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Trauma recovery and growth|Trauma recovery and growth]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/edbd5d843cbc494bb3a8ca018a46d3da Lecture 11] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/eb88fd292a9b446fb61e55ac83b693b5 Lecture 11] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/89129bb8249e47a982d271b57845a3d9 Lecture 11] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/46c1aeea4ee141c38640042a4dd093f8 Lecture 11] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/38c4a5b8493044d6843008ed920a6916 Lecture 11] (2021) --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Fleuridas, C., & Krafcik, D. (2019). Beyond four forces: The evolution of psychotherapy. ''Sage Open'', ''9''(1), 2158244018824492. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018824 Fredrickson, B. (2001). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3122271/ The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]. ''American Psychologist'', ''56'', 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Helliwell, J. F., Layard, R., Sachs, J. D., De Neve, J.-E., Aknin, L. B., & Wang, S. (Eds.). (2024). ''World happiness report 2024'' (12th ed.). https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2024/ Maslow, A. H. (1954). ''Motivation and personality''. Harper & Brothers. Maslow, A. H. (1971/1976). ''Farther reaches of human nature''. Penguin. Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. ''The Journal of Positive Psychology'', ''13''(4), 333–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437466 Sutich, A. J. (1968). Transpersonal psychology: An emerging force. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', ''8''(1), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786800800108 <!-- Peterson, C. (2006). What is positive psychology? In ''A primer in positive psychology'' (pp. 3–24). -->Rogers, C. (1951). ''Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory''. Constable. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). [http://www.bdp-gus.de/gus/Positive-Psychologie-Aufruf-2000.pdf Positive psychology: An introduction]. ''American Psychologist'', ''55'', 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.5 Seligman, M. E. P., Rashid, T., & Parks, A. C. (2006). [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/positivepsychotherapyarticle.pdf Positive psychotherapy]. ''American Psychologist'', ''61''(8), 774–788. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.8.774 Sutich, A. J. (1968). Transpersonal psychology: An emerging force. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', ''8''(1), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786800800108 }} ==External links== * [https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu Authentic happiness] (University of Pennsylvania) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6W2dsnhC18Q Happiness and why we want it] (Nancy Etcoff, TED, 20:00 mins) * [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/learn-more/perma-theory-well-being-and-perma-workshops PERMA™ theory of well-being and PERMA™ workshops] (upenn.edu) * [https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/shiny-happy-people Shiny happy people] (Brad Lemley, Discover Magazine, 2006) * [https://www.pushkin.fm/podcasts/the-happiness-lab-with-dr-laurie-santos The happiness lab with Dr. Laurie Santos] (podcast; pushkin.fm) * [https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/what-does-it-mean-to-be-self-actualized-in-the-21st-century/ What does it mean to be self-actualized in the 21st century?] (Scott Barry Kaufmann, Scientific American, 2018) * [https://worldhappiness.report/ World happiness report] (worldhappiness.report) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Growth psychology]] dlgtrmg1skd7d10dkutuujfowyafhtu 2842807 2842806 2026-10-27T09:41:25Z Jtneill 10242 /* Positive psychology */ Two aspects of happiness are discussed: * Types * World Happiness Report 2842807 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 11: Growth psychology|eleventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:USA 10090 x10105 Antelope Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture considers: * psychological motivation for personal growth and self-actualisation * [[w:Humanistic psychology|humanistic psychology]] and [[w:Positive psychology|positive psychology]] Take-home message: * Focusing on strengths and encouraging growth is more productive than trying to cure weakness ==Outline== * Paradigms in psychology * Humanistic psychology ** Self-actualisation ** Actualising tendency <!-- * Humanistic motivation --> * Positive psychology ** Happiness ** Meaning * Criticisms ==Paradigms in psychology== [[File:WebKit logo.svg|thumb|185px|'''Figure 1'''. The organismic valuing process (Rogers) works like an inner compass, guiding each person towards growth and alignment with their values.]] Psychology is a young science compared, for example, to physical and medical sciences. Although psychological questions have been philosophically debated for millenia, the systematic application of modern scientific principles to psychological problems was first developed in the late 19th century. Several paradigms of thinking have evolved since in psychology (Fleuridas & Krafcik, 2019; Sutich, 1968): * 1st force: '''Psychoanalytic''' - explains behaviour through psychodynamic processes * 2nd force: '''Behaviourism''' - an empirical approach countering vagaries of psychoanalytics * 3rd force: '''Humanistic''' - addresses limitations of behaviourism with a holistic view * Contemporary developments: ** Cognitive psychology ** Social psychology ** Neuroscience * 4th force: '''Transpersonal''' - explores spiritual and transcendent experiences that go beyond the self * Emerging forces: ** Ecopsychology ** Indigenous/decolonising perspectives ==Humanistic psychology== Humanistic psychology was championed by [[w:Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow]], [[w:Carl Rogers|Carl Rogers]], and [[w:Category:Humanistic psychologists|many others]] during the 1950s and 1960s. Maslow became known for his description and investigation of self-actualisation. Rogers pursued similar ideas, emphasising the fully functioning person and the organismic valuing process. ===Self-actualisation=== Self-actualisation refers to the fulfilling of one's potential and is understood as the highest motivation. A seed may have the genetic potential to grow into a large, healthy tree, but the outcome will depend on its opportunity and nurturing. Similarly, human beings have inner motivation to achieve their physical and psychological potential (e.g., manifest their unique talents and abilities). But Maslow argued that less than 1% of people self-actualise. Why? It might be too much of a challenge to just meet basic needs, let alone higher needs. Or people might get stuck/obsessed with the lower needs and not connect to the higher meaning/purpose. ===Actualising tendency=== Rogers argued that humans have an innate will to growth that guides people to undertake new and challenging experiences. A fully functioning person uses their organismic valuing process (like an inner compass; see Figure 1) to determine whether specific experiences will promote one's growth or not. A person is most likely to develop full functioning when offered unconditional, rather than conditional, positive regard during their upbringing and subsequent social relations. A fully functioning person experiences congruence between their ideal and actual self. ==Positive psychology== Positive psychology emphasises identification and development psychological strengths and uses a scientific approach to promoting psychological wellbeing. ===Happiness=== Two aspects of happiness are discussed: * Types * World Happiness Report ====Types==== Originally proposed by the Ancient Greeks (Aristotle) and reiterated by Martin Seligman, happiness can be understood as consisting of three components: * '''Hedonic pleasure''' (the good life) - these are intense, short-term pleasure, but positive affect is about 50% heritable, difficult to change (see hedonic treadmill), and subject to habituation; it is arguably the shallowest form of happiness * '''Eudaimonia''' (the engaged life) - this is a deeper satisfaction which comes from intrinsic engagement in creative and interesting problems that drawn on strengths and talents, but also nurture learning and development. In this type of happiness, people experience psychological flow. * '''Meaning/purpose''' (connection with values) - this is the deepest and most important aspect of happiness. It is having a reason/purpose for being, a why to live for, a passion often for something bigger, beyond the self. ====World Happiness Report==== The lecture discusses the [[w:World Happiness Report|World Happiness Report]]: * Imagine a ladder with steps numbered from 0 at the bottom to 10 at the top * The top of the ladder (10) represents the best possible life for you and the bottom of the ladder (0) represents the worst possible life for you * On which step of the ladder would you say '''you personally''' feel you stand at this time? * What do you estimate the '''global average''' satisfaction score is out of 10 (based on equal weighting of 143 countries)? * What do you estimate the '''Australian average life satisfaction''' is out of 10? * Where do you think '''Australia ranks''' out of 143 countries? Explanatory factors (descending order of importance): * GDP per capita * Social support * Healthy life expectancy * Freedom to make life choices * Perceptions of corruption * Generousity ===Meaning=== [[File:Viktor Frankl USD Alcalá 1972.jpg|200px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Viktor Frankl speaking at the University of San Diego, 1972]] [[w:Existential psychology|Existential psychology]] emphasises the importance of meaning for motivation and wellbeing. [[w:Viktor Frankl|Viktor Frankl]] (see Figure 2) goes as far as arguing that meaning/connection to a higher purpose is the key/essential ingredient for optimal psychological functioning and wellbeing. [[w:Logotherapy|Logotherapy]] was developed by Frankl as a psychotherapeutic method which helps people connect with meaning in their lives. These ideas are famously captured in Frankl's book ''[[w:Man's Search for Meaning|Man's Search for Meaning]]'' which is commonly in the top recommended psychology books. ==Criticisms== * '''Incomplete''': Humanistic view emphasises only one part of human nature. People also have potential to harm themselves and others. * '''Unscientific''': Humanistic theorists use vague and ill-defined constructs (less true of positive psychology). * '''Ambiguity of inner guides''': Origins and accuracy of actualising tendency unclear, challenging its reliability for guiding behaviour. ==Multimedia== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evoGjRseK8w Maslow on peak experiences] (YouTube) (4:02 mins): An interview with Maslow about his research on peak experiences * [https://www.youtube.com/embed/9FBxfd7DL3E?start=38&end=1227 The new era of positive psychology] (Martin Seligman, TED/YouTube) (19:49 mins): Explains the origins, purpose, and promise of positive psychology * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fD1512_XJEw Viktor Frankl: Search for meaning] (YouTube) (4:22 mins): On the importance of meaning in people's lives ==Readings== * Chapter 14: Growth motivation and positive psychology ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1gr6_6wIbctwBABPkxUerGn2adAaOYaRbUXxmfc_fngw/edit?usp=sharing Growth psychology] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/growth-motivation-and-positive-psychology Lecture slides] (Slideshare, 2016) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Interventions and review|Interventions and review]] (Next lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Tutorial) ; Wikipedia People * [[w:Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi|Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]] * [[w:Viktor Frankl|Viktor Frankl]] * [[w:Barbara Fredrickson|Barbara Fredrickson]] * [[w:Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow]] * [[w:Carl Rogers|Carl Rogers]] * [[w:Martin Seligman|Martin Seligman]] * [[w:Category:Humanistic psychologists|Humanistic psychologists]] (Category) * [[w:Category:Positive psychologists|Positive psychologists]] (Category) Topics * [[w:Existential psychology|Existential psychology]] * [[w:Eudaimonia|Eudaimonia]] * [[w:Gestalt psychology|Gestalt psychology]] * [[w:Happiness|Happiness]] * [[w:History of psychology|History of psychology]] * [[w:Holism|Holism]] * [[w:Humanistic psychology|Humanistic psychology]] * [[w:Man's Search for Meaning|Man's Search for Meaning]] * [[w:Paradigm shift|Paradigm shift]] - [[w:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions|The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]] * [[w:Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] * [[w:Self-actualization|Self-actualisation]] * [[w:Transpersonal psychology|Transpersonal psychology]] * [[w:World Happiness Report|World Happiness Report]] ; Wikiversity Categories * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Happiness|Happiness]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] Chapters * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Eudaimonic well-being|Eudaimonic well-being]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Growth through adversity|Growth through adversity]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Mystical experiences and emotion|Mystical experiences and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/National and cultural happiness|National and cultural happiness]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Peak experiences and emotion|Peak experiences and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/PERMA model of well-being|PERMA model of well-being]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Book chapter category) * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Spiritual|Spiritual motivation]] (Book chapter, 2010) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Spiritual and religious motivation|Spiritual and religious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Trauma recovery and growth|Trauma recovery and growth]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/edbd5d843cbc494bb3a8ca018a46d3da Lecture 11] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/eb88fd292a9b446fb61e55ac83b693b5 Lecture 11] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/89129bb8249e47a982d271b57845a3d9 Lecture 11] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/46c1aeea4ee141c38640042a4dd093f8 Lecture 11] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/38c4a5b8493044d6843008ed920a6916 Lecture 11] (2021) --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Fleuridas, C., & Krafcik, D. (2019). Beyond four forces: The evolution of psychotherapy. ''Sage Open'', ''9''(1), 2158244018824492. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018824 Fredrickson, B. (2001). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3122271/ The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]. ''American Psychologist'', ''56'', 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Helliwell, J. F., Layard, R., Sachs, J. D., De Neve, J.-E., Aknin, L. B., & Wang, S. (Eds.). (2024). ''World happiness report 2024'' (12th ed.). https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2024/ Maslow, A. H. (1954). ''Motivation and personality''. Harper & Brothers. Maslow, A. H. (1971/1976). ''Farther reaches of human nature''. Penguin. Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. ''The Journal of Positive Psychology'', ''13''(4), 333–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437466 Sutich, A. J. (1968). Transpersonal psychology: An emerging force. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', ''8''(1), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786800800108 <!-- Peterson, C. (2006). What is positive psychology? In ''A primer in positive psychology'' (pp. 3–24). -->Rogers, C. (1951). ''Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory''. Constable. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). [http://www.bdp-gus.de/gus/Positive-Psychologie-Aufruf-2000.pdf Positive psychology: An introduction]. ''American Psychologist'', ''55'', 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.5 Seligman, M. E. P., Rashid, T., & Parks, A. C. (2006). [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/positivepsychotherapyarticle.pdf Positive psychotherapy]. ''American Psychologist'', ''61''(8), 774–788. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.8.774 Sutich, A. J. (1968). Transpersonal psychology: An emerging force. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', ''8''(1), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786800800108 }} ==External links== * [https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu Authentic happiness] (University of Pennsylvania) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6W2dsnhC18Q Happiness and why we want it] (Nancy Etcoff, TED, 20:00 mins) * [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/learn-more/perma-theory-well-being-and-perma-workshops PERMA™ theory of well-being and PERMA™ workshops] (upenn.edu) * [https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/shiny-happy-people Shiny happy people] (Brad Lemley, Discover Magazine, 2006) * [https://www.pushkin.fm/podcasts/the-happiness-lab-with-dr-laurie-santos The happiness lab with Dr. Laurie Santos] (podcast; pushkin.fm) * [https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/what-does-it-mean-to-be-self-actualized-in-the-21st-century/ What does it mean to be self-actualized in the 21st century?] (Scott Barry Kaufmann, Scientific American, 2018) * [https://worldhappiness.report/ World happiness report] (worldhappiness.report) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Growth psychology]] 5fvyf67hfzjemn4rgsav85sfsa9rly4 2842808 2842807 2026-10-27T09:42:32Z Jtneill 10242 /* Positive psychology */ Simplify 2842808 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 11: Growth psychology|eleventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:USA 10090 x10105 Antelope Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture considers: * psychological motivation for personal growth and self-actualisation * [[w:Humanistic psychology|humanistic psychology]] and [[w:Positive psychology|positive psychology]] Take-home message: * Focusing on strengths and encouraging growth is more productive than trying to cure weakness ==Outline== * Paradigms in psychology * Humanistic psychology ** Self-actualisation ** Actualising tendency <!-- * Humanistic motivation --> * Positive psychology ** Happiness ** Meaning * Criticisms ==Paradigms in psychology== [[File:WebKit logo.svg|thumb|185px|'''Figure 1'''. The organismic valuing process (Rogers) works like an inner compass, guiding each person towards growth and alignment with their values.]] Psychology is a young science compared, for example, to physical and medical sciences. Although psychological questions have been philosophically debated for millenia, the systematic application of modern scientific principles to psychological problems was first developed in the late 19th century. Several paradigms of thinking have evolved since in psychology (Fleuridas & Krafcik, 2019; Sutich, 1968): * 1st force: '''Psychoanalytic''' - explains behaviour through psychodynamic processes * 2nd force: '''Behaviourism''' - an empirical approach countering vagaries of psychoanalytics * 3rd force: '''Humanistic''' - addresses limitations of behaviourism with a holistic view * Contemporary developments: ** Cognitive psychology ** Social psychology ** Neuroscience * 4th force: '''Transpersonal''' - explores spiritual and transcendent experiences that go beyond the self * Emerging forces: ** Ecopsychology ** Indigenous/decolonising perspectives ==Humanistic psychology== Humanistic psychology was championed by [[w:Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow]], [[w:Carl Rogers|Carl Rogers]], and [[w:Category:Humanistic psychologists|many others]] during the 1950s and 1960s. Maslow became known for his description and investigation of self-actualisation. Rogers pursued similar ideas, emphasising the fully functioning person and the organismic valuing process. ===Self-actualisation=== Self-actualisation refers to the fulfilling of one's potential and is understood as the highest motivation. A seed may have the genetic potential to grow into a large, healthy tree, but the outcome will depend on its opportunity and nurturing. Similarly, human beings have inner motivation to achieve their physical and psychological potential (e.g., manifest their unique talents and abilities). But Maslow argued that less than 1% of people self-actualise. Why? It might be too much of a challenge to just meet basic needs, let alone higher needs. Or people might get stuck/obsessed with the lower needs and not connect to the higher meaning/purpose. ===Actualising tendency=== Rogers argued that humans have an innate will to growth that guides people to undertake new and challenging experiences. A fully functioning person uses their organismic valuing process (like an inner compass; see Figure 1) to determine whether specific experiences will promote one's growth or not. A person is most likely to develop full functioning when offered unconditional, rather than conditional, positive regard during their upbringing and subsequent social relations. A fully functioning person experiences congruence between their ideal and actual self. ==Positive psychology== Positive psychology emphasises identification and development psychological strengths and uses a scientific approach to promoting psychological wellbeing. ===Happiness=== Two aspects of happiness are discussed: * Types * World Happiness Report ====Types==== Originally proposed by the Ancient Greeks (Aristotle) and reiterated by Martin Seligman, happiness can be understood as consisting of three components: * '''Hedonic pleasure''' (the good life): intense, short-term pleasure, but positive affect is about 50% heritable, difficult to change (see hedonic treadmill), and subject to habituation; it is arguably the shallowest form of happiness * '''Eudaimonia''' (the engaged life): deeper satisfaction which comes from intrinsic engagement in creative and interesting problems that drawn on strengths and talents, but also nurture learning and development. In this type of happiness, people experience psychological flow. * '''Meaning/purpose''' (connection with values): the deepest and most important aspect of happiness. It is having a reason/purpose for being, a why to live for, a passion often for something bigger, beyond the self. ====World Happiness Report==== The lecture discusses the [[w:World Happiness Report|World Happiness Report]]: * Imagine a ladder with steps numbered from 0 at the bottom to 10 at the top * The top of the ladder (10) represents the best possible life for you and the bottom of the ladder (0) represents the worst possible life for you * On which step of the ladder would you say '''you personally''' feel you stand at this time? * What do you estimate the '''global average''' satisfaction score is out of 10 (based on equal weighting of 143 countries)? * What do you estimate the '''Australian average life satisfaction''' is out of 10? * Where do you think '''Australia ranks''' out of 143 countries? Explanatory factors (descending order of importance): * GDP per capita * Social support * Healthy life expectancy * Freedom to make life choices * Perceptions of corruption * Generousity ===Meaning=== [[File:Viktor Frankl USD Alcalá 1972.jpg|200px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Viktor Frankl speaking at the University of San Diego, 1972]] [[w:Existential psychology|Existential psychology]] emphasises the importance of meaning for motivation and wellbeing. [[w:Viktor Frankl|Viktor Frankl]] (see Figure 2) goes as far as arguing that meaning/connection to a higher purpose is the key/essential ingredient for optimal psychological functioning and wellbeing. [[w:Logotherapy|Logotherapy]] was developed by Frankl as a psychotherapeutic method which helps people connect with meaning in their lives. These ideas are famously captured in Frankl's book ''[[w:Man's Search for Meaning|Man's Search for Meaning]]'' which is commonly in the top recommended psychology books. ==Criticisms== * '''Incomplete''': Humanistic view emphasises only one part of human nature. People also have potential to harm themselves and others. * '''Unscientific''': Humanistic theorists use vague and ill-defined constructs (less true of positive psychology). * '''Ambiguity of inner guides''': Origins and accuracy of actualising tendency unclear, challenging its reliability for guiding behaviour. ==Multimedia== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evoGjRseK8w Maslow on peak experiences] (YouTube) (4:02 mins): An interview with Maslow about his research on peak experiences * [https://www.youtube.com/embed/9FBxfd7DL3E?start=38&end=1227 The new era of positive psychology] (Martin Seligman, TED/YouTube) (19:49 mins): Explains the origins, purpose, and promise of positive psychology * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fD1512_XJEw Viktor Frankl: Search for meaning] (YouTube) (4:22 mins): On the importance of meaning in people's lives ==Readings== * Chapter 14: Growth motivation and positive psychology ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1gr6_6wIbctwBABPkxUerGn2adAaOYaRbUXxmfc_fngw/edit?usp=sharing Growth psychology] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/growth-motivation-and-positive-psychology Lecture slides] (Slideshare, 2016) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Interventions and review|Interventions and review]] (Next lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Tutorial) ; Wikipedia People * [[w:Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi|Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]] * [[w:Viktor Frankl|Viktor Frankl]] * [[w:Barbara Fredrickson|Barbara Fredrickson]] * [[w:Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow]] * [[w:Carl Rogers|Carl Rogers]] * [[w:Martin Seligman|Martin Seligman]] * [[w:Category:Humanistic psychologists|Humanistic psychologists]] (Category) * [[w:Category:Positive psychologists|Positive psychologists]] (Category) Topics * [[w:Existential psychology|Existential psychology]] * [[w:Eudaimonia|Eudaimonia]] * [[w:Gestalt psychology|Gestalt psychology]] * [[w:Happiness|Happiness]] * [[w:History of psychology|History of psychology]] * [[w:Holism|Holism]] * [[w:Humanistic psychology|Humanistic psychology]] * [[w:Man's Search for Meaning|Man's Search for Meaning]] * [[w:Paradigm shift|Paradigm shift]] - [[w:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions|The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]] * [[w:Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] * [[w:Self-actualization|Self-actualisation]] * [[w:Transpersonal psychology|Transpersonal psychology]] * [[w:World Happiness Report|World Happiness Report]] ; Wikiversity Categories * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Happiness|Happiness]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] Chapters * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Eudaimonic well-being|Eudaimonic well-being]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Growth through adversity|Growth through adversity]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Mystical experiences and emotion|Mystical experiences and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/National and cultural happiness|National and cultural happiness]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Peak experiences and emotion|Peak experiences and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/PERMA model of well-being|PERMA model of well-being]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Book chapter category) * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Spiritual|Spiritual motivation]] (Book chapter, 2010) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Spiritual and religious motivation|Spiritual and religious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Trauma recovery and growth|Trauma recovery and growth]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/edbd5d843cbc494bb3a8ca018a46d3da Lecture 11] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/eb88fd292a9b446fb61e55ac83b693b5 Lecture 11] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/89129bb8249e47a982d271b57845a3d9 Lecture 11] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/46c1aeea4ee141c38640042a4dd093f8 Lecture 11] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/38c4a5b8493044d6843008ed920a6916 Lecture 11] (2021) --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Fleuridas, C., & Krafcik, D. (2019). Beyond four forces: The evolution of psychotherapy. ''Sage Open'', ''9''(1), 2158244018824492. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018824 Fredrickson, B. (2001). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3122271/ The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]. ''American Psychologist'', ''56'', 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Helliwell, J. F., Layard, R., Sachs, J. D., De Neve, J.-E., Aknin, L. B., & Wang, S. (Eds.). (2024). ''World happiness report 2024'' (12th ed.). https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2024/ Maslow, A. H. (1954). ''Motivation and personality''. Harper & Brothers. Maslow, A. H. (1971/1976). ''Farther reaches of human nature''. Penguin. Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. ''The Journal of Positive Psychology'', ''13''(4), 333–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437466 Sutich, A. J. (1968). Transpersonal psychology: An emerging force. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', ''8''(1), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786800800108 <!-- Peterson, C. (2006). What is positive psychology? In ''A primer in positive psychology'' (pp. 3–24). -->Rogers, C. (1951). ''Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory''. Constable. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). [http://www.bdp-gus.de/gus/Positive-Psychologie-Aufruf-2000.pdf Positive psychology: An introduction]. ''American Psychologist'', ''55'', 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.5 Seligman, M. E. P., Rashid, T., & Parks, A. C. (2006). [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/positivepsychotherapyarticle.pdf Positive psychotherapy]. ''American Psychologist'', ''61''(8), 774–788. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.8.774 Sutich, A. J. (1968). Transpersonal psychology: An emerging force. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', ''8''(1), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786800800108 }} ==External links== * [https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu Authentic happiness] (University of Pennsylvania) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6W2dsnhC18Q Happiness and why we want it] (Nancy Etcoff, TED, 20:00 mins) * [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/learn-more/perma-theory-well-being-and-perma-workshops PERMA™ theory of well-being and PERMA™ workshops] (upenn.edu) * [https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/shiny-happy-people Shiny happy people] (Brad Lemley, Discover Magazine, 2006) * [https://www.pushkin.fm/podcasts/the-happiness-lab-with-dr-laurie-santos The happiness lab with Dr. Laurie Santos] (podcast; pushkin.fm) * [https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/what-does-it-mean-to-be-self-actualized-in-the-21st-century/ What does it mean to be self-actualized in the 21st century?] (Scott Barry Kaufmann, Scientific American, 2018) * [https://worldhappiness.report/ World happiness report] (worldhappiness.report) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Growth psychology]] ictwt6ltzp03fej3ih5jdzlbj0nmmpr 2842810 2842808 2026-10-27T09:44:01Z Jtneill 10242 /* Positive psychology */ Two key aspects of positive psychology are discussed: * Happiness * Meaning 2842810 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 11: Growth psychology|eleventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:USA 10090 x10105 Antelope Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture considers: * psychological motivation for personal growth and self-actualisation * [[w:Humanistic psychology|humanistic psychology]] and [[w:Positive psychology|positive psychology]] Take-home message: * Focusing on strengths and encouraging growth is more productive than trying to cure weakness ==Outline== * Paradigms in psychology * Humanistic psychology ** Self-actualisation ** Actualising tendency <!-- * Humanistic motivation --> * Positive psychology ** Happiness ** Meaning * Criticisms ==Paradigms in psychology== [[File:WebKit logo.svg|thumb|185px|'''Figure 1'''. The organismic valuing process (Rogers) works like an inner compass, guiding each person towards growth and alignment with their values.]] Psychology is a young science compared, for example, to physical and medical sciences. Although psychological questions have been philosophically debated for millenia, the systematic application of modern scientific principles to psychological problems was first developed in the late 19th century. Several paradigms of thinking have evolved since in psychology (Fleuridas & Krafcik, 2019; Sutich, 1968): * 1st force: '''Psychoanalytic''' - explains behaviour through psychodynamic processes * 2nd force: '''Behaviourism''' - an empirical approach countering vagaries of psychoanalytics * 3rd force: '''Humanistic''' - addresses limitations of behaviourism with a holistic view * Contemporary developments: ** Cognitive psychology ** Social psychology ** Neuroscience * 4th force: '''Transpersonal''' - explores spiritual and transcendent experiences that go beyond the self * Emerging forces: ** Ecopsychology ** Indigenous/decolonising perspectives ==Humanistic psychology== Humanistic psychology was championed by [[w:Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow]], [[w:Carl Rogers|Carl Rogers]], and [[w:Category:Humanistic psychologists|many others]] during the 1950s and 1960s. Maslow became known for his description and investigation of self-actualisation. Rogers pursued similar ideas, emphasising the fully functioning person and the organismic valuing process. ===Self-actualisation=== Self-actualisation refers to the fulfilling of one's potential and is understood as the highest motivation. A seed may have the genetic potential to grow into a large, healthy tree, but the outcome will depend on its opportunity and nurturing. Similarly, human beings have inner motivation to achieve their physical and psychological potential (e.g., manifest their unique talents and abilities). But Maslow argued that less than 1% of people self-actualise. Why? It might be too much of a challenge to just meet basic needs, let alone higher needs. Or people might get stuck/obsessed with the lower needs and not connect to the higher meaning/purpose. ===Actualising tendency=== Rogers argued that humans have an innate will to growth that guides people to undertake new and challenging experiences. A fully functioning person uses their organismic valuing process (like an inner compass; see Figure 1) to determine whether specific experiences will promote one's growth or not. A person is most likely to develop full functioning when offered unconditional, rather than conditional, positive regard during their upbringing and subsequent social relations. A fully functioning person experiences congruence between their ideal and actual self. ==Positive psychology== Positive psychology emphasises identification and development psychological strengths and uses a scientific approach to promoting psychological wellbeing. Two key aspects of positive psychology are discussed: * Happiness * Meaning ===Happiness=== Two aspects of happiness are discussed: * Types * World Happiness Report ====Types==== Originally proposed by the Ancient Greeks (Aristotle) and reiterated by Martin Seligman, happiness can be understood as consisting of three components: * '''Hedonic pleasure''' (the good life): intense, short-term pleasure, but positive affect is about 50% heritable, difficult to change (see hedonic treadmill), and subject to habituation; it is arguably the shallowest form of happiness * '''Eudaimonia''' (the engaged life): deeper satisfaction which comes from intrinsic engagement in creative and interesting problems that drawn on strengths and talents, but also nurture learning and development. In this type of happiness, people experience psychological flow. * '''Meaning/purpose''' (connection with values): the deepest and most important aspect of happiness. It is having a reason/purpose for being, a why to live for, a passion often for something bigger, beyond the self. ====World Happiness Report==== The lecture discusses the [[w:World Happiness Report|World Happiness Report]]: * Imagine a ladder with steps numbered from 0 at the bottom to 10 at the top * The top of the ladder (10) represents the best possible life for you and the bottom of the ladder (0) represents the worst possible life for you * On which step of the ladder would you say '''you personally''' feel you stand at this time? * What do you estimate the '''global average''' satisfaction score is out of 10 (based on equal weighting of 143 countries)? * What do you estimate the '''Australian average life satisfaction''' is out of 10? * Where do you think '''Australia ranks''' out of 143 countries? Explanatory factors (descending order of importance): * GDP per capita * Social support * Healthy life expectancy * Freedom to make life choices * Perceptions of corruption * Generousity ===Meaning=== [[File:Viktor Frankl USD Alcalá 1972.jpg|200px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Viktor Frankl speaking at the University of San Diego, 1972]] [[w:Existential psychology|Existential psychology]] emphasises the importance of meaning for motivation and wellbeing. [[w:Viktor Frankl|Viktor Frankl]] (see Figure 2) goes as far as arguing that meaning/connection to a higher purpose is the key/essential ingredient for optimal psychological functioning and wellbeing. [[w:Logotherapy|Logotherapy]] was developed by Frankl as a psychotherapeutic method which helps people connect with meaning in their lives. These ideas are famously captured in Frankl's book ''[[w:Man's Search for Meaning|Man's Search for Meaning]]'' which is commonly in the top recommended psychology books. ==Criticisms== * '''Incomplete''': Humanistic view emphasises only one part of human nature. People also have potential to harm themselves and others. * '''Unscientific''': Humanistic theorists use vague and ill-defined constructs (less true of positive psychology). * '''Ambiguity of inner guides''': Origins and accuracy of actualising tendency unclear, challenging its reliability for guiding behaviour. ==Multimedia== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evoGjRseK8w Maslow on peak experiences] (YouTube) (4:02 mins): An interview with Maslow about his research on peak experiences * [https://www.youtube.com/embed/9FBxfd7DL3E?start=38&end=1227 The new era of positive psychology] (Martin Seligman, TED/YouTube) (19:49 mins): Explains the origins, purpose, and promise of positive psychology * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fD1512_XJEw Viktor Frankl: Search for meaning] (YouTube) (4:22 mins): On the importance of meaning in people's lives ==Readings== * Chapter 14: Growth motivation and positive psychology ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1gr6_6wIbctwBABPkxUerGn2adAaOYaRbUXxmfc_fngw/edit?usp=sharing Growth psychology] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/growth-motivation-and-positive-psychology Lecture slides] (Slideshare, 2016) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Interventions and review|Interventions and review]] (Next lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Tutorial) ; Wikipedia People * [[w:Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi|Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]] * [[w:Viktor Frankl|Viktor Frankl]] * [[w:Barbara Fredrickson|Barbara Fredrickson]] * [[w:Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow]] * [[w:Carl Rogers|Carl Rogers]] * [[w:Martin Seligman|Martin Seligman]] * [[w:Category:Humanistic psychologists|Humanistic psychologists]] (Category) * [[w:Category:Positive psychologists|Positive psychologists]] (Category) Topics * [[w:Existential psychology|Existential psychology]] * [[w:Eudaimonia|Eudaimonia]] * [[w:Gestalt psychology|Gestalt psychology]] * [[w:Happiness|Happiness]] * [[w:History of psychology|History of psychology]] * [[w:Holism|Holism]] * [[w:Humanistic psychology|Humanistic psychology]] * [[w:Man's Search for Meaning|Man's Search for Meaning]] * [[w:Paradigm shift|Paradigm shift]] - [[w:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions|The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]] * [[w:Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] * [[w:Self-actualization|Self-actualisation]] * [[w:Transpersonal psychology|Transpersonal psychology]] * [[w:World Happiness Report|World Happiness Report]] ; Wikiversity Categories * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Happiness|Happiness]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] Chapters * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Eudaimonic well-being|Eudaimonic well-being]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Growth through adversity|Growth through adversity]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Mystical experiences and emotion|Mystical experiences and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/National and cultural happiness|National and cultural happiness]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Peak experiences and emotion|Peak experiences and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/PERMA model of well-being|PERMA model of well-being]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Book chapter category) * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Spiritual|Spiritual motivation]] (Book chapter, 2010) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Spiritual and religious motivation|Spiritual and religious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Trauma recovery and growth|Trauma recovery and growth]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/edbd5d843cbc494bb3a8ca018a46d3da Lecture 11] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/eb88fd292a9b446fb61e55ac83b693b5 Lecture 11] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/89129bb8249e47a982d271b57845a3d9 Lecture 11] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/46c1aeea4ee141c38640042a4dd093f8 Lecture 11] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/38c4a5b8493044d6843008ed920a6916 Lecture 11] (2021) --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Fleuridas, C., & Krafcik, D. (2019). Beyond four forces: The evolution of psychotherapy. ''Sage Open'', ''9''(1), 2158244018824492. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018824 Fredrickson, B. (2001). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3122271/ The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]. ''American Psychologist'', ''56'', 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Helliwell, J. F., Layard, R., Sachs, J. D., De Neve, J.-E., Aknin, L. B., & Wang, S. (Eds.). (2024). ''World happiness report 2024'' (12th ed.). https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2024/ Maslow, A. H. (1954). ''Motivation and personality''. Harper & Brothers. Maslow, A. H. (1971/1976). ''Farther reaches of human nature''. Penguin. Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. ''The Journal of Positive Psychology'', ''13''(4), 333–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437466 Sutich, A. J. (1968). Transpersonal psychology: An emerging force. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', ''8''(1), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786800800108 <!-- Peterson, C. (2006). What is positive psychology? In ''A primer in positive psychology'' (pp. 3–24). -->Rogers, C. (1951). ''Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory''. Constable. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). [http://www.bdp-gus.de/gus/Positive-Psychologie-Aufruf-2000.pdf Positive psychology: An introduction]. ''American Psychologist'', ''55'', 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.5 Seligman, M. E. P., Rashid, T., & Parks, A. C. (2006). [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/positivepsychotherapyarticle.pdf Positive psychotherapy]. ''American Psychologist'', ''61''(8), 774–788. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.8.774 Sutich, A. J. (1968). Transpersonal psychology: An emerging force. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', ''8''(1), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786800800108 }} ==External links== * [https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu Authentic happiness] (University of Pennsylvania) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6W2dsnhC18Q Happiness and why we want it] (Nancy Etcoff, TED, 20:00 mins) * [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/learn-more/perma-theory-well-being-and-perma-workshops PERMA™ theory of well-being and PERMA™ workshops] (upenn.edu) * [https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/shiny-happy-people Shiny happy people] (Brad Lemley, Discover Magazine, 2006) * [https://www.pushkin.fm/podcasts/the-happiness-lab-with-dr-laurie-santos The happiness lab with Dr. Laurie Santos] (podcast; pushkin.fm) * [https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/what-does-it-mean-to-be-self-actualized-in-the-21st-century/ What does it mean to be self-actualized in the 21st century?] (Scott Barry Kaufmann, Scientific American, 2018) * [https://worldhappiness.report/ World happiness report] (worldhappiness.report) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Growth psychology]] e87kdn62n7r55n9bi38hiqfvfpozpmp 2842815 2842810 2026-10-27T11:05:48Z Jtneill 10242 /* Actualising tendency */ + link 2842815 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 11: Growth psychology|eleventh}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> ==Overview== [[File:USA 10090 x10105 Antelope Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|right|250px]] This lecture considers: * psychological motivation for personal growth and self-actualisation * [[w:Humanistic psychology|humanistic psychology]] and [[w:Positive psychology|positive psychology]] Take-home message: * Focusing on strengths and encouraging growth is more productive than trying to cure weakness ==Outline== * Paradigms in psychology * Humanistic psychology ** Self-actualisation ** Actualising tendency <!-- * Humanistic motivation --> * Positive psychology ** Happiness ** Meaning * Criticisms ==Paradigms in psychology== [[File:WebKit logo.svg|thumb|185px|'''Figure 1'''. The organismic valuing process (Rogers) works like an inner compass, guiding each person towards growth and alignment with their values.]] Psychology is a young science compared, for example, to physical and medical sciences. Although psychological questions have been philosophically debated for millenia, the systematic application of modern scientific principles to psychological problems was first developed in the late 19th century. Several paradigms of thinking have evolved since in psychology (Fleuridas & Krafcik, 2019; Sutich, 1968): * 1st force: '''Psychoanalytic''' - explains behaviour through psychodynamic processes * 2nd force: '''Behaviourism''' - an empirical approach countering vagaries of psychoanalytics * 3rd force: '''Humanistic''' - addresses limitations of behaviourism with a holistic view * Contemporary developments: ** Cognitive psychology ** Social psychology ** Neuroscience * 4th force: '''Transpersonal''' - explores spiritual and transcendent experiences that go beyond the self * Emerging forces: ** Ecopsychology ** Indigenous/decolonising perspectives ==Humanistic psychology== Humanistic psychology was championed by [[w:Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow]], [[w:Carl Rogers|Carl Rogers]], and [[w:Category:Humanistic psychologists|many others]] during the 1950s and 1960s. Maslow became known for his description and investigation of self-actualisation. Rogers pursued similar ideas, emphasising the fully functioning person and the organismic valuing process. ===Self-actualisation=== Self-actualisation refers to the fulfilling of one's potential and is understood as the highest motivation. A seed may have the genetic potential to grow into a large, healthy tree, but the outcome will depend on its opportunity and nurturing. Similarly, human beings have inner motivation to achieve their physical and psychological potential (e.g., manifest their unique talents and abilities). But Maslow argued that less than 1% of people self-actualise. Why? It might be too much of a challenge to just meet basic needs, let alone higher needs. Or people might get stuck/obsessed with the lower needs and not connect to the higher meaning/purpose. ===Actualising tendency=== [[w:Carl Rogers|Rogers]] argued that humans have an innate will to growth that guides people to undertake new and challenging experiences. A fully functioning person uses their organismic valuing process (like an inner compass; see Figure 1) to determine whether specific experiences will promote one's growth or not. A person is most likely to develop full functioning when offered unconditional, rather than conditional, positive regard during their upbringing and subsequent social relations. A fully functioning person experiences congruence between their ideal and actual self. ==Positive psychology== Positive psychology emphasises identification and development psychological strengths and uses a scientific approach to promoting psychological wellbeing. Two key aspects of positive psychology are discussed: * Happiness * Meaning ===Happiness=== Two aspects of happiness are discussed: * Types * World Happiness Report ====Types==== Originally proposed by the Ancient Greeks (Aristotle) and reiterated by Martin Seligman, happiness can be understood as consisting of three components: * '''Hedonic pleasure''' (the good life): intense, short-term pleasure, but positive affect is about 50% heritable, difficult to change (see hedonic treadmill), and subject to habituation; it is arguably the shallowest form of happiness * '''Eudaimonia''' (the engaged life): deeper satisfaction which comes from intrinsic engagement in creative and interesting problems that drawn on strengths and talents, but also nurture learning and development. In this type of happiness, people experience psychological flow. * '''Meaning/purpose''' (connection with values): the deepest and most important aspect of happiness. It is having a reason/purpose for being, a why to live for, a passion often for something bigger, beyond the self. ====World Happiness Report==== The lecture discusses the [[w:World Happiness Report|World Happiness Report]]: * Imagine a ladder with steps numbered from 0 at the bottom to 10 at the top * The top of the ladder (10) represents the best possible life for you and the bottom of the ladder (0) represents the worst possible life for you * On which step of the ladder would you say '''you personally''' feel you stand at this time? * What do you estimate the '''global average''' satisfaction score is out of 10 (based on equal weighting of 143 countries)? * What do you estimate the '''Australian average life satisfaction''' is out of 10? * Where do you think '''Australia ranks''' out of 143 countries? Explanatory factors (descending order of importance): * GDP per capita * Social support * Healthy life expectancy * Freedom to make life choices * Perceptions of corruption * Generousity ===Meaning=== [[File:Viktor Frankl USD Alcalá 1972.jpg|200px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Viktor Frankl speaking at the University of San Diego, 1972]] [[w:Existential psychology|Existential psychology]] emphasises the importance of meaning for motivation and wellbeing. [[w:Viktor Frankl|Viktor Frankl]] (see Figure 2) goes as far as arguing that meaning/connection to a higher purpose is the key/essential ingredient for optimal psychological functioning and wellbeing. [[w:Logotherapy|Logotherapy]] was developed by Frankl as a psychotherapeutic method which helps people connect with meaning in their lives. These ideas are famously captured in Frankl's book ''[[w:Man's Search for Meaning|Man's Search for Meaning]]'' which is commonly in the top recommended psychology books. ==Criticisms== * '''Incomplete''': Humanistic view emphasises only one part of human nature. People also have potential to harm themselves and others. * '''Unscientific''': Humanistic theorists use vague and ill-defined constructs (less true of positive psychology). * '''Ambiguity of inner guides''': Origins and accuracy of actualising tendency unclear, challenging its reliability for guiding behaviour. ==Multimedia== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evoGjRseK8w Maslow on peak experiences] (YouTube) (4:02 mins): An interview with Maslow about his research on peak experiences * [https://www.youtube.com/embed/9FBxfd7DL3E?start=38&end=1227 The new era of positive psychology] (Martin Seligman, TED/YouTube) (19:49 mins): Explains the origins, purpose, and promise of positive psychology * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fD1512_XJEw Viktor Frankl: Search for meaning] (YouTube) (4:22 mins): On the importance of meaning in people's lives ==Readings== * Chapter 14: Growth motivation and positive psychology ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2024|Reeve, 2024]]) ==Slides== * [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1gr6_6wIbctwBABPkxUerGn2adAaOYaRbUXxmfc_fngw/edit?usp=sharing Growth psychology] (Google Slides) <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/growth-motivation-and-positive-psychology Lecture slides] (Slideshare, 2016) * Handouts ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 6slidesperpage.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 6slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 3slidesperpage.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]: [[File:Motivation and Emotion - Lecture 11 - Growth psychology 3slidesperpage.pdf|100px]] --> ==See also== * [[/Images/]] ; Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Interventions and review|Interventions and review]] (Next lecture) ; Tutorial * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Tutorial) ; Wikipedia People * [[w:Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi|Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]] * [[w:Viktor Frankl|Viktor Frankl]] * [[w:Barbara Fredrickson|Barbara Fredrickson]] * [[w:Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow]] * [[w:Carl Rogers|Carl Rogers]] * [[w:Martin Seligman|Martin Seligman]] * [[w:Category:Humanistic psychologists|Humanistic psychologists]] (Category) * [[w:Category:Positive psychologists|Positive psychologists]] (Category) Topics * [[w:Existential psychology|Existential psychology]] * [[w:Eudaimonia|Eudaimonia]] * [[w:Gestalt psychology|Gestalt psychology]] * [[w:Happiness|Happiness]] * [[w:History of psychology|History of psychology]] * [[w:Holism|Holism]] * [[w:Humanistic psychology|Humanistic psychology]] * [[w:Man's Search for Meaning|Man's Search for Meaning]] * [[w:Paradigm shift|Paradigm shift]] - [[w:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions|The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]] * [[w:Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] * [[w:Self-actualization|Self-actualisation]] * [[w:Transpersonal psychology|Transpersonal psychology]] * [[w:World Happiness Report|World Happiness Report]] ; Wikiversity Categories * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Happiness|Happiness]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] Chapters * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Eudaimonic well-being|Eudaimonic well-being]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Growth through adversity|Growth through adversity]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Mystical experiences and emotion|Mystical experiences and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/National and cultural happiness|National and cultural happiness]] (Book chapter, 2015) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Peak experiences and emotion|Peak experiences and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/PERMA model of well-being|PERMA model of well-being]] (Book chapter, 2020) * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] (Book chapter category) * [[Motivation and emotion/Textbook/Motivation/Spiritual|Spiritual motivation]] (Book chapter, 2010) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Spiritual and religious motivation|Spiritual and religious motivation]] (Book chapter, 2011) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions|The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Trauma recovery and growth|Trauma recovery and growth]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/edbd5d843cbc494bb3a8ca018a46d3da Lecture 11] (2025)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/eb88fd292a9b446fb61e55ac83b693b5 Lecture 11] (2024) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/89129bb8249e47a982d271b57845a3d9 Lecture 11] (2023) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/46c1aeea4ee141c38640042a4dd093f8 Lecture 11] (2022) * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/38c4a5b8493044d6843008ed920a6916 Lecture 11] (2021) --> ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Fleuridas, C., & Krafcik, D. (2019). Beyond four forces: The evolution of psychotherapy. ''Sage Open'', ''9''(1), 2158244018824492. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244018824 Fredrickson, B. (2001). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3122271/ The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions]. ''American Psychologist'', ''56'', 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 Helliwell, J. F., Layard, R., Sachs, J. D., De Neve, J.-E., Aknin, L. B., & Wang, S. (Eds.). (2024). ''World happiness report 2024'' (12th ed.). https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2024/ Maslow, A. H. (1954). ''Motivation and personality''. Harper & Brothers. Maslow, A. H. (1971/1976). ''Farther reaches of human nature''. Penguin. Seligman, M. (2018). PERMA and the building blocks of well-being. ''The Journal of Positive Psychology'', ''13''(4), 333–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1437466 Sutich, A. J. (1968). Transpersonal psychology: An emerging force. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', ''8''(1), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786800800108 <!-- Peterson, C. (2006). What is positive psychology? In ''A primer in positive psychology'' (pp. 3–24). -->Rogers, C. (1951). ''Client-centered therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory''. Constable. Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). [http://www.bdp-gus.de/gus/Positive-Psychologie-Aufruf-2000.pdf Positive psychology: An introduction]. ''American Psychologist'', ''55'', 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.1.5 Seligman, M. E. P., Rashid, T., & Parks, A. C. (2006). [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/positivepsychotherapyarticle.pdf Positive psychotherapy]. ''American Psychologist'', ''61''(8), 774–788. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.8.774 Sutich, A. J. (1968). Transpersonal psychology: An emerging force. ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', ''8''(1), 77–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/002216786800800108 }} ==External links== * [https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu Authentic happiness] (University of Pennsylvania) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6W2dsnhC18Q Happiness and why we want it] (Nancy Etcoff, TED, 20:00 mins) * [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/learn-more/perma-theory-well-being-and-perma-workshops PERMA™ theory of well-being and PERMA™ workshops] (upenn.edu) * [https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/shiny-happy-people Shiny happy people] (Brad Lemley, Discover Magazine, 2006) * [https://www.pushkin.fm/podcasts/the-happiness-lab-with-dr-laurie-santos The happiness lab with Dr. Laurie Santos] (podcast; pushkin.fm) * [https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/beautiful-minds/what-does-it-mean-to-be-self-actualized-in-the-21st-century/ What does it mean to be self-actualized in the 21st century?] (Scott Barry Kaufmann, Scientific American, 2018) * [https://worldhappiness.report/ World happiness report] (worldhappiness.report) {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Growth psychology]] rzvgotlxorisdiq8mq63shbmx5yk24a 0 139384 2842653 2841879 2026-10-26T13:42:30Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2842653 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261022.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261021.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 17gsg6uf6dlqp5nadeal5mftpc2ct4i 2842655 2842653 2026-10-26T13:43:48Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2842655 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261023.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261021.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 3fvsx741t85zkenqgqp0umyg79mi3b0 2842657 2842655 2026-10-26T13:44:43Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2842657 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261024.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261021.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 36lxnbg0rn13gj55udvapiw4nb1gw2q 2842659 2842657 2026-10-26T13:48:34Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2842659 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261024.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261022.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] sa1qdd0sbo3o5cdnnvontmm20pnnjcc 2842788 2842659 2026-10-27T06:24:50Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2842788 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261026.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261022.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] s90fkejudcodl2zvvhx8kfceao7ubvt 2842790 2842788 2026-10-27T06:26:06Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2842790 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261026.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261023.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 41hl0p11164icmpjq3yx142nww1hgu0 2842792 2842790 2026-10-27T06:27:08Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2842792 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261026.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261024.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] jt2ulbiialfzwothn4t2ypmgulrjrd4 2842794 2842792 2026-10-27T06:28:07Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ 2842794 wikitext text/x-wiki == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:Adder.20131113.pdf|pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20250522.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.rca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2A.CLA.20260722.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2B.CLA.20261026.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2C.CLA.20261026.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.2D.CLA.20260720.pdf|D]] || || [[Media:Adder.cla.20140313.pdf|pdf]]|| |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20250405.pdf|A]]|| || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf|pdf]], [[Media:Adder.cca.20140313.pdf|pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf|pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf|A]]|| || [[Media:Adder.ksa.20140409.pdf|pdf]]|| |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf|A]]|| || || |- || '''9.1 Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.VBA.20221110.pdf|A]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1B.VBA.20230911.pdf|B]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20240622.pdf|C]], [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1C.VBA.20250218.pdf|D]]|| || || |- || '''9.2 Multi-Level Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA-Multi.20221031.pdf|A]]|| || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf|pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf|pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:Bshift.20131105.pdf|bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:Bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf|bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf|pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf|pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf|pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf|Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf|H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf|pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Digital Circuit Design]] [[Category:FPGA]] 2ort4wipyf81tiezlyfz6nsfob9ftdn 4 162205 2842690 2841522 2026-10-26T18:56:47Z MediaWiki message delivery 983498 /* Tech News: 2026-44 */ new section 2842690 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Archive box|[[/2014/]] · [[/2015/]] · [[/2016/]] · [[/2017/]] · [[/2018/]] · [[/2019/]] · [[/2020/]] · [[/2021/]] · [[/2022/]] · [[/2023/]] · [[/2024/]] · [[/2025/]]}} __TOC__ {{Clear}} == Tech News: 2026-31 == <section begin="technews-2026-W31"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/31|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[File:Maki-gift-15.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/ContentTranslation|Content Translation]] now supports dark mode, fulfilling a [[m:Community Wishlist/W544|Community Wishlist request]]. This brings the tool in line with the accessibility features available in the Vector 2022 and Minerva skins, helping reduce visual fatigue for users translating content. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T367077] * DiscussionTools' source mode and the 2017 wikitext editor will now offer autocomplete for links (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>[[</nowiki></code></bdi>), templates (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{{</nowiki></code></bdi>), HTML and parser tags (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><</nowiki></code></bdi>), and magic words (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>__</nowiki></code></bdi>), making it quicker and easier to insert links, templates, and other wiki markup while editing. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T432400] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth/Mobile page previews|Readers Growth team]] has concluded its experiment with mobile page previews and will not roll out the feature. Page Previews are a pop-up bottom sheet that appears when readers tap a blue link, showing a thumbnail, lead paragraph, and an option to open the article. The experiment showed flat retention and negative indicator metrics, suggesting that mobile web readers preferred navigating directly to linked articles rather than using page previews. * The Reader Experience team has seen encouraging early results from the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists|Reading Lists feature]], with 93% of participating users reporting that it was useful. Reading Lists help active readers save articles for future reading and support their learning goals on Wikimedia projects. The team plans further improvements before expanding the feature to more users. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Explore Feed Refresh|Explore Feed Refresh]] initiative was tested with new and casual Wikipedia app readers. The refreshed feed helps readers discover new and relevant content. After a 10.5% increase in engagement with the feed, Wikimedia Apps team has decided to scale the Home Feed redesign to iOS with the learnings from the Android release applied. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:23}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:23|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where subject names in the Article Guidance feature were displayed with incorrect capitalization on French Wikipedia, has now been fixed. Subject names will now follow the correct capitalization rules for the language. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T427201] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * After running several [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Account Creation Experiments|Account Creation Experiments]] to improve registration completion rates, a new version of the username field on [[Special:CreateAccount|Create Account]] has been rolled out. It includes [[:c:File:Create account - July 2026 updates.png|a popover summarizing the username policy]] to provide clearer guidance during account creation. As part of this change, the messages <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>createacct-helpusername</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>createacct-username-help</nowiki></code></bdi> that several communities have configured will no longer be used. If communities want to customize the guidance shown in the new popover, they can instead edit the following messages: <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>createacct-username-policy-popover-bullet1</nowiki></code></bdi>, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>createacct-username-policy-popover-bullet2</nowiki></code></bdi>, and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>createacct-username-policy-popover-bullet3</nowiki></code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T430604] * Later this week, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror syntax highlighter]] will offer [[w:en:Theme (computing)|themes]]. The themes can be picked from a dropdown menu in the full [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror#CodeMirror preferences|CodeMirror preferences]] dialog. For wikitext, available themes are default, colorblind-friendly (previously the colorblind preference option on [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing]]) and no-highlighting. For code languages (i.e., CSS/JavaScript/JSON/Vue/Lua), there are several themes available. These same themes will eventually be available for wikitext, too. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T163533] * From now on, wikis can restrict editing in the "User" namespace to only the page owner and certain user groups. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:$wgRestrictUserPageEditing|Read the configuration documentation]] to learn more. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.14|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/31|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W31"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:49, 27 July 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30856308 --> == Tech News: 2026-32 == <section begin="technews-2026-W32"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/32|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience|Reader Experience team]] has developed a [https://82db7c8d4b.catalyst.wmcloud.org/w/index.php?title=Regent%27s_Park&uselang=de patch demo] that wraps the page toolbar onto two lines when there is not enough horizontal space for all the buttons. This aims to reduce crowding in the Vector 2022 toolbar, which can occur on some language Wikipedias at certain screen widths. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T429518] * The Reader Experience team is planning to launch [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists|Reading Lists]], a [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Mobile and apps/Have Apps reading lists available on Destop/Mobile|Community Wishlist item]], which is currently available to try in beta, as a full feature in September. Before then, volunteer translator help is needed for [https://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=ext-readinglists&filter=&action=translate string translations] into a number of languages. The feature supports reading and learning goals on Wikipedia. * Next week, the table of contents on Wikimedia Commons file pages will be improved by consolidating the file page table of contents with the page table of contents. This will make it easier to understand a file page’s structure, navigate to specific sections, and share links to individual sections. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T332644] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:24}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:24|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where some [[w:TIFF|TIFF]] images failed to load after clicking their thumbnail, causing a broken image to be displayed instead of the full-size image, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T429326] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The variable and function selector in AbuseFilter has been updated to support search and autocomplete. It will allow filter maintainers to find the desired variable or function more quickly. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T323698] * The MJPEG and VP8 formats are removed from the video player. The MP4 format (MPEG-4 Part 2) is added instead, which provides higher quality videos to older iPhone devices. It may take a few weeks to retroactively update all existing videos. The default format for modern devices stays the same (VP9/WebM). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T358266] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.15|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/32|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W32"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:46, 3 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30872536 --> == Tech News: 2026-33 == <section begin="technews-2026-W33"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/33|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[File:Maki-gift-15.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] A new ChartWizard is [[c:Special:ChartWizard/Data:Example.Pie.chart|now available on Wikimedia Commons]] for users interested in creating charts from their own data. The wizard makes the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart|Chart extension]] more beginner-friendly by allowing editors to create charts, such as bar and pie charts, without needing to use JSON. Users can still switch to the JSON editor if they prefer. Feedback on the new tool is welcome on the [[m:Talk:Community Wishlist/W414|wish talk page]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:19}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:19|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where the Wikipedia iOS app’s Picture of the Day widget displayed the same image every day instead of updating daily, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T430692] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Math|Math formula]] SVG images will soon be generated in the browser instead of on the server. MathML continues to be generated on the server and renders in the browser without JavaScript. Wikibooks will see this change on 12 August, Wikisource on 19 August and Wikipedia from 20-27 August. You can try this by selecting "{{int:Mw-math-mathjax}}" in your preferences. This change is part of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/RESTBase/deprecation|deprecating RESTBase]] and [[phab:T431372|deprecating Mathoid]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T271001] * Category pages will soon support sorting entries by the time they are added to a category. This will make it easier to find recently or long-standing categorized pages. It will also improve workflows for maintenance categories such as deletion backlogs and other time-based review tasks. You can use <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>cldsort=timestamp</nowiki></code></bdi> URL argument in category view to sort the entries. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433768] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Gadgets|Gadgets]] and user scripts on Wikimedia wikis may now use [[phab:T395347|ES2018 features]] and [[phab:T419142|ES2019 features]] in JavaScript code. Previously, the platform only allowed up to ES2017. MediaWiki validates the source code to protect functionality from syntax errors and to ensure scripts are valid in all [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Compatibility#Browser_support_matrix|supported browsers]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T419142] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.16|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/33|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W33"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:45, 10 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30901051 --> == Tech News: 2026-34 == <section begin="technews-2026-W34"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/34|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents/Registration/Worklist|Worklist feature]] for the Event Registration tool is now live on all Wikimedia wikis. With Worklist, event organizers can add the articles their event will focus on directly to the event page. The Worklist also powers [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents/Registration/Worklist#How Event Pathways uses the worklist|Event Pathways]] which notifies other editors of the upcoming or ongoing event when they edit an article featured in the event's Worklist. This is the minimum viable version (MVP), and feedback is welcome. Organizers are encouraged to try the feature. A hands-on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Worklist Setup Workshop: Get Your Event Ready|Worklist Setup Workshop]] will take place on 18 August at 16:00 UTC and 19 August at 11:00 UTC. '''Updates for editors''' * [[Special:ShortPages]] displays short pages by their size, but in many cases it gets filled with disambiguations and soft redirects, making it harder to find the short articles themselves. Starting this weekend, you will be able to choose not to include an article in the special page by adding the magic word <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>__EXPECTSHORTPAGE__</nowiki></code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433203] * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia/en}} in [[d:Q3436680|Bole]] ([[w:bol:|<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>w:bol:</nowiki></code></bdi>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T429921] * Starting the week of August 17, the page toolbar will wrap onto two lines when there is not enough horizontal space for all the buttons. This is a [[phab:T429518|fully merged patch from the Reader Experience team]] which aims to reduce crowding in the Vector 2022 toolbar, that may occur on some language Wikipedias at certain screen widths. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:16}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:16|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, uploading large files to Wikimedia Commons has become more stable and less prone to failure following some fixes related to the “Could not acquire lock” upload error. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T386640] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Debian Bullseye will reach the end of its Long Term Support on 31 August 2026. [[phab:T434103|Some Cloud VPS projects]] still have instances running Debian Bullseye. Maintainers of those projects are encouraged to migrate to Debian Bookworm or Debian Trixie. A [[wikitech:Help:Cloud VPS instance operating system migration|migration guide]] is available to help with the process, and users may also want to consider whether their workload is better suited to Toolforge. If you need help or cannot complete the migration by 31 August, please contact the Cloud VPS admins as soon as possible. [[listarchive:list/cloud-announce@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/RVIPQSYLKMSL5M46JP6NEJVGVE6I2RXQ/|Read more]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.16|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/34|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W34"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:03, 17 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30922806 --> == Tech News: 2026-35 == <section begin="technews-2026-W35"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/35|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The [[Special:CreateAccount|Special:CreateAccount]] page has been simplified as part of ongoing work to modernize the account creation experience. The panel showing project statistics no longer appears next to the form on desktop and mobile web. Multiple account creation experiments show that a simpler form helps newcomers complete registration. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433783] * In order to improve page performance, images now load when they are viewed. This means images lower down an article will not load if a reader never scrolls to that part of the page, which may affect some image-related metrics. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T148047] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:42}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:42|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where image thumbnails in Abstract Wikipedia could fail to display after the corresponding file was moved on Wikimedia Commons, has now been fixed. Thumbnails will now update correctly when files are moved. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433448] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * User Info card is a feature that helps patrollers see information about user accounts. So far, it has been available only in places such as page history, logs and recent changes. Now, it's possible to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CheckUser#User_Info_card_in_page_content|place it in the page content]] as well, using the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{{#uic:}}</nowiki></code></bdi> parser function. It can be particularly useful in templates like [[:en:Template:Userlinks|<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{{Userlinks}}</nowiki></code></bdi>]] (or their specialized variants), as it will make it easier to see the context about a user on various noticeboard pages. The card will be displayed only to users who have it enabled in their [[Special:Preferences#mw-input-wpcheckuser-userinfocard-enable|preferences]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T424466] * Due to user security and privacy risks, we have disabled access to <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>Special:MyPage</nowiki></code></bdi> URLs when specifically using <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>action=raw</nowiki></code></bdi>. If you are impacted by this, consider whether you can use an alternative approach. <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>Special:MyPage</nowiki></code></bdi> URLs can still be accessed and used without <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>action=raw</nowiki></code></bdi>. Specified user page URLs (e.g. <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>User:Myusername</nowiki></code></bdi>) can still be used with <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>action=raw</nowiki></code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T120386] * Due to an update, the thumbnailing software has been improved. This includes upgrading <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>librsvg</nowiki></code></bdi> to 2.60 and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>ImageMagick</nowiki></code></bdi> to 7, as well as resolving a number of long-standing thumbnailing bugs like rendering errors. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T419815#12222841] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.17|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/35|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W35"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:45, 24 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30961208 --> == Tech News: 2026-36 == <section begin="technews-2026-W36"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/36|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * A new format for the Community Wishlist is open for feedback. You can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Community Wishlist 2027|read the proposed ideas on Meta]]. This new process plans to improve how wishes are triaged, voted on, and prioritized in a way that is transparent and balanced across project families and language editions. This consultation is open for two weeks. '''Updates for editors''' * The latest release of the Wikipedia Android app includes updates to the Saved feature, bringing the app’s saving experience closer to iOS and Web. The update redesigns the Saved tab with an “All articles” view, removes the default “Saved” reading list, renames reading lists to “Collections,” and modernizes the article-saving experience. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T420788] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists|Reading Lists]] feature was enabled for all logged-in users on Bengali, Chinese, Czech and Vietnamese Wikipedias on August 25, after several months as a beta feature. Reading Lists will be available to all logged-in users on Arabic, French and Indonesian Wikipedias on September 1, followed by English Wikipedia on September 14, and all other Wikipedia wikis on September 28. * At the end of the month, some logged-out readers on Bengali, Czech, Persian, English, and Polish Wikipedias using the Minerva skin on mobile will see an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Growth/Minimal_Minerva|updated navigation bar]] in an [[w:A/B test|A/B test]]. The test will compare the current navigation bar with a new version designed to make it easier to find information more quickly. The goal is to determine whether these changes encourage readers to return more often. This experiment will not change the experience for logged-in readers and/or editors. * Editors who maintain redirects, templates, and categories used on redirect pages now have improved ways for finding and curating redirects. Previously, redirects pages could not be searched. Two new search keywords, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>onlyredirects:</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>withredirects:</nowiki></code></bdi>, now allow redirects to be searched directly and can be combined with existing keywords such as <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>incategory:</nowiki></code></bdi>, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>intitle:</nowiki></code></bdi>, and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>insource:</nowiki></code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T204089] * The ISBN lookup tools for generating citations were recently not working because of external service problems. Developers are working on solutions. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T435179] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:30}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:30|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where searching for pages by category using <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>deepcat</nowiki></code></bdi> could return no results or unrelated results has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T414859] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The domain of URLs for thumbnails is changing from upload.wikimedia.org to thumb.wikimedia.org. The old URLs will continue to work for the foreseeable future but MediaWiki will advertise the new domain instead. URLs to other types of media such as original files, videos and transcodes will still be served from upload.wikimedia.org. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T427465] * The Wikimedia [https://www.mediawiki.org/w/index.php?api=wmf-math%2Fv1&title=Special%3ARestSandbox Math API] is now deprecated. These endpoints will be fully sunset by the end of September 2026. Developers who call these endpoints should transition to alternative math rendering solutions, such as the native [https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/MathML MathML] or [https://www.mathjax.org/ MathJax]. Third-party MediaWiki installations that utilize the Math extension for formula rendering are required to upgrade to v1.43+ to avoid disruption of service. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.18|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * Read more about [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit_check/TextMatch|TextMatch]] in a Diff post titled, [[diffblog:2026/08/28/custom-edit-suggestions-for-every-wiki-how-communities-are-shaping-suggestion-mode-with-textmatch/|Custom edit suggestions for every wiki: How communities are shaping Suggestion Mode with TextMatch]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/36|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W36"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:53, 31 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30990659 --> == Tech News: 2026-37 == <section begin="technews-2026-W37"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/37|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add_a_link|Add a Link]] has been upgraded for English Wikipedia users with improved detection of links that have different capitalization. This will help reduce ambiguous suggestions caused by differences in capitalization in article titles, including articles about cultural goods. A second phase of improvements is planned, which will also prepare the feature for release in other languages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T435526#12240876] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T434259] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article_guidance|Article guidance]] feature will be enabled by default for junior editors on Simple English and Turkish Wikipedia starting 10 September 2026 following [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article_guidance/Updates#Summary_of_experiment_result|an experiment]]. Junior editors with 0 to 99 edits will automatically see the feature when they click a red link or use the "[[tr:Vikipedi:Madde_sihirbazı|Madde oluşturto]]" option on Turkish Wikipedia to create a new article. The change is intended to help junior editors create higher-quality articles that meet each Wikipedia’s standards. [[phab:maniphest/query/z3tcTjmLMxk5/#R|Additional improvements]] will continue based on the experiment results and community feedback. * The [https://pageviews.wmcloud.org Pageviews Analysis] tool which allows users to compare pageviews across multiple pages, turns 10 years old this year and several new features have been added. They include [[toolforge:wikinav|WikiNav]] which provides insights into how readers of Wikipedia explore the content, editing stats in [https://pageviews.wmcloud.org/siteviews?range=latest-30&sites=en.wikipedia.org Siteviews], the ability to [https://pageviews.wmcloud.org/massviews?source=wikiproject&project=en.wikipedia.org lookup articles belonging to a WikiProject], and support for dark mode. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T378549] * A [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Growth/Minimal_Minerva|visually simplified Minerva]] navigation bar is being tested for logged-out readers using mobile web on the Bengali, Czech, English, Farsi, and Polish Wikipedias. The experiment aims to determine whether simplifying the navigation improves reader retention. The test will run from August 31 to September 28, and no action is required from users. * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes|WMDE Technical Wishes]] is working on improving [[en:Wikipedia:VisualEditor/Named references|auto-generated reference names in VisualEditor]]. Editors will only notice a slight change starting this week. When adding automatic reference names the numbering will start at <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>:1</nowiki></code></bdi> instead of <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>:0</nowiki></code></bdi>. Read more on the [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/References/VisualEditor automatic reference names|project page]]. [https://gerrit.wikimedia.org/r/c/VisualEditor/VisualEditor/+/1332704] * All wikis will be [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|read-only for a few minutes]] on September 23. This is planned at 14:00 UTC. More information will be published in Tech News and will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433363] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:25}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:25|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid|Parsoid]] could mishandle nested nowiki tags, causing content to be lost and displaying unwanted text has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T435116] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Interface administrators can configure gadgets from [[MediaWiki:Gadgets-definition]]. The definition format has been updated and no longer requires the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>ResourceLoader</nowiki></code></bdi> option, as gadgets are always loaded through <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>ResourceLoader</nowiki></code></bdi>. This simplifies gadget configuration by removing an option that is no longer necessary, making gadget definitions easier for administrators. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298199] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.19|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/37|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W37"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:44, 7 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31008437 --> == Tech News: 2026-38 == <section begin="technews-2026-W38"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/38|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Future Audiences team has started a [[en:Special:MyLanguage/Wikipedia:Village pump (proposals)#New proposed experiment to let readers know about “Google preferred sources”|discussion on English Wikipedia]] about a proposed new experiment to show a temporary notice about the new [https://blog.google/products-and-platforms/products/search/original-high-quality-content-search/ Google Preferred Sources] feature to Wikipedia readers coming from Google. The experiment is to test whether this notice makes visitors come back to Wikipedia more often. Preferred Sources feature lets users choose websites they trust so Google can highlight content from those sources more prominently in Search and AI experiences. We are interested in testing this on other languages that Google supports and would welcome assistance with starting conversations on other wikis. If interested, please reach out to Future Audiences on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Future Audiences/Preferred sources|talk page]]. '''Updates for editors''' * The chat platform Discord is releasing a new self-service framework that websites can use to specify how their links should look when shared on Discord. The Future Audiences team is planning to start using this new framework to improve how Wikipedia links look when shared on Discord, giving better attribution and credit to contributors. The link appearance and behavior won't change in the first phase of this project as we want to first collect some baseline data to assess the impact of future changes. However, if community members who are active on Discord spot any issues, they can reach out on [[phab:tag/future-audiences/|Phabricator]] or [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Future Audiences|Metawiki]]. * The Reader Growth team will be running an experiment to test whether [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Growth/Compact Lead|compacting article lead sections on mobiles]] with the addition of a "read more" button improves reader retention. The test will begin on September 17 on Arabic, Spanish, French, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Vietnamese, and Chinese Wikipedias and will run for four weeks. * All wikis will be [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|read-only for a few minutes]] on September 23. This is planned at 14:00 UTC. More information will be published in Tech News and will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming week. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433363] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:28}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:28|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where [https://wikistats.wmcloud.org/ Wikistats] for Wikipedias was returning an HTTP 500 error and could not be reached, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T435959] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Developers who maintain a tool that queries the Wikimedia Commons links tables need to update their code to connect to the new x4 database cluster. The links tables have been moved from the s4 cluster to x4, and will no longer receive updates on s4. The page and redirect tables remain available on both clusters. A wiki replica for the x4 cluster will be set up afterwards. The change is being made because the s4 cluster has grown too large to operate efficiently. You can [[wikitech:Special:MyLanguage/News/2026 Commons links tables database split|read more]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.20|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/38|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W38"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 15:31, 14 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31039826 --> == Tech News: 2026-39 == <section begin="technews-2026-W39"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/39|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|All wikis will be read-only]] for a few minutes on Wednesday, 23 September 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1790172000 14:00 UTC]. This is for the datacenter server switchover backup tests, [[wikitech:Special:MyLanguage/Deployments/Yearly calendar|which happen twice a year]]. During the switchover, all Wikimedia website traffic is shifted from one primary data center to the backup data center to test availability and prevent service disruption even in emergencies. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433363] '''Updates for editors''' * The Growth team tested a new post-edit notice designed to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Account Creation Experiments#4. Encourage Temporary Accounts to Register|encourage Temporary Account holders to register for a permanent account]]. The new notice replaced multiple dialogs and a simultaneous welcome notification with a single message highlighting the benefits of creating an account. The experiment increased permanent account creation from 1.94% to 3.66%, an 87% relative increase. The change will now be released to all wikis. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433551] * For Wikipedia editors using the [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|"Suggestion mode" Beta Feature]], there is a [[Special:Preferences#mw-input-wpvisualeditor-editcheck-experimental|new opt-in user preference]] for showing "experimental" edit checks and suggestions. These types are listed at [[Special:EditChecks#experimental-checks|Special:EditChecks]], and are intended for early developer-testing and for gathering feedback from experienced users. Administrators can change the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/Configuration|configuration details]] for each suggestion as usual. Administrators can also [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Suggestion mode#Experimental Suggestions|use this feature]] to help test their community's ideas for locally created checks and suggestions. Experimental types will have a more distinct visual style later this week. [[mw:Talk:VisualEditor/Suggestion Mode|Feedback is welcome]]. * The [[m:CEE Technical Village Pump|CEE Technical Village Pump]] has been launched as a space for technical discussions and collaboration among Wikimedia communities in Central and Eastern Europe. * A new tool, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Language Onboarding and Development/Starter kit|Starter Kit]], is now available for new and small language Wikipedia communities. It brings together guided tasks, tools, and resources to help communities get started, monitor their progress, and collaborate with the broader Wikimedia community. Starter Kit is hosted on Wikimedia Toolforge and is designed for Wikipedias with fewer than 50,000 articles. Learn more about how Starter Kit works and how communities have been using it in [[diffblog:2026/09/18/introducing-starter-kit-for-new-and-small-language-wikipedias/|this Diff blog post]]. * The Reader Growth team is launching a retest of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth/Image Browsing|image carousel experiment]]. The retest will use three new versions of the design, updated based on community feedback. The team will assess results and determine with communities whether or not to proceed with the feature. The experiment will begin the week of September 28 and will run on Arabic, Bengali, Chinese, Czech, English, Farsi, French, German, Indonesian, Japanese, Polish, Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish, and Vietnamese Wikipedias. * After successful rollouts to Arabic, Bengali, Chinese, Czech, English, French, Indonesian, and Vietnamese Wikipedias, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists|Reading Lists feature]] from the Reader Experience team will be available to all logged-in users on all Wikipedia wikis starting September 28. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:28}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:28|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where the mentor status script repeatedly updated mentors’ status even when nothing had changed, creating unnecessary Recent Changes entries, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T436659] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>abusefilters</nowiki></code></bdi> list query API, used to retrieve specific details about active or historical abuse filters configured on a wiki, has been updated to support the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>formatversion=2</nowiki></code></bdi> configuration parameter, thereby leading to breaking changes to the API response. All users who maintain user-scripts or other code need to check if they use the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>abusefilters</nowiki></code></bdi> list query API, and respond to any breaking changes. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T435828] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.21|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/39|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W39"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 11:56, 27 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31085309 --> == Tech News: 2026-40 == <section begin="technews-2026-W40"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/40|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Users of default skins on desktop and mobile web (Vector 2022 and Minerva respectively) will now be informed if the search suggestions displayed as they type into Search come from page redirects. Previously, users could get confused when the top search suggestions did not match exactly what they had typed. The new redirect notice clarifies that these suggestions are not random, but related to the search. The suggested pages may be redirects to the most relevant destination articles being searched for. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T303013] * Logged-out Wikipedia users on mobile web will begin to see a bookmark button for saving articles to their [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists|reading lists]] instead of the current Watchstar button. When clicked, the bookmark button prompts users to log in or create an account to save an article for later. An earlier experiment found that the bookmark icon was four times more likely than the Watchstar button to encourage logged-out users to create an account. This change is part of efforts to encourage more readers to become account holders and use features that help them save and return to content. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T438769] * An experiment will begin on September 29 on Spanish, Arabic, English, and French Wikipedias to simplify the experience users encounter immediately after account creation. The test will explore whether removing friction from the current Welcome Survey helps new users understand what to do next more easily. The experiment will run through the end of October. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T430058] * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council|Product and Technology Advisory Council]] has put out a call for the community to suggest topics that it should consider and discuss with the Wikimedia Foundation. Editors and technical contributors are invited to add topics to [[m:Talk:Product and Technology Advisory Council|the council's talk page]]. * Later this week, it will be possible for communities to configure [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit check|Edit Checks and Suggestions]] so that they are [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/Configuration#extraNamespaces|shown within additional namespaces]], such as a <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>Draft:</nowiki></code></bdi> namespace. [[mw:Talk:VisualEditor/Suggestion Mode|Feedback is welcome]]. * A bug in the [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlist|Global Watchlist]] is causing the page to fail to load for users that have unseen changes on Wikimedia Commons. Developers are working on a fix. Until then, affected users can follow the workarounds described in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:GlobalWatchlist#GlobalWatchlist temporarily broken for users with Wikimedia Commons|relevant]] help section. * New magic words <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{{CATEGORYSORT:TIMESTAMP}}</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{{CATEGORYSORT:RTIMESTAMP}}</nowiki></code></bdi> are now available for use. They are able to change the default sorting of categories to be based on timestamp of categorization. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433768] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:20}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:20|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the issue where [https://wikistats.wmcloud.org/ Wikistats] for Wikipedias was not reachable has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T435959] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The datacenter switchover, scheduled on September 23, has been postponed. [[diffblog:2025/03/12/hear-that-the-wikis-go-silent-twice-a-year/|The equinox exercise]] revealed capacity issues, preventing the switch of all services to the other datacenter. The process has been paused, prioritizing investigating that issue, to ensure that we continue to be able to serve our users reliably. A new exercise will be scheduled. Meanwhile, all traffic and edits continue to work as usual. * On September 23, a power loss briefly affected all wikis, creating intermittent issues on both reading and editing modes. This also affected Gerrit. This is unrelated to the datacenter switchover postponement. [https://www.wikimediastatus.net/incidents/9fm19t8qykk8] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Produnto|Produnto]] has been deployed to mediawiki.org and [[phab:T421436|some Indic language wikis]]. We want to hear your feedback on this experimental product. Produnto allows users to use Lua modules hosted in [[gitlab:repos/lua|Wikimedia's GitLab]]. It simplifies the sharing of Lua code between wikis. Instead of copying each individual Lua module from one wiki to another, users will be able to easily share packages across all wikis. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.22|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * A [[m:Event:Cross-wiki Code Collaboration Workshop|Cross-wiki code collaboration workshop]] will be held online on October 2 at 12:30 UTC, bringing together South Asian technical contributors to learn about Produnto and begin piloting it on Hindi, Punjabi, Odia, Telugu, and Malayalam Wikipedias. Produnto is a package manager for deploying Lua modules hosted on GitLab to Wikimedia wikis, and was recently deployed on some pilot wikis. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/40|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W40"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 10:49, 28 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31092225 --> == Tech News: 2026-41 == <section begin="technews-2026-W41"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/41|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The process for this year’s Community Wishlist [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Community Wishlist 2027#Updated Community Wishlist Process 2027/2028|has been published]], incorporating community feedback. The wish submission process will [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/FAQ#What is the deadline for submitting wishes?|end on November 8]]. This year, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Community Wishlist 2027/Working group|a working group (open for volunteering)]] that includes community members familiar with the technical aspect of our wikis alongside Wikimedia Foundation staff, will take care of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/FAQ#What is triage?|triage process]]. The triage is expected to be completed by late November. Votes for wishes will start in January. '''Updates for editors''' * Editors using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/VisualEditor|visual editor]] will now see a warning when they paste text that is likely to have initially been copied from one of five external generative AI chatbots into Wikipedia. This feature is known as [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/LLM Paste Check|LLM Paste Check]]. It is a type of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check|Edit Check]] that is community configurable. The check looks for markers in the copied HTML and is not using content watermark detection. Edits will also [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/LLM Paste Check#Edit tags|be tagged]] so that patrollers can review them more closely. The feature helps newcomers add content that respects Wikipedia’s policies and makes it easier for experienced editors to identify problematic edits. Communities with local policies about LLM usage can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/LLM Paste Check#Configuration|adjust the wording and policy that is linked]]. The team [[listarchive:list/translators-l@lists.wikimedia.org/message/EVHKWJ4IERZELMPIWNH3XUVUSQV5KOO4/|apologizes]] that this was rolled out without a delay for translations. * Editors can now easily [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Future of Editing on the Mobile Apps|access the web visual editor directly from the iOS and Android apps]]. When opening the editor, users will be given a choice between visual editing and source editing. If they choose visual editing, they will be sent to a mobile web window in their phone's browser. After completing their edit, a banner will give them the option to return to the app. This enables readers to make quick contributions while casually reading. * Users of the Wikipedia Android and iOS apps will now see a one-time account creation prompt after they have used the app for two consecutive weeks. This prompt explains the benefits of having an account. It is intended to help more casual readers become logged-in users who return to the apps regularly. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T434847] * Editors on [[wmnoc:conf/dblists/group1.dblist|group1 wikis]], including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Recent changes|Recent Changes]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help: Watching pages|Watchlist]] when a link to another language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on October 5 at 07:00 UTC as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make important changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications can read more on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project page]] and share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T439415] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:36}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:36|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where mentors who removed themselves from the mentorship program could still have mentees assigned to them and receive questions, has now been fixed. Mentees will now be reassigned when a mentor leaves the program. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T418194] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Wikimedia Brasil has published its [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Brasil/Arcabouço de Boas Práticas de Desenvolvimento|Development Best Practices Framework]] (ABPD). It is a guide for staff, contractors and volunteers building technical tools and projects. It covers the project lifecycle, security, accessibility, personal data protection and responsible AI use, and explains how movement-wide guidelines were adapted to a local context. They encourage other affiliates to reuse it and adapt it. Read more in the [[wmfblog:2026/09/26/wikimedia-brasils-development-best-practices-framework-technical-sustainability-as-an-organizational-responsibility|Diff post]]. * A new, canonical base URL for Wikimedia APIs will soon be introduced. The new canonical route follows a <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{projectName}/api/</nowiki></code></bdi> pattern and will act as an alternative path for current REST APIs (for example: <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{projectName}/w/rest.php/</nowiki></code></bdi>). Both versions will be callable for all existing APIs, but the new structure will be the preferred path for newly created API modules. This change will be non-breaking for most users. The existing pathways will remain available for all existing endpoint requests. However, some endpoints may return URLs following the new pattern in response bodies. Changes will be available on test wiki first, with the rollout expected to cover all wikis by the end of October. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433535] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.23|MediaWiki]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/41|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W41"/> 18:52, 5 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31098825 --> == Tech News: 2026-42 == <section begin="technews-2026-W42"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/42|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Starting October 13, wikis can change the default pattern for [[:en:Wikipedia:VisualEditor/Named references|auto-generated reference names in VisualEditor]] (currently <syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" inline><ref name=":1" /></syntaxhighlight>). They will be able to use human-readable, content-based reference names that are more helpful to contributors using the source editor (e.g. <syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" inline><ref name="Miller2026-1" /></syntaxhighlight>). VisualEditor reference name patterns can be defined using MediaWiki system messages, JSON, templates and modules ([[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Cite/VisualEditor reference names|more information]]). Admins can enable these changes via [[Special:CommunityConfiguration/Cite-VisualEditor-Autonames|community configuration]]. This is a [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/W17|community wish]] implemented by [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes|WMDE Technical Wishes]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T436255] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|Sub-referencing]] is a new MediaWiki feature that allows editors to reuse references with different details. It will be deployed to English Wikipedia on October 14 and to remaining Wikimedia Foundation wikis by end of October (likely October 21). The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#deployment|FAQ]] lists possible actions to take on your wiki to support the deployment. This is a [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing/History|long-standing community wish]] implemented by [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes|WMDE Technical Wishes]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T440243][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T440304] '''Updates for editors''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Moderator Tools|Moderator Tools]] will be removing the list view of the Watchlist and defaulting everyone to the changelog view. Previously, there were two versions of how the Watchlist is shown to mobile web users: the list view, where editors could see watched articles in a list format, and the changelog view, where editors could see changes to watched articles in a log format, controlled by a user's Advanced Mobile Control settings. This has created issues for code-base maintenance: two different displays means two sets of code to manage. By defaulting to the changelog view, we are simplifying the codebase and avoiding the likelihood of missing bugs. * The Wikipedia Android app is testing a way to listen to article introductions in the “For you” feed. A text-to-speech model reads the existing article text aloud without rewriting it or adding any content. The 30-day experiment will begin in the Wikipedia Beta app during the third week of September, then move to the regular Wikipedia Android app in October for a limited group of eligible users. A small portion of app users (those with English feeds and at least one topic interest) will have access to the feature. This experiment is part of broader efforts to give app readers options in how they consume content in order to deepen engagement and user retention. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Listening to Wikipedia/Phase 1|Learn more]] and [[mw:Talk:Readers/Listening to Wikipedia|share feedback]]. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror syntax highlighting]] was [[phab:T288161|enabled]] by default for all logged out and newly registered users on the English Wikipedia on September 14. With no signs of adverse effects, the same change is being proposed to be made globally across all wikis in a few weeks. If you have concerns or feedback, or if your wiki would like to opt out, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help talk:Extension:CodeMirror#Enabling CodeMirror by default on all WMF wikis for newbies|please see the help page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T440077] * [[d:Wikidata:Usability_and_usefulness/Item_editing_experience/Mobile_editing_of_statements|Wikidata mobile statement editing]] of all datatypes will be officially launched on October 13, when it will be removed from Wikidata [[d:Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|beta features]] and become available to all editors. Users can [[d:Wikidata_talk:Usability_and_usefulness/Item_editing_experience/Mobile_editing_of_statements|report bugs and share feedback]]. * Last week, language link changes were removed from [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] feeds on Wikivoyage, Wikisource, Wikiversity, Wikiquote and Wiktionary. As no adverse effects have been observed, the [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] plans to roll out this change globally to all Wikipedias. This is scheduled for October 13 at 07:00 UTC, after which editors will no longer see when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. Editors who rely on these notifications can read more on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project page]] and share feedback or ask to opt out their wiki on the [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T440698] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:28}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:28|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where accidentally touching the graph while scrolling on the Pageviews tool on mobile could unintentionally zoom in has now been fixed. Click-and-drag zoom is now disabled on touch devices. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T440075] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * There are three major changes coming to dumps: the legacy content dumps [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/xmldatadumps-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/E6D5EU4PMSTSOI2J7A46HJ3YW2W554CS/ deprecated in January 2026] will now be sunset, the replacement [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/MediaWiki_Content_File_Exports MediaWiki Content File Exports] will be delayed to implement a “safety buffer”, and they are now also available as 7zip-compressed files. Users will need to switch the URL they download their dump from. For more information, timeline and migration instructions, see [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Legacy_content_dumps_sunset Legacy content dumps sunset]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.24|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The Wikimedia Foundation discovered unauthorized activity by OpenAI agents on Wikimedia projects, including edits to wikis, attempts to exploit a public note-taking tool, and heavy automated traffic. [[diffblog:2026/10/05/openai-rogue-agent-activities-found-on-wikimedia-projects/|Read the blog post on Diff]] for more details about the activity and the Foundation’s response. '''Meetings and events''' * Save the date for the next Wikimedia Hackathon! We’ll be meeting in lovely Tirana, Albania for the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Wikimedia%20Hackathon%202027 2027 Wikimedia Hackathon] from April 9–11, 2027. Scholarship and staff sponsorship applications are currently being [https://pretix.eu/wikimedia/Hackathon-2027/ accepted through Pretix] and will close on October 30, 2026. General registration will open in January 2027. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/42|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W42"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 07:40, 13 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31142468 --> == Tech News: 2026-43 == <section begin="technews-2026-W43"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/43|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * To measure the impact of incorporating some [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Growth/Image_Browsing#November 2025: Ideas and feedback|community-requested features]] on logged-out reader retention, a test for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Growth/Image_Browsing|Image Carousel]] will be pushed to logged-out readers. With the Image Carousel feature, readers browse community-uploaded images, selected by editors as relevant to specific articles. The test starts on November 20. * An experimental notice will be pushed to 0.5% of logged-out mobile readers who come to English Wikipedia from Google, asking them to add Wikipedia as a [https://blog.google/products-and-platforms/products/search/preferred-sources/ Google Preferred Source]. The test is to see if this notice increases reader retention and encourages people who use Google Search to visit Wikipedia more often. It will run from October 15–29 and will be assessed for its impact on retention and referrals. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:26}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:26|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where [[quarry:|Quarry]] returned an “Access denied” error when users tried to run SQL queries, preventing queries from running normally, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T440966] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Cog-icon-grey.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Due to a long-standing bug, applications that use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/OAuth/For_Developers|OAuth 2]] client credentials flow to act on their owners’ behalf are treated as if they are logged out. This will be fixed for new applications registered on or after Monday, October 19. Some affected applications need to re-register. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T420297] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.48/wmf.1|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * A proposal to hold the Wikimedia Hackathon every three years, with regional hackathons in between, [[mw:Wikimedia Hackathon/Community Proposal 2026|has been shared]]. It explores making the event more accessible to technical communities in different regions. Share your feedback on the proposal’s [[mw:Talk:Wikimedia Hackathon/Community Proposal 2026|talk page]] before November 6. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/43|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W43"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 14:38, 19 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31178499 --> == Tech News: 2026-44 == <section begin="technews-2026-W44"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/44|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * An experiment launched on September 29 is testing [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Experience/Reading_recommendations|article recommendations]] for new account holders who also identify as readers. By suggesting articles to read, similar to recommendations in the Wikipedia app for logged-in readers, the experiment aims to encourage new account holders to read and return to the website regularly, with the goal of increasing internal referrals by 1%. See the related [[m:Community Wishlist/W505|Community Wishlist]] proposal. * Several Wikimedia services were taken offline last week because of a [https://www.php.net/archive/2026.php#2026-10-20-1 security vulnerability in PHP]. This is because they need to be updated before they are safe to put back online. This is not a problem just for the Wikimedia movement but affects a lot of websites. You can follow updates on [[wikitech:Incidents/2026-10-21 PHP security update/Community|Wikitech]]. Cloud VPS and Toolforge will take longer to bring back online. This is to make sure that applications which run on Cloud VPS or Toolforge are not affected. Tool developers can see updates and more information on the [https://lists.wikimedia.org/postorius/lists/cloud-announce.lists.wikimedia.org/ Cloud-announce mailing list]. [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2026/10/21/impact-of-php-vulnerabilities-on-wikimedia-tools-and-services/][https://diff.wikimedia.org/2026/10/21/impact-of-php-vulnerabilities-on-wikimedia-cloud-services/] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/43|Last week we shared]] that to measure the impact of incorporating some community-requested features on logged-out reader retention, a test for the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth/Image Browsing|Image Carousel]] feature would be pushed to logged-out readers. Due to an issue, we will be restarting the test, but it will be live on October 26, not November 20 as initially announced. '''Updates for editors''' * A new [[wikitech:KAPOW|bot detection system]] to better identify automated traffic that disguises itself as human visitors, is coming to the Wikimedia wikis. This might cause sudden changes to visitor statistics starting from 26 October, going back to 20 June 2026. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Score|Score extension]] which renders musical notation inside wiki pages, has been temporarily disabled on all wikis due to a security issue. Affected pages will display a notice instead of musical scores, but the underlying code remains intact. No action is needed from editors, and a fix is in progress. A separate announcement will follow when the extension is re-enabled. Read more on [[phab:T441579|Phabricator]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:18}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:18|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the issue where CodeMirror syntax highlighter appears to have been enabled in error for existing editors has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T441308] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|All wikis will be read-only]] for a few minutes on Wednesday, October 28 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1793199600 15:00 UTC]. This is for the datacenter server switchover backup tests, [[wikitech:Deployments/Yearly calendar|which happen twice a year]]. During the switchover, all Wikimedia website traffic is shifted from one primary data center to the backup data center to test availability and prevent service disruption even in emergencies. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T439703] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.48/wmf.2|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * Scholarship and sponsorship applications for the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Wikimedia%20Hackathon%202027 2027 Wikimedia Hackathon] will close on Friday, October 30th. Submit your application [https://pretix.eu/wikimedia/Hackathon-2027/ through Pretix] before the deadline! '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/44|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W44"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:56, 26 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31199592 --> tdws0jz0x0ndljte5nufo019u72ybjy 1 171302 2842770 2842461 2026-10-27T04:54:33Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2842770 wikitext text/x-wiki Terms that sometimes appear in the titles of bibliographies, guides to literature/reference, etc: Bibliography, catalogue, guide, list, index, in print, books, literature, sources, works, material, titles, reference. [[User:James500|James500]] ([[User talk:James500|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/James500|contribs]]) 13:54, 14 November 2020 (UTC) For future use: *Non-fiction, art, fine arts, music, painting, sculpture, government, politics, philosophy, theology, religion, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, mining, manufacturing, technology, computer science, engineering, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, botany, natural history, prehistory, classics, anthropology, library science, librarianship, information studies, places, exploration, transport, Earth science, paleontology, official publications, universities, museums *Reprography, lithography, engraving *Bookbinding, early printed books, incunabula, manuscripts, papyri, papyrology *Languages, philology, ancient languages, medieval languages, dead languages, extinct languages *Writing, scripts, decipherment, alphabets, hieratic, demotic, hieroglyphic, figurative, ideographic, pictographic, cuneiform, inscriptions, stelae [stela], clay tablets, ostraka [ostrakon], papyrus, Minoan scripts, Linear A, Linear B *Indo-European languages; Italo-Celtic; Celtic languages *Latin, Greek, middle english, old english, anglo-norman [anglo-french], old french, old norse, old welsh, middle welsh, egyptian, hittite, luwian, lycian, akkadian, assyro-babylonian, elamite, amorite *Special libraries, national libraries, public libraries, university libraries, college libraries, school libraries, museum libraries *Archaeological theory, methodology, geology, stratigraphy etc. Field archaeology, behavioural archaeology *Tide tables *George Watson (ed). The Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature. Cambridge University Press. 1966. Volume 5. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ebM6AAAAIAAJ] *[[s:Page:Cornwall (Mitton).djvu/230|"Some Books on Cornwall"]] *[[s:Author:Richard Colt Hoare]] *Yorkshire literature *Catalogues régionaux des incunables des bibliothèques publiques de France. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K38VcZrjrj0C&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] (regional catalogues of incunabula in the public libraries of France) * [[User:James500|James500]] ([[User talk:James500|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/James500|contribs]]) 16:24, 24 November 2019 (UTC) For future use: *Palmer's Index to The Times **editions:2Faf22c-dSwC *Routledge Handbook of Soviet and Russian Military Studies France: *Les Dictionnaires départementaux.  [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FZEwAQAAMAAJ] (series includes departmental biographical dictionaries) Creuse: *Guide des archives de la Creuse. 1972 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eEsCAAAAMAAJ] *Joanne. Géographie du département de la Creuse. 1895 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=izeVfoPbIc8C] *Jamain. Le département de la Creuse: ses origines et sa pérennité [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kY-KMwcsJMEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Annuaire du Département de la Creuse [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7wpBAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Journal du département de la Creuse (1807-1819) Bibliography: *[[w:Fredson Bowers|Bowers, Fredson]]. Principles of Bibliographical Description. Princeton University Press. 1949. Russell & Russell, New York. 1962. St Paul's Bibliographies (No 15). 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hA7hAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&pg=PA525#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Bowers, Fredson. Bibliography and Textual Criticism. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zOFhNcQsihAC] Series: *Studies in Bibliography. Formerly "Papers in Bibliography". (Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia). (1948 onwards) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HGEUAAAAIAAJ] Commentary: "A History of Studies in Bibliography: The First Fifty Volumes" in The First Fifty Years, p 125 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZukVAQAAIAAJ] **Tanselle. Selected Studies in Bibliography. (Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OnktAQAAIAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Utcb32E7rsMC&pg=PA526#v=onepage&q&f=false] Library associations: *IFLA. Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records: Final Report. Saur. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YW8hAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP4#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Patrick Le Boeuf (ed). Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR): Hype or Cure-All? Haworth Press. 2005. Routledge. 2013 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ka7hAQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Guidelines for Bibliographic Description of Reproductions. American Library Association. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9zG6MGudKv8C&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Serials: *Serials Review Nostgia *Nostalgia cycles: [https://slate.com/culture/2012/04/the-golden-forty-year-rule-and-other-nostalgia-cycles-could-trends-possibly-return-every-40-years-20-years-and-12-15-years.html] [https://www.vice.com/en/article/how-the-20-year-trend-cycle-collapsed/] [https://www.npr.org/2022/03/01/1081115609/from-tumblrcore-to-2014core-the-nostalgia-loop-is-getting-smaller-and-faster] [https://www.theguardian.com/music/2023/apr/20/lets-go-round-again-the-ridiculous-rise-of-fifth-anniversary-vinyl-reissues] [https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/gen-z-fashion-trends-tumblr-aesthetic-b2042247.html] *Stuck in the Seventies: 113 Things from the 1970s that Screwed Up the Twentysomething Generation. 1991. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bZ03g5ylsaEC]. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6V4cAQAAMAAJ]. *1969: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yuwjAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Decade nostalgia [https://www.thetimes.com/uk/politics/article/rolling-back-the-years-qg8fs6sh06d] *[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=COhVAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA20#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Xf4rAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nFtWAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HqkfAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA27&article_id=4890,1282350#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_WZGAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA29#v=onepage&q&f=false][https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bzpHAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false][https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s1MgAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *1970s: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YT5QAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA8#v=onepage&q&f=false] *1990s Tamagotchi [https://www.nssmag.com/en/lifestyle/38204/tamagotchi-y2k-nostalgia] *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/m002g6k5 90s Nostalgia]. BBC. Other *[[w:Haruko Ichikawa|Haruko Ichikawa]] (市河晴子 or 市川晴子) (1896-1943) **Japanese Lady in Europe. 1937. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xi42AAAAMAAJ] (Japanese: 欧米の隅々) **Japanese Lady in America. First published 1938. [https://books.google.com/books?id=KQY7AQAAIAAJ] (Japanese: 米国の旅日本の旅) Search terms: *"press in japan" *"japanese press" *"press of japan" *"journalism of japan" *"journalism in japan" *"journalists in japan" *"japanese journalism" Generations *[https://www.vox.com/2018/8/15/17686668/millennials-explained Stop calling teenagers millennials]. Vox. 15 August 2018. Planet Earth *[[w:Encyclopedia of Earth|Encyclopedia of Earth]] Crime *The Concise Encyclopedia of Crime and Criminals [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uGTQAAAAIAAJ] Showa era *懐かしの昭和・平成流行事典: 2001-1945. [[w:ja:新人物往来社|Shin-Jinbutsuoraisha]]. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QCYyAQAAIAAJ] *少年ブーム～昭和レトロの流行もの. 串間努著. 2003. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sK0nAQAAIAAJ] Fading of the Showa era *[https://www.theguardian.com/world/gallery/2025/dec/02/fading-japan-showa-era-in-pictures The fading of Japan’s Shōwa era – in pictures]. The Guardian. 2 December 2025. *[https://soranews24.com/2026/04/02/fading-tokyo-searching-for-signs-of-the-showa-era-as-local-neighborhoods-evolvephotos/ Fading Tokyo – Searching for signs of the Showa era as local neighborhoods evolve]. SoraNews24. 2 April 2026. Showa retro packaging *[[w:ja:初見健一|Kenichi Hatsumi]]. 昭和のレトロパッケージ. [[w:ja:グラフィック社|Graphic-sha]]. 2016. ISBN 9784766128741. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ch5wjwEACAAJ] Shakespeare *Demmon (compiler). Catalogue of the Shakespearian Books and Pamphlets in the Joseph Crosby Library. 1885. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GSZLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Shakespeare the Man and the Book. Part 2: Occasional Papers. 1881. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gfUUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP11#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Best films: [https://www.empireonline.com/movies/features/best-movies-of-all-time-us/] Survivability of past atmosphere *[https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2022/09/20/you-asked-dinosaurs-survived-when-co2-was-extremely-high-why-cant-humans/ You Asked: Dinosaurs Survived When CO2 Was Extremely High. Why Can’t Humans?] Columbia Climate School. 20 September 2022. *[https://www.sciencefocus.com/planet-earth/how-far-back-in-time-would-we-be-able-to-go-and-still-breathe-our-planets-air How far back in time would we be able to go and still breathe our planet's air?] BBC Science Focus. *[https://gizmodo.com/the-one-basic-fact-about-history-that-time-travelers-al-1652649190 The One Basic Fact About History That Time Travelers Always Forget]. io9. Gizmodo. 31 October 2014. [[User:James500|James500]] ([[User talk:James500|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/James500|contribs]]) 10:55, 26 October 2020 (UTC) 1ujzky2wdwhlkm4ch11nwpc8jtabtlh 0 219611 2842730 2180672 2026-10-26T22:52:35Z KyleWii 3113193 2842730 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:{{PAGENAME}}/Sidebar}} {{AP course revamp notice}} Advanced Placement examinations (AP exams) are exams offered in United States by the College Board and are taken each May by students. The tests are the culmination of year-long Advanced Placement (AP) courses. AP exams (with few exceptions) have a multiple-choice section and a free-response section.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Advanced Placement exams]]</ref> AP World History: Modern is an introductory college-level modern world history course. Students cultivate their understanding of world history from c. 1200 CE to the present through analyzing historical sources and learning to make connections and craft historical arguments as they explore concepts like humans and the environment, cultural developments and interactions, governance, economic systems, social interactions and organization, and technology and innovation.<ref>[https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-world-history/course College Board: AP World History: Modern]</ref> == Outline == * [[/The Global Tapestry/]] * [[/Networks of Exchange/]] * [[/Land-Based Empires/]] * [[/Transoceanic Interconnections/]] * [[/Revolutions/]] * [[/Consequences of Industrialization/]] * [[/Global Conflict/]] * [[/Cold War and Decolonization/]] * [[/Globalization/]] == See Also == * [[Wikipedia: Advanced Placement exams]] == Bibliography == * [https://cnx.org/contents/s1uw7qX4@3.1:1izTol81@3/Introduction OpenStax CNX: A Comprehensive Outline of World History] == References == {{Reflist}} {{CourseCat}} 02zm8iz6imte4m4mt6c6tswferdipud 0 247477 2842746 2627690 2026-10-27T01:08:48Z Z. Patterson 1936818 /* Lesson Summary */ Adding reference for preference for switch statements over if/else statements. 2842746 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{{{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Sidebar}}</noinclude> This lesson introduces JavaScript conditions. __TOC__ == Objectives and Skills == Objectives and skills for this lesson include:<ref>[https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/learning/exam-98-382.aspx Microsoft: Exam 98-382 Introduction to Programming Using JavaScript]</ref> * Evaluate expressions that use logical and comparison operators ** ==; !=; <, >; <=; >=; !; &&; || * Complete and debug decision statements ** if; else if; switch; nested if * Complete and debug code that performs input validation ** Case; string comparisons; Not-A-Number (NaN) == Readings == # [[Wikipedia: Structured programming]] # [[Wikipedia: Conditional (computer programming)]] # [[Wikibooks: JavaScript/Control structures]] #[https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements/if...else Mozilla: if...else] == Multimedia == # [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N4V0FZASK60 YouTube: How to Create Conditions in JavaScript | Conditional Statements | JavaScript Tutorial] # [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Osb_iGDdjk YouTube: Introduction to Conditional Statements - p5.js Tutorial] # [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o7JLFGX-hOU YouTube: JavaScript if - else Statement] # [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vp6GWYJl878 YouTube: How to use if/else conditions in JavaScript] # [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uQxgdzr3vIw YouTube: JavaScript Tutorial for Beginners - 13 - Function and if statement] # [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fM5qnyasUYI YouTube: JavaScript Tutorial - Switch Statement] # [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZZEZ-2boByE YouTube: Switch - How to Use the JavaScript Switch Statement] # [https://youtu.be/wT-1T7Ws5qY?si=UA_yhrBqidyImlSk If Else Conditional Statements & Switch In JavaScript | JavaScript Tutorial For Beginners] == Examples == * [https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_booleans.asp W3Schools: JavaScript Booleans] * [https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_if_else.asp W3Schools: JavaScript if else and else if] * [https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_switch.asp W3Schools: JavaScript Switch Statement] *[https://www.tutorialspoint.com/javascript/javascript_error_handling.htm JavaScript - Errors & Exceptions Handling] *[https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/conditional-statements-in-javascript/ GeeksforGeeeks - Conditional Statements] * [[/Example Code/]] * [https://stackoverflow.com/questions/2407299/when-using-javascript-how-do-you-use-select-form-to-do-if-else-statements Stack Overflow: Using if else statements with a select form] * [https://www.codecademy.com/learn/bapi-javascript-conditionals-and-functions/modules/learn-javascript-control-flow/cheatsheet Conditions] == Activities == Complete one of the following activities for each type of condition using external JavaScript code. Apply JavaScript best practices, including comments, indentations, naming conventions, and constants. Use input elements for input and respond to input or change events or add buttons and respond to click events. Use HTML elements for output. Use separate functions for each type of processing. Avoid global variables by passing parameters and returning results. Create test data to validate the accuracy of each program. Add comments at the top of the program and include references to any resources used. === If Conditions === # Create a program to prompt the user for hours and rate per hour to compute gross pay (hours * rate). Include a calculation to give 1.5 times the hourly rate for any overtime (hours worked above 40 hours).<ref>[https://books.trinket.io/pfe/03-conditional.html PythonLearn: Conditional Execution]</ref> # Create a program that asks the user how old they are in years. Then ask the user if they would like to know how old they are in (M)onths, (D)ays, (H)ours, or (S)econds. Use if/else conditional statements to display their approximate age in the selected timeframe. Do not perform any unnecessary calculations. # Review [http://www.mathsisfun.com/measure/us-standard-length.html MathsIsFun: US Standard Lengths]. Create a program that asks the user for a distance in miles, and then ask the user if they want the distance in US measurements (yards, feet, and inches) or in metric measurements (kilometers, meters, and centimeters). Use if/else conditional statements to determine their selection and then calculate and display the results. # Review [http://www.mathsisfun.com/area.html MathsIsFun: Area of Plane Shapes]. Create a program that asks the user what shape they would like to calculate the area for. Use if/else conditional statements to determine their selection and then gather the appropriate input and calculate and display the area of the shape. # Create a program that helps the user determine what sock size to order based on their shoe size:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;< 4 = extra small<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4 to 6 = small<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7 to 9 = medium<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;10 to 12 = large<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;13+ = extra large<br>Use if/else conditional statements to determine their selection and then display the results. Round half-sizes up to the next whole size. One option for rounding is to add 0.5 and then convert to an integer.<ref>[[Wikibooks: Programming Fundamentals/Practice: Conditions]]</ref> === Switch Conditions === # Create a program that asks the user how old they are in years. Then ask the user if they would like to know how old they are in (M)onths, (D)ays, (H)ours, or (S)econds. Use switch conditional statements to display their approximate age in the selected timeframe. Do not perform any unnecessary calculations. # Review [http://www.mathsisfun.com/area.html MathsIsFun: Area of Plane Shapes]. Create a program that asks the user what shape they would like to calculate the area for. Use switch conditional statements to determine their selection and then gather the appropriate input and calculate and display the area of the shape. # Create a program that helps the user determine what sock size to order based on their shoe size:<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;< 4 = extra small<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4 to 6 = small<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7 to 9 = medium<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;10 to 12 = large<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;13+ = extra large<br>Use switch conditional statements to determine their selection and then display the results. Round half-sizes up to the next whole size. One option for rounding is to add 0.5 and then convert to an integer.<ref>[[Wikibooks: Programming Fundamentals/Practice: Conditions]]</ref> === Input Validation === # Review [[Wikipedia: Is functions]]. Update one or more of the programs above to include input validation for all numeric input. # Extend one or more of the programs above by adding structured exception handling statements (try-catch) to handle any runtime errors caused by the user entering invalid values for the input. == Lesson Summary == * Conditional statements are used to perform different actions based on different decisions.<ref>[https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_if_else.asp W3Schools: JavaScript if else and else if]</ref> * The if statement is to specify a block of code to be executed, if a specified condition is true.<ref>[https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_if_else.asp W3Schools: JavaScript if else and else i]</ref> * The else statement is to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same condition is false.<ref>[https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_if_else.asp W3Schools: JavaScript if else and else i]</ref> * the else if statement is to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition is false.<ref>[https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_if_else.asp W3Schools: JavaScript if else and else i]</ref> * The switch statement is used to perform different actions based on different conditions.<ref>[https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_switch.asp W3Schools: JavaScript switch Statement]</ref> * Switch cases use strict comparison (===). The values must be of the same type to match.<ref>[https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_switch.asp W3Schools: JavaScript switch Statement]</ref> * Switch statements are better to use over if/else statements when you are aware of the exact data that can be input.<ref>{{cite book|last=Zakas|first=Nicholas C.|date=2010|title=High Performance JavaScript|location=Sebastopol, California|publisher=O'Reilly Media|isbn=978-1-4493-8874-4}}</ref> * Break keyword is used to break down from the switch block. Once the match is found, and the associated code block is executed, the following cases are not being tested against the condition.<ref>[https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_switch.asp W3Schools: JavaScript switch Statement]</ref> * The switch statement may have an optional default case. It specifies the block of code that runs if there is no case match.<ref>[https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_switch.asp W3Schools: JavaScript switch Statement]</ref> *Conditional statements can be inside of other conditional statements, and can have multiple conditions to test.<ref>[https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements/if...else#description MDN | If... Else]</ref> *When writing conditions based on equality, "==" is used rather than "=", which is the assignment operator.{{source}} == Key Terms == ;boolean :A datatype that can only hold a value of either TRUE or FALSE.<ref>https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_booleans.asp</ref> ;break :Keyword that breaks out of the switch block. This will stop the execution of inside the block.<ref>https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_switch.asp</ref> ;comparison operators :Comparison operators are used in logical statements to determine equality or difference between variables or values.<ref>https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_comparisons.asp</ref> ;conditional statement :It is a condition that has to be fulfilled (true) to perform an action.<ref>https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_if_else.asp</ref> ;default :Keyword that specifies the code to run if there is no case match.<ref>https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_switch.asp</ref> ;"else" statement :The else statement is to specify a block of code to be executed if the same condition is false.<ref>https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_if_else.asp</ref> ;"else if" statement :The else if statement specifies a new condition if the first condition is not met.<ref>https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_if_else.asp</ref> ;"if" statement :The if statement executes a statement if a specified condition is true. If the condition is false, the code within the If statement is ignored, and the code immediately after will run.<ref>https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements/if...else</ref> ;logical operators :Logical operators are used to determine the logic between variables or values.<ref>https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_comparisons.asp</ref> ;nested if statement :An if statement inside another if statement (multiple if statements).<ref>https://www.educba.com/nested-if-in-javascript/</ref> ;switch :Used to select one of many code blocks to be executed based on evaluation of a single expression.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_switch.asp|title=JavaScript Switch Statement|website=www.w3schools.com|access-date=2019-09-27}}</ref> == See Also == * [https://codeburst.io/javascript-the-conditional-ternary-operator-explained-cac7218beeff Codeburst: The Conditional (Ternary) Operator Explained] * [https://www.digitalocean.com/community/tutorials/how-to-use-the-switch-statement-in-javascript Digital Ocean: How To Use the Switch Statement in JavaScript] * [https://www.javascript.com/learn/conditionals JavaScript.com: JavaScript Conditions] * [https://javascript.info/ifelse JavaScript Info: Conditional operators] * [https://www.javascripttutorial.net/javascript-if-else/ JavaScript Tutorial: If Else Statement] * [https://www.kirupa.com/html5/if_else.htm Kirupa: Conditional Statements: If and Else] * [https://www.kirupa.com/html5/switch_statements_javascript.htm Kirupa: Conditional Statements: Switch] * [https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/JavaScript/Building_blocks/conditionals MDN: Making Decisions in Your Code - Conditionals] * [https://www.tutorialgateway.org/javascript-nested-if/ Tutorial Gateway: JavaScript Nested If] * [https://www.w3resource.com/javascript/statements/ifelse.php W3Resource: JavaScript if...else statements] * [https://www.w3resource.com/javascript/statements/switch.php W3Resource: JavaScript switch statement] * [https://sebhastian.com/javascript-if-else/ sebhastian.com: A guide to JavaScript if and else statements] * [https://sebhastian.com/javascript-switch-case-statement/ sebhastian.com: JavaScript switch case statement guide (with examples)] * [https://www.w3schools.com/js/js_comparisons.asp W3Schools: JavaScript Comparison and Logical Operators] * [https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements/if...else if...else - Javascript - MDN Web Docs - Mozilla] == References == {{reflist}} <noinclude>{{subpage navbar}}</noinclude> {{CourseCat}} 69jav5914zfvyi5v57cwajcjjd0sgbr 3 250786 2842691 2841523 2026-10-26T18:56:47Z MediaWiki message delivery 983498 /* Tech News: 2026-44 */ new section 2842691 wikitext text/x-wiki == First Message Posting == Update Talk on Wikiversity [[User:Bnhassin|Bnhassin]] ([[User talk:Bnhassin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bnhassin|contribs]]) 21:04, 29 June 2019 (UTC) == Update Sandbox User == == Posting to sandbox == Update Sandbox on Wikiversity [[User:Bnhassin/sandbox]] ([[User talk:Bnhassin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bnhassin|contribs]])[[User:Bnhassin|Bnhassin]] ([[User talk:Bnhassin|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Bnhassin|contribs]]) 11:04, 25 October 2020 (UTC) == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/50|Tech News: 2020-50]] == <section begin="technews-2020-W50"/><div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/50|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * You can now put pages on your watchlist for a limited period of time. Some wikis already had this function. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Community_Tech/Watchlist_Expiry][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:Watchlist_expiry] '''Changes later this week''' * Information from Wikidata that is used on a wiki page can be shown in recent changes and watchlists on a Wikimedia wiki. To see this you need to turn on showing Wikidata edits in your watchlist in the preferences. Changes to the Wikidata description in the language of a Wikimedia wiki will then be shown in recent changes and watchlists. This will not show edits to languages that are not relevant to your wiki. 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Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/51|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * There is a [[mw:Wikipedia for KaiOS|Wikipedia app]] for [[:w:en:KaiOS|KaiOS]] phones. It was released in India in September. It can now be downloaded in other countries too. [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2020/12/10/growing-wikipedias-reach-with-an-app-for-kaios-feature-phones/] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.22|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2020-12-15|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2020-12-16|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2020-12-17|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/51|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div></div> <section end="technews-2020-W51"/> 21:34, 14 December 2020 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=20803489 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/52|Tech News: 2020-52]] == <section begin="technews-2020-W52"/><div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2020/52|Translations]] are available. '''Tech News''' * Because of the [[w:en:Christmas and holiday season|holidays]] the next issue of Tech News will be sent out on 11 January 2021. '''Recent changes''' * The <code><nowiki>{{citation needed}}</nowiki></code> template shows when a statement in a Wikipedia article needs a source. If you click on it when you edit with the visual editor there is a popup that explains this. Now it can also show the reason and when it was added. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T270107] '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week or next week. '''Future changes''' * You can [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Geoinformation/Ideas|propose and discuss]] what technical improvements should be done for geographic information. This could be coordinates, maps or other related things. * Some wikis use [[mw:Writing systems/LanguageConverter|LanguageConverter]] to switch between writing systems or variants of a language. This can only be done for the entire page. There will be a <code><nowiki><langconvert></nowiki></code> tag that can convert a piece of text on a page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T263082] * Oversighters and stewards can hide entries in [[Special:AbuseLog|Special:AbuseLog]]. They can soon hide multiple entries at once using checkboxes. This works like hiding normal edits. It will happen in early January. 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Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/02|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * You can choose to be reminded when you have not added an edit summary. This can be done in your preferences. This could conflict with the [[:w:en:CAPTCHA|CAPTCHA]]. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T12729] * You can link to specific log entries. You can get these links for example by clicking the timestamps in the log. Until now, such links to private log entries showed no entry even if you had permission to view private log entries. The links now show the entry. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T269761] * Admins can use the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|abuse filter tool]] to automatically prevent bad edits. Three changes happened last week: ** The filter editing interface now shows syntax errors while you type. This is similar to JavaScript pages. It also shows a warning for regular expressions that match the empty string. New warnings will be added later. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T187686] ** [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Meta:Oversighters|Oversighters]] can now hide multiple filter log entries at once using checkboxes on [[Special:AbuseLog]]. This is how the usual revision deletion works. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T260904] ** When a filter matches too many actions after it has been changed it is "throttled". The most powerful actions are disabled. This is to avoid many editors getting blocked when an administrator made a mistake. The administrator will now get a notification about this "throttle". * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] There is a new tool to [https://skins.wmflabs.org/?#/add build new skins]. You can also [https://skins.wmflabs.org/?#/ see] existing [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Skins|skins]]. You can [[mw:User talk:Jdlrobson|give feedback]]. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikitech-l/2020-December/094130.html] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Bots using the API no longer watch pages automatically based on account preferences. Setting the <code>watchlist</code> to <code>watch</code> will still work. This is to reduce the size of the watchlist data in the database. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T258108] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Scribunto|Scribunto's]] [[:mw:Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#File metadata|file metadata]] now includes length. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T209679] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[:w:en:CSS|CSS]] and [[:w:en:JavaScript|JavaScript]] code pages now have link anchors to [https://patchdemo.wmflabs.org/wikis/40e4795d4448b55a6d8c46ff414bcf78/w/index.php/MediaWiki:En.js#L-125 line numbers]. You can use wikilinks like [[:w:en:MediaWiki:Common.js#L-50]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T29531] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] There was a [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.25|new version]] of MediaWiki last week. You can read [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.25/Changelog|a detailed log]] of all 763 changes. Most of them are very small and will not affect you. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.26|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-12|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-13|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-14|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/02|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div></div> <section end="technews-2021-W02"/> 15:42, 11 January 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=20950047 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/03|Tech News: 2021-03]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W03"/><div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/03|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.27|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-19|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-20|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-21|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth|Growth team]] plans to add features to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Personalized first day/Newcomer tasks/Experiment analysis, November 2020|get more visitors to edit]] to more Wikipedias. You can help [https://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special:Translate&group=ext-growthexperiments&language=&filter=&action=translate translating the interface]. * You will be able to read but not to edit Wikimedia Commons for a short time on [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210126T07 {{#time:j xg|2021-01-26|en}} at 07:00 (UTC)]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T271791] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MassMessage|MassMessage]] posts could be automatically timestamped in the future. This is because MassMessage senders can now send pages using MassMessage. Pages are more difficult to sign. If there are times when a MassMessage post should not be timestamped you can [[phab:T270435|let the developers know]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/03|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div></div> <section end="technews-2021-W03"/> 16:10, 18 January 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=20974628 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/04|Tech News: 2021-04]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W04"/><div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/04|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * You will be able to read but not to edit Wikimedia Commons for a short time on [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210126T07 {{#time:j xg|2021-01-26|en}} at 07:00 (UTC)]. You will not be able to read or edit [[:wikitech:Main Page|Wikitech]] for a short time on [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210128T09 {{#time:j xg|2021-01-28|en}} at 09:00 (UTC)]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T271791][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T272388] '''Changes later this week''' * [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Bracket Matching|Bracket matching]] will be added to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror]] syntax highlighter on the first wikis. The first wikis are German and Catalan Wikipedia and maybe other Wikimedia wikis. This will happen on 27 January. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T270238] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.28|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-26|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-27|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-01-28|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/04|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div></div> <section end="technews-2021-W04"/> 18:31, 25 January 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21007423 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/05|Tech News: 2021-05]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W05"/><div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/05|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * [[:w:en:IPv6|IPv6 addresses]] were written in lowercase letters in diffs. This caused dead links since [[Special:Contributions|Special:Contributions]] only accepted uppercase letters for the IPs. This has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T272225] '''Changes later this week''' * You can soon use Wikidata to link to pages on the multilingual Wikisource. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T138332] * Often editors use a "non-breaking space" to make a gap between two items when reading but still show them together. This can be used to avoid a line break. You will now be able to add new ones via the special character tool in the 2010, 2017, and visual editors. The character will be shown in the visual editor as a space with a grey background. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T70429][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T96666] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=| Advanced item]] Wikis use [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|abuse filters]] to stop bad edits being made. Filter maintainers can now use syntax like <code>1.2.3.4 - 1.2.3.55</code> as well as the <code>1.2.3.4/27</code> syntax for IP ranges. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T218074] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.29|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-02|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-03|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-04|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * [[mw:Skin:Minerva Neue|Minerva]] is the skin Wikimedia wikis use for mobile traffic. When a page is protected and you can't edit it you can normally read the source wikicode. This doesn't work on Minerva on mobile devices. This is being fixed. Some text might overlap. This is because your community needs to update [[MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext|MediaWiki:Protectedpagetext]] to work on mobile. You can [[phab:T208827|read more]]. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Recommendations_for_mobile_friendly_articles_on_Wikimedia_wikis#Inline_styles_should_not_use_properties_that_impact_sizing_and_positioning][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Recommendations_for_mobile_friendly_articles_on_Wikimedia_wikis#Avoid_tables_for_anything_except_data] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[:wikitech:Portal:Cloud VPS|Cloud VPS]] and [[:wikitech:Portal:Toolforge|Toolforge]] will change the IP address they use to contact the wikis. The new IP address will be <code>185.15.56.1</code>. This will happen on February 8. You can [[:wikitech:News/CloudVPS NAT wikis|read more]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/05|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div></div> <section end="technews-2021-W05"/> 22:38, 1 February 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21033195 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/06|Tech News: 2021-06]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W06"/><div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/06|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps|Wikipedia app]] for Android now has watchlists and talk pages in the app. [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=org.wikipedia] '''Changes later this week''' * You can see edits to chosen pages on [[Special:Watchlist|Special:Watchlist]]. You can add pages to your watchlist on every wiki you like. The [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:GlobalWatchlist|GlobalWatchlist]] extension will come to Meta on 11 February. There you can see entries on watched pages on different wikis on the same page. The new watchlist will be found on [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlist|Special:GlobalWatchlist]] on Meta. You can choose which wikis to watch and other preferences on [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlistSettings|Special:GlobalWatchlistSettings]] on Meta. You can watch up to five wikis. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T260862] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.30|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-09|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-10|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-11|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * When admins [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Protecting and unprotecting pages|protect]] pages the form will use the [[mw:UX standardization|OOUI look]]. [[Special:Import|Special:Import]] will also get the new look. This will make them easier to use on mobile phones. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T235424][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T108792] * Some services will not work for a short period of time from 07:00 UTC on 17 February. There might be problems with new [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia URL Shortener|short links]], new translations, new notifications, adding new items to your [[mw:Reading/Reading Lists|reading lists]] or recording [[:w:en:Email#Tracking of sent mail|email bounces]]. This is because of database maintenance. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273758] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[m:Tech/News/2021/05|Last week]] Tech News reported that the IP address [[:wikitech:Portal:Cloud VPS|Cloud VPS]] and [[:wikitech:Portal:Toolforge|Toolforge]] use to contact the wikis will change on 8 February. This is delayed. It will happen later instead. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/News/CloudVPS_NAT_wikis] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/06|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div></div> <section end="technews-2021-W06"/> 17:42, 8 February 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21082948 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/07|Tech News: 2021-07]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W07"/><div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/07|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * There were problems with recent versions of MediaWiki. Because the updates caused problems the developers rolled back to an earlier version. Some updates and new functions will come later than planned. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikitech-l/2021-February/094255.html][https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikitech-l/2021-February/094271.html] * Some services will not work for a short period of time from 07:00 UTC on 17 February. There might be problems with new [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia URL Shortener|short links]], new translations, new notifications, adding new items to your [[mw:Reading/Reading Lists|reading lists]] or recording [[:w:en:Email#Tracking of sent mail|email bounces]]. This is because of database maintenance. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273758] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.31|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-16|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-17|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-18|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/07|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div></div> <section end="technews-2021-W07"/> 17:56, 15 February 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21105437 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/08|Tech News: 2021-08]] == <div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/08|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The visual editor will now use [[:c:Commons:Structured data/Media search|MediaSearch]] to find images. You can search for images on Commons in the visual editor when you are looking for illustrations. This is to help editors find better images. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T259896] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:SyntaxHighlight|syntax highlighter]] now works with more languages: [[:w:en:Futhark (programming language)|Futhark]], [[:w:en:Graphviz|Graphviz]]/[[:w:en:DOT (graph description language)|DOT]], CDDL and AMDGPU. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T274741] '''Problems''' * Editing a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:EasyTimeline|timeline]] might have removed all text from it. This was because of a bug and has been fixed. You might need to edit the timeline again for it to show properly. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T274822] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.32|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-23|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-24|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-02-25|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] There is a [[:m:Wikimedia Rust developers user group|user group]] for developers and users interested in working on Wikimedia wikis with the [[:w:en:Rust (programming language)|Rust programming language]]. You can join or tell others who want to make your wiki better in the future. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/08|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div> ---- 00:17, 23 February 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21134058 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/09|Tech News: 2021-09]] == <div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/09|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Wikis using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature summary|Growth team tools]] can now show the name of a newcomer's mentor anywhere [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Mentorship/Integrating_mentorship|through a magic word]]. This can be used for welcome messages or userboxes. * A new version of the [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:VideoCutTool|VideoCutTool]] is now available. It enables cropping, trimming, audio disabling, and rotating video content. It is being created as part of the developer outreach programs. '''Problems''' * There was a problem with the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Job queue|job queue]]. This meant some functions did not save changes and mass messages were delayed. This did not affect wiki edits. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275437] * Some editors may not be logged in to their accounts automatically in the latest versions of Firefox and Safari. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T226797] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.33|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-02|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-03|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-04|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/09|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div> ---- 19:08, 1 March 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21161722 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/10|Tech News: 2021-10]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W10"/><div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/10|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation/Section translation|Section translation]] now works on Bengali Wikipedia. It helps mobile editors translate sections of articles. It will come to more wikis later. The first focus is active wikis with a smaller number of articles. You can [https://sx.wmflabs.org/index.php/Main_Page test it] and [[mw:Talk:Content translation/Section translation|leave feedback]]. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:FlaggedRevs|Flagged revisions]] now give admins the review right. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275293] * When someone links to a Wikipedia article on Twitter this will now show a preview of the article. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T276185] '''Problems''' * Many graphs have [[:w:en:JavaScript|JavaScript]] errors. Graph editors can check their graphs in their browser's developer console after editing. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275833] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.34|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-09|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-10|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-11|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). * The [[mw:Talk pages project/New discussion|New Discussion]] tool will soon be a new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:DiscussionTools|discussion tools]] beta feature for on most Wikipedias. The goal is to make it easier to start new discussions. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275257] '''Future changes''' * There will be a number of changes to make it easier to work with templates. Some will come to the first wikis in March. Other changes will come to the first wikis in June. This is both for those who use templates and those who create or maintain them. You can [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Templates|read more]]. * [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/ReferencePreviews|Reference Previews]] will become a default feature on some wikis on 17 March. They will share a setting with [[mw:Page Previews|Page Previews]]. If you prefer the Reference Tooltips or Navigation-Popups gadget you can keep using them. If so Reference Previews won't be shown. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T271206][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/ReferencePreviews] * New JavaScript-based functions will not work in [[:w:en:Internet Explorer 11|Internet Explorer 11]]. This is because Internet Explorer is an old browser that doesn't work with how JavaScript is written today. Everything that works in Internet Explorer 11 today will continue working in Internet Explorer for now. You can [[mw:Compatibility/IE11|read more]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/10|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div></div> <section end="technews-2021-W10"/> 17:51, 8 March 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21175593 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/11|Tech News: 2021-11]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W11"/><div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/11|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Wikis that are part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|desktop improvements]] project can now use a new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Features/Search|search function]]. The desktop improvements and the new search will come to more wikis later. You can also [[mw:Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements#Deployment plan and timeline|test it early]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Editors who put up banners or change site-wide [[:w:en:JavaScript|JavaScript]] code should use the [https://grafana.wikimedia.org/d/000000566/overview?viewPanel=16&orgId=1 client error graph] to see that their changes has not caused problems. You can [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2021/03/08/sailing-steady%e2%80%8a-%e2%80%8ahow-you-can-help-keep-wikimedia-sites-error-free read more]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T276296] '''Problems''' * Due to [[phab:T276968|database issues]] the [https://meta.wikimedia.beta.wmflabs.org Wikimedia Beta Cluster] was read-only for over a day. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.34|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-16|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-17|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-18|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * You can add a [[:w:en:Newline|newline]] or [[:w:en:Carriage return|carriage return]] character to a custom signature if you use a template. There is a proposal to not allow them in the future. This is because they can cause formatting problems. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/New_requirements_for_user_signatures#Additional_proposal_(2021)][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T272322] * You will be able to read but not edit [[phab:T276899|12 wikis]] for a short period of time on [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210323T06 {{#time:j xg|2021-03-23|en}} at 06:00 (UTC)]. This could take 30 minutes but will probably be much faster. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] You can use [https://quarry.wmflabs.org/ Quarry] for [[:w:en:SQL|SQL]] queries to the [[wikitech:Wiki replicas|Wiki Replicas]]. Cross-database <code>JOINS</code> will no longer work from 23 March. There will be a new field to specify the database to connect to. If you think this affects you and you need help you can [[phab:T268498|post on Phabricator]] or on [[wikitech:Talk:News/Wiki Replicas 2020 Redesign|Wikitech]]. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/PAWS PAWS] and other ways to do [[:w:en:SQL|SQL]] queries to the Wiki Replicas will be affected later. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/News/Wiki_Replicas_2020_Redesign] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/11|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div></div> <section end="technews-2021-W11"/> 23:22, 15 March 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21226057 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/12|Tech News: 2021-12]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W12"/><div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/12|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * There is a [[mw:Wikipedia for KaiOS|Wikipedia app]] for [[:w:en:KaiOS|KaiOS]] phones. They don't have a touch screen so readers navigate with the phone keys. There is now a [https://wikimedia.github.io/wikipedia-kaios/sim.html simulator] so you can see what it looks like. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Replying|reply tool]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/New discussion|new discussion tool]] are now available as the "{{int:discussiontools-preference-label}}" [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|beta feature]] in almost all wikis except German Wikipedia. '''Problems''' * You will be able to read but not edit [[phab:T276899|twelve wikis]] for a short period of time on [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210323T06 {{#time:j xg|2021-03-23|{{PAGELANGUAGE}}}} at 06:00 (UTC)]. This can also affect password changes, logging in to new wikis, global renames and changing or confirming emails. This could take 30 minutes but will probably be much faster. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.36|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-23|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-24|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-25|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[:w:en:Syntax highlighting|Syntax highlighting]] colours will change to be easier to read. This will soon come to the [[phab:T276346|first wikis]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Improved_Color_Scheme_of_Syntax_Highlighting] '''Future changes''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:FlaggedRevs|Flagged revisions]] will no longer have multiple tags like "tone" or "depth". It will also only have one tier. This was changed because very few wikis used these features and they make the tool difficult to maintain. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T185664][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T277883] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Gadgets and user scripts can access variables about the current page in JavaScript. In 2015 this was moved from <code dir=ltr>wg*</code> to <code dir=ltr>mw.config</code>. <code dir=ltr>wg*</code> will soon no longer work. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T72470] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]] • [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/12|Translate]] • [[m:Tech|Get help]] • [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]] • [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div></div> <section end="technews-2021-W12"/> 16:53, 22 March 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21244806 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/13|Tech News: 2021-13]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/13|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Some very old [[:w:en:Web browser|web browsers]] [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Compatibility|don’t work]] well with the Wikimedia wikis. Some old code for browsers that used to be supported is being removed. This could cause issues in those browsers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T277803] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[:m:IRC/Channels#Raw_feeds|IRC recent changes feeds]] have been moved to a new server. Make sure all tools automatically reconnect to <code>irc.wikimedia.org</code> and not to the name of any specific server. Users should also consider switching to the more modern [[:wikitech:Event Platform/EventStreams|EventStreams]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T224579] '''Problems''' * When you move a page that many editors have on their watchlist the history can be split. It might also not be possible to move it again for a while. This is because of a [[:w:en:Job queue|job queue]] problem. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T278350] * Some translatable pages on Meta could not be edited. This was because of a bug in the translation tool. The new MediaWiki version was delayed because of problems like this. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T278429][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T274940] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.37|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-30|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-03-31|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-01|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/13|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 17:30, 29 March 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21267131 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/14|Tech News: 2021-14]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/14|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Editors can collapse part of an article so you have to click on it to see it. When you click a link to a section inside collapsed content it will now expand to show the section. The browser will scroll down to the section. Previously such links didn't work unless you manually expanded the content first. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T276741] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Citoid|citoid]] [[:w:en:API|API]] will use for example <code>2010-12-XX</code> instead of <code>2010-12</code> for dates with a month but no days. This is because <code>2010-12</code> could be confused with <code>2010-2012</code> instead of <code>December 2010</code>. This is called level 1 instead of level 0 in the [https://www.loc.gov/standards/datetime/ Extended Date/Time Format]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T132308] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/wmf.38|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-06|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-07|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-08|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.36/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[:wikitech:PAWS|PAWS]] can now connect to the new [[:wikitech:Wiki Replicas|Wiki Replicas]]. Cross-database <code>JOINS</code> will no longer work from 28 April. There is [[:wikitech:News/Wiki Replicas 2020 Redesign#How should I connect to databases in PAWS?|a new way to connect]] to the databases. Until 28 April both ways to connect to the databases will work. If you think this affects you and you need help you can post [[phab:T268498|on Phabricator]] or on [[wikitech:Talk:News/Wiki Replicas 2020 Redesign|Wikitech]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/14|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 19:41, 5 April 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21287348 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/16|Tech News: 2021-16]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/16|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Email to the Wikimedia wikis are handled by groups of Wikimedia editors. These volunteer response teams now use [https://github.com/znuny/Znuny Znuny] instead of [[m:Special:MyLanguage/OTRS|OTRS]]. The functions and interface remain the same. The volunteer administrators will give more details about the next steps soon. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T279303][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275294] * If you use [[Mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror|syntax highlighting]], you can see line numbers in the 2010 and 2017 wikitext editors when editing templates. This is to make it easier to see line breaks or talk about specific lines. Line numbers will soon come to all namespaces. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T267911][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Line_Numbering][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Line_Numbering] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Because of a technical change there could be problems with gadgets and scripts that have an edit summary area that looks [https://phab.wmfusercontent.org/file/data/llvdqqnb5zpsfzylbqcg/PHID-FILE-25vs4qowibmtysl7cbml/Screen_Shot_2021-04-06_at_2.34.04_PM.png similar to this one]. If they look strange they should use <code>mw.loader.using('mediawiki.action.edit.styles')</code> to go back to how they looked before. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T278898] * The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.1|latest version]] of MediaWiki came to the Wikimedia wikis last week. There was no Tech News issue last week. '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. '''Future changes''' * The user group <code>oversight</code> will be renamed <code>suppress</code>. This is for [[phab:T109327|technical reasons]]. This is the technical name. It doesn't affect what you call the editors with this user right on your wiki. This is planned to happen in two weeks. You can comment [[phab:T112147|in Phabricator]] if you have objections. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/16|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 16:48, 19 April 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21356080 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/17|Tech News: 2021-17]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/17|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Templates have parameters that can have specific values. It is possible to suggest values for editors with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TemplateData|TemplateData]]. You can soon see them as a drop-down list in the visual editor. This is to help template users find the right values faster. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273857][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Suggested_values_for_template_parameters][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Suggested_values_for_template_parameters] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.3|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-27|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-28|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-04-29|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/17|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 21:24, 26 April 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21391118 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/18|Tech News: 2021-18]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/18|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[w:en:Wikipedia:Twinkle|Twinkle]] is a gadget on English Wikipedia. It can help with maintenance and patrolling. It can [[m:Grants:Project/Rapid/SD0001/Twinkle localisation/Report|now be used on other wikis]]. You can get Twinkle on your wiki using the [https://github.com/wikimedia-gadgets/twinkle-starter twinkle-starter] GitHub repository. '''Problems''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation|content translation tool]] did not work for many articles for a little while. This was because of a bug. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T281346] * Some things will not work for about a minute on 5 May. This will happen [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210505T0600 around 06:00 UTC]. This will affect the content translation tool and notifications among other things. This is because of an upgrade to avoid crashes. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T281212] '''Changes later this week''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Reference Previews|Reference Previews]] will become a default feature on a number of wikis on 5 May. This is later than planned because of some changes. You can use it without using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Page Previews|Page Previews]] if you want to. The earlier plan was to have the preference to use both or none. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T271206][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/ReferencePreviews] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.4|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-04|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-05|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-06|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[:w:en:CSS|CSS]] classes <code dir=ltr>.error</code>, <code dir=ltr>.warning</code> and <code dir=ltr>.success</code> do not work for mobile readers if they have not been specifically defined on your wiki. From June they will not work for desktop readers. This can affect gadgets and templates. The classes can be defined in [[MediaWiki:Common.css]] or template styles instead. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T280766] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/18|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 15:43, 3 May 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21418010 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/19|Tech News: 2021-19]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/19|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.5|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-11|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-12|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-13|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * You can see what participants plan to work on at the online [[mw:Wikimedia Hackathon 2021|Wikimedia hackathon]] 22–23 May. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/19|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 15:10, 10 May 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21428676 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/20|Tech News: 2021-20]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/20|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * There is a new toolbar in [[mw:Talk pages project/Replying|the Reply tool]]. It works in the wikitext source mode. You can enable it in [[Special:Preferences#mw-htmlform-discussion|your preferences]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T276608] [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Talk_pages_project/Replying#13_May_2021] [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Talk_pages_project/New_discussion#13_May_2021] * Wikimedia [https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo mailing lists] are being moved to [[:w:en:GNU Mailman|Mailman 3]]. This is a newer version. For the [[:w:en:Character encoding|character encoding]] to work it will change from <code>[[:w:en:UTF-8|UTF-8]]</code> to <code>utf8mb3</code>. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/IEYQ2HS3LZF2P3DAYMNZYQDGHWPVMTPY/][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T282621] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] An [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/14|earlier issue]] of Tech News said that the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Citoid|citoid]] [[:w:en:API|API]] would handle dates with a month but no days in a new way. This has been reverted for now. There needs to be more discussion of how it affects different wikis first. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T132308] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] <code>MediaWiki:Pageimages-blacklist</code> will be renamed <code>MediaWiki:Pageimages-denylist</code>. The list can be copied to the new name. It will happen on 19 May for some wikis and 20 May for some wikis. Most wikis don't use it. It lists images that should never be used as thumbnails for articles. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T282626] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.6|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-18|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-19|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-20|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/20|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 13:49, 17 May 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21464279 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/21|Tech News: 2021-21]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/21|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The Wikimedia movement has been using [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/IRC|IRC]] on a network called [[:w:en:Freenode|Freenode]]. There have been changes around who is in control of the network. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IRC/Group_Contacts|Wikimedia IRC Group Contacts]] have [[m:Special:Diff/21476411|decided]] to move to the new [[:w:en:Libera Chat|Libera Chat]] network instead. This is not a formal decision for the movement to move all channels but most Wikimedia IRC channels will probably leave Freenode. There is a [[:m:IRC/Migrating_to_Libera_Chat|migration guide]] and ongoing Wikimedia [[m:Wikimedia Forum#Freenode (IRC)|discussions about this]]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.7|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-25|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-26|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-05-27|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/21|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 17:07, 24 May 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21477606 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/22|Tech News: 2021-22]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/22|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * There was an issue on the Vector skin with the text size of categories and notices under the page title. It was fixed last Monday. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T283206] '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/22|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 17:05, 31 May 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21516076 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/23|Tech News: 2021-23]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/23|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.9|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-08|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-09|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-10|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * The Wikimedia movement uses [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Phabricator|Phabricator]] for technical tasks. This is where we collect technical suggestions, bugs and what developers are working on. The company behind Phabricator will stop working on it. This will not change anything for the Wikimedia movement now. It could lead to changes in the future. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/message/YAXOD46INJLAODYYIJUVQWOZFIV54VUI/][https://admin.phacility.com/phame/post/view/11/phacility_is_winding_down_operations/][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T283980] * Searching on Wikipedia will find more results in some languages. This is mainly true for when those who search do not use the correct [[:w:en:Diacritic|diacritics]] because they are not seen as necessary in that language. For example searching for <code>Bedusz</code> doesn't find <code>Będusz</code> on German Wikipedia. The character <code>ę</code> isn't used in German so many would write <code>e</code> instead. This will work better in the future in some languages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T219550] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[:w:en:Cross-site request forgery|CSRF token parameters]] in the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/API:Main page|action API]] were changed in 2014. The old parameters from before 2014 will stop working soon. This can affect bots, gadgets and user scripts that still use the old parameters. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/IMP43BNCI32C524O5YCUWMQYP4WVBQ2B/][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T280806] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/23|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 20:02, 7 June 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21551759 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/24|Tech News: 2021-24]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/24|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Logged-in users on the mobile web can choose to use the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Advanced mobile contributions|advanced mobile mode]]. They now see categories in a similar way as users on desktop do. This means that some gadgets that have just been for desktop users could work for users of the mobile site too. If your wiki has such gadgets you could decide to turn them on for the mobile site too. Some gadgets probably need to be fixed to look good on mobile. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284763] * Language links on Wikidata now works for [[:oldwikisource:Main Page|multilingual Wikisource]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275958] '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. '''Future changes''' * In the future we [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|can't show the IP]] of unregistered editors to everyone. This is because privacy regulations and norms have changed. There is now a rough draft of how [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#Updates|showing the IP to those who need to see it]] could work. * German Wikipedia, English Wikivoyage and 29 smaller wikis will be read-only for a few minutes on 22 June. This is planned between 5:00 and 5:30 UTC. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284530] * All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes in the week of 28 June. More information will be published in Tech News later. It will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T281515][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T281209] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/24|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 20:26, 14 June 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21587625 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/25|Tech News: 2021-25]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/25|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The <code>otrs-member</code> group name is now <code>vrt-permissions</code>. This could affect abuse filters. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T280615] '''Problems''' * You will be able to read but not edit German Wikipedia, English Wikivoyage and 29 smaller wikis for a few minutes on 22 June. This is planned between [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210623T0500 5:00 and 5:30 UTC]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284530] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.11|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-22|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-23|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-24|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/25|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 15:49, 21 June 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21593987 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/26|Tech News: 2021-26]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/26|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Wikis with the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth|Growth features]] now can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure Growth features directly on their wiki]]. This uses the new special page <code>Special:EditGrowthConfig</code>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285423] * Wikisources have a new [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Tech/OCR Improvements|OCR tool]]. If you don't want to see the "extract text" button on Wikisource you can add <code>.ext-wikisource-ExtractTextWidget { display: none; }</code> to your [[Special:MyPage/common.css|common.css page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285311] '''Problems''' *You will be able to read but not edit the Wikimedia wikis for a few minutes on 29 June. This is planned at [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?iso=20210629T1400 14:00 UTC]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T281515][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T281209] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.12|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-29|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-06-30|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-01|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * <code>Threshold for stub link formatting</code>, <code>thumbnail size</code> and <code>auto-number headings</code> can be set in preferences. They are expensive to maintain and few editors use them. The developers are planning to remove them. Removing them will make pages load faster. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/User:SKim (WMF)/Performance Dependent User Preferences|read more and give feedback]]. * A toolbar will be added to the [[mw:Talk pages project/Replying|Reply tool]]'s wikitext source mode. This will make it easier to link to pages and to ping other users. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T276609][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Talk_pages_project/Replying#Status_updates] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/26|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 16:32, 28 June 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21653312 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/27|Tech News: 2021-27]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/27|Translations]] are available. '''Tech News''' * The next issue of Tech News will be sent out on 19 July. '''Recent changes''' * [[:wikidata:Q4063270|AutoWikiBrowser]] is a tool to make repetitive tasks easier. It now uses [[:w:en:JSON|JSON]]. <code>Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPage</code> has moved to <code>Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPageJSON</code> and <code>Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/Config</code>. <code>Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPage/Version</code> has moved to <code>Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPage/VersionJSON</code>. The tool will eventually be configured on the wiki so that you don't have to wait until the new version to add templates or regular expression fixes. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T241196] '''Problems''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/InternetArchiveBot|InternetArchiveBot]] helps saving online sources on some wikis. It adds them to [[:w:en:Wayback Machine|Wayback Machine]] and links to them there. This is so they don't disappear if the page that was linked to is removed. It currently has a problem with linking to the wrong date when it moves pages from <code>archive.is</code> to <code>web.archive.org</code>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T283432] '''Changes later this week''' * The tool to [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Finding and inserting templates|find, add and remove templates]] will be updated. This is to make it easier to find and use the right templates. It will come to the first wikis on 7 July. It will come to more wikis later this year. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Removing_a_template_from_a_page_using_the_VisualEditor][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284553] * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. '''Future changes''' * Some Wikimedia wikis use [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Flagged Revisions|Flagged Revisions]] or pending changes. It hides edits from new and unregistered accounts for readers until they have been patrolled. The auto review action in Flagged Revisions will no longer be logged. All old logs of auto-review will be removed. This is because it creates a lot of logs that are not very useful. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285608] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/27|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 17:33, 5 July 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21694636 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/29|Tech News: 2021-29]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/29|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The tool to [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Finding and inserting templates|find, add and remove templates]] was updated. This is to make it easier to find and use the right templates. It was supposed to come to the first wikis on 7 July. It was delayed to 12 July instead. It will come to more wikis later this year. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Removing_a_template_from_a_page_using_the_VisualEditor][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284553] * [[Special:UnconnectedPages|Special:UnconnectedPages]] lists pages that are not connected to Wikidata. This helps you find pages that can be connected to Wikidata items. Some pages should not be connected to Wikidata. You can use the magic word <code><nowiki>__EXPECTED_UNCONNECTED_PAGE__</nowiki></code> on pages that should not be listed on the special page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T97577] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.15|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-20|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-21|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-22|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] How media is structured in the [[:w:en:Parsing|parser's]] HTML output will soon change. This can affect bots, gadgets, user scripts and extensions. You can [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/L2UQJRHTFK5YG3IOZEC7JSLH2ZQNZRVU/ read more]. You can test it on [[:testwiki:Main Page|Testwiki]] or [[:test2wiki:Main Page|Testwiki 2]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The parameters for how you obtain [[mw:API:Tokens|tokens]] in the MediaWiki API were changed in 2014. The old way will no longer work from 1 September. Scripts, bots and tools that use the parameters from before the 2014 change need to be updated. You can [[phab:T280806#7215377|read more]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/29|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 15:31, 19 July 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21755027 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/30|Tech News: 2021-30]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/30|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * A [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.14|new version]] of MediaWiki came to the Wikimedia wikis the week before last week. This was not in Tech News because there was no newsletter that week. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.16|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-27|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-28|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-07-29|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * If you use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:MonoBook|Monobook skin]] you can choose to switch off [[:w:en:Responsive web design|responsive design]] on mobile. This will now work for more skins. If <code>{{int:monobook-responsive-label}}</code> is unticked you need to also untick the new [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-rendering|preference]] <code>{{int:prefs-skin-responsive}}</code>. Otherwise it will stop working. Interface admins can automate this process on your wiki. You can [[phab:T285991|read more]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/30|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 21:11, 26 July 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21771634 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/31|Tech News: 2021-31]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/31|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] If your wiki uses markup like <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><div class="mw-content-ltr"></nowiki></code></bdi> or <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><div class="mw-content-rtl"></nowiki></code></bdi> without the required <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>dir</code></bdi> attribute, then these will no longer work in 2 weeks. There is a short-term fix that can be added to your local wiki's Common.css page, which is explained at [[phab:T287701|T287701]]. From now on, all usages should include the full attributes, for example: <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><div class="mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" lang="en"></nowiki></code></bdi> or <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><div class="mw-content-rtl" dir="rtl" lang="he"></nowiki></code></bdi>. This also applies to some other HTML tags, such as <code>span</code> or <code>code</code>. You can find existing examples on your wiki that need to be updated, using the instructions at [[phab:T287701|T287701]]. * Reminder: Wikimedia has [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IRC/Migrating to Libera Chat|migrated to the Libera Chat IRC network]], from the old Freenode network. Local documentation should be updated. '''Problems''' * Last week, all wikis had slow access or no access for 30 minutes. There was a problem with generating dynamic lists of articles on the Russian Wikinews, due to the bulk import of 200,000+ new articles over 3 days, which led to database problems. The problematic feature has been disabled on that wiki and developers are discussing if it can be fixed properly. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287380][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incident_documentation/2021-07-26_ruwikinews_DynamicPageList] '''Changes later this week''' * When adding links to a page using [[mw:VisualEditor|VisualEditor]] or the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/2017 wikitext editor|2017 wikitext editor]], [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Disambiguator|disambiguation pages]] will now only appear at the bottom of search results. This is because users do not often want to link to disambiguation pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285510] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.17|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-03|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-04|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-05|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * The [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android|team of the Wikipedia app for Android]] is working on communication in the app. The developers are working on how to talk to other editors and get notifications. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Communication|read more]]. They are looking for users who want to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Communication/UsertestingJuly2021|test the plans]]. Any editor who has an Android phone and is willing to download the app can do this. * The [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta Feature]] for {{int:discussiontools-preference-label}} will be updated in the coming weeks. You will be able to [[mw:Talk pages project/Notifications|subscribe to individual sections]] on a talk page at more wikis. You can test this now by adding <code>?dtenable=1</code> to the end of the talk page's URL ([https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Meta_talk:Sandbox?dtenable=1 example]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/31|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 20:47, 2 August 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21818289 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/32|Tech News: 2021-32]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/32|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * You can read but not edit 17 wikis for a few minutes on 10 August. This is planned at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1628571650 05:00 UTC]. This is because of work on the database. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287449] '''Changes later this week''' * The [[wmania:Special:MyLanguage/2021:Hackathon|Wikimania Hackathon]] will take place remotely on 13 August, starting at 5:00 UTC, for 24 hours. You can participate in many ways. You can still propose projects and sessions. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.18|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-10|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-11|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-12|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The old CSS <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><div class="visualClear"></div></nowiki></code></bdi> will not be supported after 12 August. Instead, templates and pages should use <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><div style="clear:both;"></div></nowiki></code></bdi>. Please help to replace any existing uses on your wiki. There are global-search links available at [[phab:T287962|T287962]]. '''Future changes''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/The Wikipedia Library|The Wikipedia Library]] is a place for Wikipedia editors to get access to sources. There is an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TheWikipediaLibrary|extension]] which has a new function to tell users when they can take part in it. It will use notifications. It will start pinging the first users in September. It will ping more users later. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T288070] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] [[w:en:Vue.js|Vue.js]] will be the [[w:en:JavaScript|JavaScript]] framework for MediaWiki in the future. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/SOZREBYR36PUNFZXMIUBVAIOQI4N7PDU/] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/32|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 16:21, 9 August 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21856726 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/33|Tech News: 2021-33]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/33|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * You can add language links in the sidebar in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|new Vector skin]] again. You do this by connecting the page to a Wikidata item. The new Vector skin has moved the language links but the new language selector cannot add language links yet. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287206] '''Problems''' * There was a problem on wikis which use the Translate extension. Translations were not updated or were replaced with the English text. The problems have been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T288700][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T288683][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T288719] '''Changes later this week''' * A [[mw:Help:Tags|revision tag]] will soon be added to edits that add links to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Disambiguator|disambiguation pages]]. This is because these links are usually added by accident. The tag will allow editors to easily find the broken links and fix them. If your wiki does not like this feature, it can be [[mw:Help:Tags#Deleting a tag added by the software|hidden]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287549] *Would you like to help improve the information about tools? Would you like to attend or help organize a small virtual meetup for your community to discuss the list of tools? Please get in touch on the [[m:Toolhub/The Quality Signal Sessions|Toolhub Quality Signal Sessions]] talk page. We are also looking for feedback [[m:Talk:Toolhub/The Quality Signal Sessions#Discussion topic for "Quality Signal Sessions: The Tool Maintainers edition"|from tool maintainers]] on some specific questions. * In the past, edits to any page in your user talk space ignored your [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Notifications#mute|mute list]], e.g. sub-pages. Starting this week, this is only true for edits to your talk page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T288112] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.19|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-17|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-18|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-19|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/33|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 19:27, 16 August 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21889213 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/34|Tech News: 2021-34]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/34|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Score|Score]] extension (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><score></nowiki></code></bdi> notation) has been re-enabled on public wikis and upgraded to a newer version. Some musical score functionality may no longer work because the extension is only enabled in "safe mode". The security issue has been fixed and an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Score/2021 security advisory|advisory published]]. '''Problems''' * You will be able to read but not edit [[phab:T289130|some wikis]] for a few minutes on {{#time:j xg|2021-08-25|en}}. This will happen around [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1629871217 06:00 UTC]. This is for database maintenance. During this time, operations on the CentralAuth will also not be possible. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.20|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-24|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-25|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-26|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/34|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 21:58, 23 August 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21923254 --> == Read-only reminder == <section begin="MassMessage"/> A maintenance operation will be performed on [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1629871231 {{#time: l F d H:i e|2021-08-25T06:00|en}}]. It should only last for a few minutes. This will affect your wiki as well as 11 other wikis. During this time, publishing edits will not be possible. Also during this time, operations on the CentralAuth will not be possible (GlobalRenames, changing/confirming e-mail addresses, logging into new wikis, password changes). For more details about the operation and on all impacted services, please check [[phab:T289130|on Phabricator]]. A banner will be displayed 30 minutes before the operation. Please help your community to be aware of this maintenance operation. {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}}<section end="MassMessage"/> 20:35, 24 August 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21927201 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/35|Tech News: 2021-35]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/35|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Some musical score syntax no longer works and may needed to be updated, you can check [[:Category:{{MediaWiki:score-error-category}}]] on your wiki for a list of pages with errors. '''Problems''' * Musical scores were unable to render lyrics in some languages because of missing fonts. This has been fixed now. If your language would prefer a different font, please file a request in Phabricator. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T289554] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The parameters for how you obtain [[mw:API:Tokens|tokens]] in the MediaWiki API were changed in 2014. The old way will no longer work from 1 September. Scripts, bots and tools that use the parameters from before the 2014 change need to be updated. You can [[phab:T280806#7215377|read more]] about this. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.21|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-08-31|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-01|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-02|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * You will be able to read but not edit [[phab:T289660|Commons]] for a few minutes on {{#time:j xg|2021-09-06|en}}. This will happen around [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1630818058 05:00 UTC]. This is for database maintenance. * All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes in the week of 13 September. More information will be published in Tech News later. It will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287539] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/35|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 16:01, 30 August 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21954810 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/36|Tech News: 2021-36]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/36|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The wikis that have [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature_summary|Growth features]] deployed have been part of A/B testing since deployment, in which some newcomers did not receive the new features. Now, all of the newcomers on 21 of the smallest of those wikis will be receiving the features. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T289786] '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] In 2017, the provided jQuery library was upgraded from version 1 to 3, with a compatibility layer. The migration will soon finish, to make the site load faster for everyone. If you maintain a gadget or user script, check if you have any JQMIGRATE errors and fix them, or they will break. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T280944][https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/6Z2BVLOBBEC2QP4VV4KOOVQVE52P3HOP/] * Last year, the Portuguese Wikipedia community embarked on an experiment to make log-in compulsory for editing.  The [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Impact report for Login Required Experiment on Portuguese Wikipedia|impact report of this trial]] is ready. Moving forward, the Anti-Harassment Tools team is looking for projects that are willing to experiment with restricting IP editing on their wiki for a short-term experiment. [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Login Required Experiment|Learn more]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/36|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 15:20, 6 September 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=21981010 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/37|Tech News: 2021-37]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/37|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * 45 new Wikipedias now have access to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature summary|Growth features]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T289680] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Deployment table|A majority of Wikipedias]] now have access to the Growth features. The Growth team [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/FAQ|has published an FAQ page]] about the features. This translatable FAQ covers the description of the features, how to use them, how to change the configuration, and more. '''Problems''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|All wikis will be read-only]] for a few minutes on 14 September. This is planned at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1631628002 14:00 UTC]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287539] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/wmf.23|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-14|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-15|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-16|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.37/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Starting this week, Wikipedia in Italian will receive weekly software updates on Wednesdays. It used to receive the updates on Thursdays. Due to this change, bugs will be noticed and fixed sooner. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T286664] * You can add language links in the sidebar in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|the new Vector skin]] again. You do this by connecting the page to a Wikidata item. The new Vector skin has moved the language links but the new language selector cannot add language links yet. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287206] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:SyntaxHighlight|syntax highlight]] tool marks up code with different colours. It now can highlight 23 new code languages. Additionally, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>golang</code></bdi> can now be used as an alias for the [[d:Q37227|Go programming language]], and a special <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>output</code></bdi> mode has been added to show a program's output. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T280117][https://gerrit.wikimedia.org/r/c/mediawiki/extensions/SyntaxHighlight_GeSHi/+/715277/] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/37|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 15:35, 13 September 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22009517 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/38|Tech News: 2021-38]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/38|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Growth features are now deployed to almost all Wikipedias. [[phab:T290582|For the majority of small Wikipedias]], the features are only available for experienced users, to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/FAQ#enable|test the features]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/FAQ#config|configure them]]. Features will be available for newcomers starting on 20 September 2021. * MediaWiki had a feature that would highlight local links to short articles in a different style. Each user could pick the size at which "stubs" would be highlighted. This feature was very bad for performance, and following a consultation, has been removed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284917] * A technical change was made to the MonoBook skin to allow for easier maintenance and upkeep. This has resulted in some minor changes to HTML that make MonoBook's HTML consistent with other skins. Efforts have been made to minimize the impact on editors, but please ping [[m:User:Jon (WMF)|Jon (WMF)]] on wiki or in [[phab:T290888|phabricator]] if any problems are reported. '''Problems''' * There was a problem with search last week. Many search requests did not work for 2 hours because of an accidental restart of the search servers. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incident_documentation/2021-09-13_cirrussearch_restart] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.1|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-21|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-22|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-23|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[s:Special:ApiHelp/query+proofreadinfo|meta=proofreadpage API]] has changed. The <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>piprop</nowiki></code></bdi> parameter has been renamed to <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>prpiprop</nowiki></code></bdi>. API users should update their code to avoid unrecognized parameter warnings. Pywikibot users should upgrade to 6.6.0. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T290585] '''Future changes''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#Replying|Reply tool]] will be deployed to the remaining wikis in the coming weeks. It is currently part of "{{int:discussiontools-preference-label}}" in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta features]] at most wikis. You will be able to turn it off in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Editing Preferences]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T262331] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki_1.37/Deprecation_of_legacy_API_token_parameters|previously announced]] change to how you obtain tokens from the API has been delayed to September 21 because of an incompatibility with Pywikibot. Bot operators using Pywikibot can follow [[phab:T291202|T291202]] for progress on a fix, and should plan to upgrade to 6.6.1 when it is released. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/38|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 18:32, 20 September 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22043415 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/39|Tech News: 2021-39]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W39"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/39|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[w:en:IOS|iOS 15]] has a new function called [https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT212614 Private Relay] (Apple website). This can hide the user's IP when they use [[w:en:Safari (software)|Safari]] browser. This is like using a [[w:en:Virtual private network|VPN]] in that we see another IP address instead. It is opt-in and only for those who pay extra for [[w:en:ICloud|iCloud]]. It will come to Safari users on [[:w:en:OSX|OSX]] later. There is a [[phab:T289795|technical discussion]] about what this means for the Wikimedia wikis. '''Problems''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Some gadgets and user-scripts add items to the [[m:Customization:Explaining_skins#Portlets|portlets]] (article tools) part of the skin. A recent change to the HTML may have made those links a different font-size. This can be fixed by adding the CSS class <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>.vector-menu-dropdown-noicon</code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T291438] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.2|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-28|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-29|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-09-30|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Onboarding_new_Wikipedians#New_experience|GettingStarted extension]] was built in 2013, and provides an onboarding process for new account holders in a few versions of Wikipedia. However, the recently developed [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature_summary|Growth features]] provide a better onboarding experience. Since the vast majority of Wikipedias now have access to the Growth features, GettingStarted will be deactivated starting on 4 October. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T235752] * A small number of users will not be able to connect to the Wikimedia wikis after 30 September. This is because an old [[:w:en:root certificate|root certificate]] will no longer work. They will also have problems with many other websites. Users who have updated their software in the last five years are unlikely to have problems. Users in Europe, Africa and Asia are less likely to have immediate problems even if their software is too old. You can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/HTTPS/2021 Let's Encrypt root expiry|read more]]. * You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Notifications|receive notifications]] when someone leaves a comment on user talk page or mentions you in a talk page comment. Clicking the notification link will now bring you to the comment and highlight it. Previously, doing so brought you to the top of the section that contained the comment. You can find [[phab:T282029|more information in T282029.]] '''Future changes''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#Replying|Reply tool]] will be deployed to the remaining wikis in the coming weeks. It is currently part of "{{int:discussiontools-preference-label}}" in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta features]] at most wikis. You will be able to turn it off in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Editing Preferences]]. [[phab:T288485|See the list of wikis.]] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T262331] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/39|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2021-W39"/> 22:23, 27 September 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22077885 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/40|Tech News: 2021-40]] == <section begin="tech-newsletter-content"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/40|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * A more efficient way of sending changes from Wikidata to Wikimedia wikis that show them has been enabled for the following 10 wikis: mediawiki.org, the Italian, Catalan, Hebrew and Vietnamese Wikipedias, French Wikisource, and English Wikivoygage, Wikibooks, Wiktionary and Wikinews. If you notice anything strange about how changes from Wikidata appear in recent changes or your watchlist on those wikis you can [[phab:T48643|let the developers know]]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.3|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-05|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-06|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-07|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Some gadgets and bots that use the API to read the AbuseFilter log might break. The <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>hidden</code></bdi> property will no longer say an entry is <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>implicit</code></bdi> for unsuppressed log entries about suppressed edits. If your bot needs to know this, do a separate revision query. Additionally, the property will have the value <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>false</code></bdi> for visible entries; previously, it wasn't included in the response. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T291718] * A more efficient way of sending changes from Wikidata to Wikimedia wikis that show them will be enabled for ''all production wikis''. If you notice anything strange about how changes from Wikidata appear in recent changes or your watchlist you can [[phab:T48643|let the developers know]]. '''Future changes''' * You can soon get cross-wiki notifications in the [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS|iOS Wikipedia app]]. You can also get notifications as push notifications. More notification updates will follow in later versions. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Apps/Team/iOS/Notifications#September_2021_update] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The JavaScript variables <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>wgExtraSignatureNamespaces</code></bdi>, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>wgLegalTitleChars</code></bdi>, and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>wgIllegalFileChars</code></bdi> will soon be removed from <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Interface/JavaScript#mw.config|mw.config]]</code></bdi>. These are not part of the "stable" variables available for use in wiki JavaScript. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T292011] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The JavaScript variables <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>wgCookiePrefix</code></bdi>, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>wgCookieDomain</code></bdi>, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>wgCookiePath</code></bdi>, and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>wgCookieExpiration</code></bdi> will soon be removed from mw.config. Scripts should instead use <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>mw.cookie</code></bdi> from the "<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr">[[mw:ResourceLoader/Core_modules#mediawiki.cookie|mediawiki.cookie]]</bdi>" module. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T291760] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/40|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="tech-newsletter-content"/> 16:32, 4 October 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22101208 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/41|Tech News: 2021-41]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W41"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/41|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.4|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-12|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-13|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-14|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). * The [[mw:Manual:Table_of_contents#Auto-numbering|"auto-number headings" preference]] is being removed. You can read [[phab:T284921]] for the reasons and discussion. This change was [[m:Tech/News/2021/26|previously]] announced. [[mw:Snippets/Auto-number_headings|A JavaScript snippet]] is available which can be used to create a Gadget on wikis that still want to support auto-numbering. '''Meetings''' * You can join a meeting about the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Desktop Improvements]]. A demonstration version of the [[mw:Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Features/Sticky Header|newest feature]] will be shown. The event will take place on Tuesday, 12 October at 16:00 UTC. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web/12-10-2021|See how to join]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/41|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2021-W41"/> 15:30, 11 October 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22152137 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/42|Tech News: 2021-42]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W42"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/42|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' *[[m:Toolhub|Toolhub]] is a catalogue to make it easier to find software tools that can be used for working on the Wikimedia projects. You can [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/LF4SSR4QRCKV6NPRFGUAQWUFQISVIPTS/ read more]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.5|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-19|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-20|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-21|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * The developers of the [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android|Wikipedia Android app]] are working on [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Communication|communication in the app]]. You can now answer questions in [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Communication/UsertestingOctober2021|survey]] to help the development. * 3–5% of editors may be blocked in the next few months. This is because of a new service in Safari, which is similar to a [[w:en:Proxy server|proxy]] or a [[w:en:VPN|VPN]]. It is called iCloud Private Relay. There is a [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Apple iCloud Private Relay|discussion about this]] on Meta. The goal is to learn what iCloud Private Relay could mean for the communities. * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise|Wikimedia Enterprise]] is a new [[w:en:API|API]] for those who use a lot of information from the Wikimedia projects on other sites. It is a way to get big commercial users to pay for the data. There will soon be a copy of the Wikimedia Enterprise dataset. You can [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-ambassadors@lists.wikimedia.org/message/B2AX6PWH5MBKB4L63NFZY3ADBQG7MSBA/ read more]. You can also ask the team questions [https://wikimedia.zoom.us/j/88994018553 on Zoom] on [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/fixedtime.html?hour=15&min=00&sec=0&day=22&month=10&year=2021 22 October 15:00 UTC]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/42|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2021-W42"/> 20:53, 18 October 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22176877 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/43|Tech News: 2021-43]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W43"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/43|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Coolest_Tool_Award|Coolest Tool Award 2021]] is looking for nominations. You can recommend tools until 27 October. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.6|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-26|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-27|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-10-28|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' *[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Diff|Diff pages]] will have an improved copy and pasting experience. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Copy paste diffs|The changes]] will allow the text in the diff for before and after to be treated as separate columns and will remove any unwanted syntax. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T192526] * The version of the [[w:en:Liberation fonts|Liberation fonts]] used in SVG files will be upgraded. Only new thumbnails will be affected. Liberation Sans Narrow will not change. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T253600] '''Meetings''' * You can join a meeting about the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey|Community Wishlist Survey]]. News about the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Warn when linking to disambiguation pages|disambiguation]] and the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Real Time Preview for Wikitext|real-time preview]] wishes will be shown. The event will take place on Wednesday, 27 October at 14:30 UTC. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey/Updates/Talk to Us|See how to join]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/43|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2021-W43"/> 20:08, 25 October 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22232718 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/44|Tech News: 2021-44]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W44"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/44|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * There is a limit on the amount of emails a user can send each day. This limit is now global instead of per-wiki. This change is to prevent abuse. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T293866] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.7|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-02|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-03|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-04|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/44|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2021-W44"/> 20:28, 1 November 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22269406 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/45|Tech News: 2021-45]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W45"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/45|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Mobile IP editors are now able to receive warning notices indicating they have a talk page message on the mobile website (similar to the orange banners available on desktop). These notices will be displayed on every page outside of the main namespace and every time the user attempts to edit. The notice on desktop now has a slightly different colour. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284642][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T278105] '''Changes later this week''' * [[phab:T294321|Wikidata will be read-only]] for a few minutes on 11 November. This will happen around [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1636610400 06:00 UTC]. This is for database maintenance. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T294321] * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. '''Future changes''' * In the future, unregistered editors will be given an identity that is not their [[:w:en:IP address|IP address]]. This is for legal reasons. A new user right will let editors who need to know the IPs of unregistered accounts to fight vandalism, spam, and harassment, see the IP. You can read the [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#IP Masking Implementation Approaches (FAQ)|suggestions for how that identity could work]] and [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|discuss on the talk page]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/45|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2021-W45"/> 20:36, 8 November 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22311003 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/46|Tech News: 2021-46]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W46"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/46|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Most [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Maximum_file_size#MAXTHUMB|large file uploads]] errors that had messages like "<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>stashfailed</code></bdi>" or "<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>DBQueryError</code></bdi>" have now been fixed. An [[wikitech:Incident documentation/2021-11-04 large file upload timeouts|incident report]] is available. '''Problems''' * Sometimes, edits made on iOS using the visual editor save groups of numbers as telephone number links, because of a feature in the operating system. This problem is under investigation. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T116525] * There was a problem with search last week. Many search requests did not work for 2 hours because of a configuration error. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incident_documentation/2021-11-10_cirrussearch_commonsfile_outage] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.9|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-16|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-17|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-18|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/46|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2021-W46"/> 22:06, 15 November 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22338097 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/47|Tech News: 2021-47]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W47"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/47|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. *The template dialog in VisualEditor and in the [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|new wikitext mode]] Beta feature will be [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/VisualEditor template dialog improvements|heavily improved]] on [[phab:T286992|a few wikis]]. Your [[m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/VisualEditor template dialog improvements|feedback is welcome]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/47|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2021-W47"/> 20:02, 22 November 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22366010 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/48|Tech News: 2021-48]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W48"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/48|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.11|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-11-30|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-01|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-02|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/48|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2021-W48"/> 21:15, 29 November 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22375666 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/49|Tech News: 2021-49]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W49"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/49|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * MediaWiki 1.38-wmf.11 was scheduled to be deployed on some wikis last week. The deployment was delayed because of unexpected problems. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.12|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-07|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-08|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-09|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). * At all Wikipedias, a Mentor Dashboard is now available at <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>Special:MentorDashboard</nowiki></code></bdi>. It allows registered mentors, who take care of newcomers' first steps, to monitor their assigned newcomers' activity. It is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature summary|Growth features]]. You can learn more about [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Communities/How_to_configure_the_mentors%27_list|activating the mentor list]] on your wiki and about [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Mentor dashboard|the mentor dashboard project]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The predecessor to the current [[mw:API|MediaWiki Action API]] (which was created in 2008), <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>action=ajax</nowiki></code></bdi>, will be removed this week. Any scripts or bots using it will need to switch to the corresponding API module. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T42786] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] An old ResourceLoader module, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>jquery.jStorage</nowiki></code></bdi>, which was deprecated in 2016, will be removed this week. Any scripts or bots using it will need to switch to <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>mediawiki.storage</nowiki></code></bdi> instead. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T143034] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/49|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2021-W49"/> 21:59, 6 December 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22413926 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/50|Tech News: 2021-50]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W50"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/50|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * There are now default [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Namespace#Other_namespace_aliases|short aliases]] for the "Project:" namespace on most wikis. E.g. On Wikibooks wikis, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>[[WB:]]</nowiki></code></bdi> will go to the local language default for the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>[[Project:]]</nowiki></code></bdi> namespace. This change is intended to help the smaller communities have easy access to this feature. Additional local aliases can still be requested via [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Requesting wiki configuration changes|the usual process]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T293839] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.13|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-14|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-15|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2021-12-16|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/50|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2021-W50"/> 22:27, 13 December 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22441074 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/51|Tech News: 2021-51]] == <section begin="technews-2021-W51"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/51|Translations]] are available. '''Tech News''' * Because of the [[w:en:Christmas and holiday season|holidays]] the next issue of Tech News will be sent out on 10 January 2022. '''Recent changes''' * Queries made by the DynamicPageList extension (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><DynamicPageList></nowiki></code></bdi>) are now only allowed to run for 10 seconds and error if they take longer. This is in response to multiple outages where long-running queries caused an outage on all wikis. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287380#7575719] '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week or next week. '''Future changes''' * The developers of the Wikipedia iOS app are looking for testers who edit in multiple languages. You can [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS/202112 testing|read more and let them know if you are interested]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The Wikimedia [[wikitech:Portal:Cloud VPS|Cloud VPS]] hosts technical projects for the Wikimedia movement. Developers need to [[wikitech:News/Cloud VPS 2021 Purge|claim projects]] they use. This is because old and unused projects are removed once a year. Unclaimed projects can be shut down from February. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/2B7KYL5VLQNHGQQHMYLW7KTUKXKAYY3T/] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/51|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2021-W51"/> 22:05, 20 December 2021 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22465395 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/02|Tech News: 2022-02]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W02"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/02|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] A <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>oauth_consumer</code></bdi> variable has been added to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]] to enable identifying changes made by specific tools. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298281] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Gadgets are [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/ResourceLoader/Migration_guide_(users)#Package_Gadgets|now able to directly include JSON pages]]. This means some gadgets can now be configured by administrators without needing the interface administrator permission, such as with the Geonotice gadget. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T198758] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Gadgets [[mw:Extension:Gadgets#Options|can now specify page actions]] on which they are available. For example, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>|actions=edit,history</code></bdi> will load a gadget only while editing and on history pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T63007] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] Gadgets can now be loaded on demand with the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>withgadget</code></bdi> URL parameter. This can be used to replace [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Snippets/Load JS and CSS by URL|an earlier snippet]] that typically looks like <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>withJS</code></bdi> or <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>withCSS</code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T29766] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] At wikis where [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Communities/How to configure the mentors' list|the Mentorship system is configured]], you can now use the Action API to get a list of a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Mentor_dashboard|mentor's]] mentees. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T291966] * The heading on the main page can now be configured using <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title-loggedin]]</span> for logged-in users and <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[[MediaWiki:Mainpage-title]]</span> for logged-out users. Any CSS that was previously used to hide the heading should be removed. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Small_wiki_toolkits/Starter_kit/Main_page_customization#hide-heading] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298715] * Four special pages (and their API counterparts) now have a maximum database query execution time of 30 seconds. These special pages are: RecentChanges, Watchlist, Contributions, and Log. This change will help with site performance and stability. You can read [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/IPJNO75HYAQWIGTHI5LJHTDVLVOC4LJP/ more details about this change] including some possible solutions if this affects your workflows. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T297708] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Features/Sticky Header|sticky header]] has been deployed for 50% of logged-in users on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Frequently asked questions#pilot-wikis|more than 10 wikis]]. This is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Desktop Improvements]]. See [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Participate|how to take part in the project]]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.17|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-11|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-12|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-13|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Events''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022|Community Wishlist Survey 2022]] begins. All contributors to the Wikimedia projects can propose for tools and platform improvements. The proposal phase takes place from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-10|en}} 18:00 UTC to {{#time:j xg|2022-01-23|en}} 18:00 UTC. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey/FAQ|Learn more]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/02|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W02"/> 01:23, 11 January 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22562156 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/03|Tech News: 2022-03]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W03"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/03|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * When using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:WikiEditor|WikiEditor]] (also known as the 2010 wikitext editor), people will now see a warning if they link to disambiguation pages. If you click "{{int:Disambiguator-review-link}}" in the warning, it will ask you to correct the link to a more specific term. You can [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Warn when linking to disambiguation pages#Jan 12, 2021: Turning on the changes for all Wikis|read more information]] about this completed 2021 Community Wishlist item. * You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#subscribe|automatically subscribe to all of the talk page discussions]] that you start or comment in using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Feature summary|DiscussionTools]]. You will receive [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Notifications|notifications]] when another editor replies. This is available at most wikis. Go to your [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Preferences]] and turn on "{{int:discussiontools-preference-autotopicsub}}". [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T263819] * When asked to create a new page or talk page section, input fields can be [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Creating_pages_with_preloaded_text|"preloaded" with some text]]. This feature is now limited to wikitext pages. This is so users can't be tricked into making malicious edits. There is a discussion about [[phab:T297725|if this feature should be re-enabled]] for some content types. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.18|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-18|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-19|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-20|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Events''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022|Community Wishlist Survey 2022]] continues. All contributors to the Wikimedia projects can propose for tools and platform improvements. The proposal phase takes place from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-10|en}} 18:00 UTC to {{#time:j xg|2022-01-23|en}} 18:00 UTC. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey/FAQ|Learn more]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/03|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W03"/> 19:55, 17 January 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22620285 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/04|Tech News: 2022-04]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W04"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/04|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.19|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-25|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-26|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-01-27|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). * The following languages can now be used with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:SyntaxHighlight|syntax highlighting]]: BDD, Elpi, LilyPond, Maxima, Rita, Savi, Sed, Sophia, Spice, .SRCINFO. * You can now access your watchlist from outside of the user menu in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|new Vector skin]]. The watchlist link appears next to the notification icons if you are at the top of the page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T289619] '''Events''' * You can see the results of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Coolest Tool Award|Coolest Tool Award 2021]] and learn more about 14 tools which were selected this year. * You can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey/Help_us|translate, promote]], or comment on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Proposals|the proposals]] in the Community Wishlist Survey. Voting will begin on {{#time:j xg|2022-01-28|en}}. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/04|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W04"/> 21:38, 24 January 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22644148 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/05|Tech News: 2022-05]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W05"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/05|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] If a gadget should support the new <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>?withgadget</code></bdi> URL parameter that was [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/02|announced]] 3 weeks ago, then it must now also specify <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>supportsUrlLoad</code></bdi> in the gadget definition ([[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Gadgets#supportsUrlLoad|documentation]]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T29766] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.20|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-01|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-02|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-03|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * A change that was [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2021/16|announced]] last year was delayed. It is now ready to move ahead: ** The user group <code>oversight</code> will be renamed <code>suppress</code>. This is for [[phab:T109327|technical reasons]]. This is the technical name. It doesn't affect what you call the editors with this user right on your wiki. This is planned to happen in three weeks. You can comment [[phab:T112147|in Phabricator]] if you have objections. As usual, these labels can be translated on translatewiki ([[phab:T112147|direct links are available]]) or by administrators on your wiki. '''Events''' * You can vote on proposals in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022|Community Wishlist Survey]] between 28 January and 11 February. The survey decides what the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Tech|Community Tech team]] will work on. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/05|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W05"/> 17:42, 31 January 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22721804 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/06|Tech News: 2022-06]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W06"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/06|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * English Wikipedia recently set up a gadget for dark mode. You can enable it there, or request help from an [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Interface administrators|interface administrator]] to set it up on your wiki ([[w:en:Wikipedia:Dark mode (gadget)|instructions and screenshot]]). * Category counts are sometimes wrong. They will now be completely recounted at the beginning of every month. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T299823] '''Problems''' * A code-change last week to fix a bug with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Live preview|Live Preview]] may have caused problems with some local gadgets and user-scripts. Any code with skin-specific behaviour for <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>vector</code></bdi> should be updated to also check for <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>vector-2022</code></bdi>. [[phab:T300987|A code-snippet, global search, and example are available]]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.21|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-08|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-09|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-10|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/06|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W06"/> 21:15, 7 February 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22765948 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/07|Tech News: 2022-07]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W07"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/07|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Purge|Purging]] a category page with fewer than 5,000 members will now recount it completely. This will allow editors to fix incorrect counts when it is wrong. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T85696] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.22|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-15|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-16|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-17|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] In the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]] extension, the <code dir=ltr>rmspecials()</code> function has been updated so that it does not remove the "space" character. Wikis are advised to wrap all the uses of <code dir=ltr>rmspecials()</code> with <code dir=ltr>rmwhitespace()</code> wherever necessary to keep filters' behavior unchanged. You can use the search function on [[Special:AbuseFilter]] to locate its usage. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T263024] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/07|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W07"/> 19:18, 14 February 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22821788 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/08|Tech News: 2022-08]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W08"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/08|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[Special:Nuke|Special:Nuke]] will now provide the standard deletion reasons (editable at <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[MediaWiki:Deletereason-dropdown]]</bdi>) to use when mass-deleting pages. This was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Admins and patrollers/Mass-delete to offer drop-down of standard reasons, or templated reasons.|a request in the 2022 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T25020] * At Wikipedias, all new accounts now get the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature_summary|Growth features]] by default when creating an account. Communities are encouraged to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Account_creation|update their help resources]]. Previously, only 80% of new accounts would get the Growth features. A few Wikipedias remain unaffected by this change. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301820] * You can now prevent specific images that are used in a page from appearing in other locations, such as within PagePreviews or Search results. This is done with the markup <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>class=notpageimage</nowiki></code></bdi>. For example, <code><nowiki>[[File:Example.png|class=notpageimage]]</nowiki></code>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301588] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] There has been a change to the HTML of Special:Contributions, Special:MergeHistory, and History pages, to support the grouping of changes by date in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:Minerva_Neue|the mobile skin]]. While unlikely, this may affect gadgets and user scripts. A [[phab:T298638|list of all the HTML changes]] is on Phabricator. '''Events''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Results|Community Wishlist Survey results]] have been published. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey/Updates/2022 results#leaderboard|ranking of prioritized proposals]] is also available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.23|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-22|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-23|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-02-24|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * The software to play videos and audio files on pages will change soon on all wikis. The old player will be removed. Some audio players will become wider after this change. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TimedMediaHandler/VideoJS_Player|The new player]] has been a beta feature for over four years. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100106][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248418] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Toolforge's underlying operating system is being updated. If you maintain any tools there, there are two options for migrating your tools into the new system. There are [[wikitech:News/Toolforge Stretch deprecation|details, deadlines, and instructions]] on Wikitech. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/cloud-announce@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/EPJFISC52T7OOEFH5YYMZNL57O4VGSPR/] * Administrators will soon have [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021/(Un)delete associated talk page|the option to delete/undelete]] the associated "talk" page when they are deleting a given page. An API endpoint with this option will also be available. This was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Admins and patrollers/(Un)delete associated talk page|a request from the 2021 Wishlist Survey]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/08|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W08"/> 19:12, 21 February 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22847768 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/09|Tech News: 2022-09]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W09"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/09|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * When searching for edits by [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Tags|change tags]], e.g. in page history or user contributions, there is now a dropdown list of possible tags. This was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Miscellaneous/Improve plain-text change tag selector|a request in the 2022 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T27909] * Mentors using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Mentor_dashboard|Growth Mentor dashboard]] will now see newcomers assigned to them who have made at least one edit, up to 200 edits. Previously, all newcomers assigned to the mentor were visible on the dashboard, even ones without any edit or ones who made hundred of edits. Mentors can still change these values using the filters on their dashboard. Also, the last choice of filters will now be saved. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301268][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T294460] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The user group <code>oversight</code> was renamed <code>suppress</code>. This is for [[phab:T109327|technical reasons]]. You may need to update any local references to the old name, e.g. gadgets, links to Special:Listusers, or uses of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic_words|NUMBERINGROUP]]. '''Problems''' * The recent change to the HTML of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Tracking changes|tracking changes]] pages caused some problems for screenreaders. This is being fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298638] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.24|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-01|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-02|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-03|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * Working with templates will become easier. [[m:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Templates|Several improvements]] are planned for March 9 on most wikis and on March 16 on English Wikipedia. The improvements include: Bracket matching, syntax highlighting colors, finding and inserting templates, and related visual editor features. * If you are a template developer or an interface administrator, and you are intentionally overriding or using the default CSS styles of user feedback boxes (the classes: <code dir=ltr>successbox, messagebox, errorbox, warningbox</code>), please note that these classes and associated CSS will soon be removed from MediaWiki core. This is to prevent problems when the same class-names are also used on a wiki. Please let us know by commenting at [[phab:T300314]] if you think you might be affected. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/09|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W09"/> 22:59, 28 February 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22902593 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/10|Tech News: 2022-10]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W10"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/10|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * There was a problem with some interface labels last week. It will be fixed this week. This change was part of ongoing work to simplify the support for skins which do not have active maintainers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301203] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.25|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-08|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-09|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-10|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/10|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W10"/> 21:16, 7 March 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22958074 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/11|Tech News: 2022-11]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W11"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/11|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * In the Wikipedia Android app [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Apps/Team/Android/Communication#Updates|it is now possible]] to change the toolbar at the bottom so the tools you use more often are easier to click on. The app now also has a focused reading mode. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T296753][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T254771] '''Problems''' * There was a problem with the collection of some page-view data from June 2021 to January 2022 on all wikis. This means the statistics are incomplete. To help calculate which projects and regions were most affected, relevant datasets are being retained for 30 extra days. You can [[m:Talk:Data_retention_guidelines#Added_exception_for_page_views_investigation|read more on Meta-wiki]]. * There was a problem with the databases on March 10. All wikis were unreachable for logged-in users for 12 minutes. Logged-out users could read pages but could not edit or access uncached content then. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incident_documentation/2022-03-10_MediaWiki_availability] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/wmf.26|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-15|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-16|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-17|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.38/Roadmap|calendar]]). * When [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:System_message#Finding_messages_and_documentation|using <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>uselang=qqx</code></bdi> to find localisation messages]], it will now show all possible message keys for navigation tabs such as "{{int:vector-view-history}}". [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T300069] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Access to [[{{#special:RevisionDelete}}]] has been expanded to include users who have <code dir=ltr>deletelogentry</code> and <code dir=ltr>deletedhistory</code> rights through their group memberships. Before, only those with the <code dir=ltr>deleterevision</code> right could access this special page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301928] * On the [[{{#special:Undelete}}]] pages for diffs and revisions, there will be a link back to the main Undelete page with the list of revisions. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284114] '''Future changes''' * The Wikimedia Foundation has announced the IP Masking implementation strategy and next steps. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#feb25|announcement can be read here]]. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Android FAQ|Wikipedia Android app]] developers are working on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Communication|new functions]] for user talk pages and article talk pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T297617] '''Events''' * The [[mw:Wikimedia Hackathon 2022|Wikimedia Hackathon 2022]] will take place as a hybrid event on 20-22 May 2022. The Hackathon will be held online and there are grants available to support local in-person meetups around the world. Grants can be requested until 20 March. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/11|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W11"/> 22:07, 14 March 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=22993074 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/12|Tech News: 2022-12]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W12"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/12|Translations]] are available. '''New code release schedule for this week''' * There will be four MediaWiki releases this week, instead of just one. This is an experiment which should lead to fewer problems and to faster feature updates. The releases will be on all wikis, at different times, on Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Release Engineering Team/Trainsperiment week|read more about this project]]. '''Recent changes''' * You can now set how many search results to show by default in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-searchoptions|your Preferences]]. This was the 12th most popular wish in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Results|Community Wishlist Survey 2022]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T215716] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The Jupyter notebooks tool [[wikitech:PAWS|PAWS]] has been updated to a new interface. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T295043] '''Future changes''' * Interactive maps via [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] will soon work on wikis using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevisions]] extension. [https://wikimedia.sslsurvey.de/Kartographer-Workflows-EN/ Please tell us] which improvements you want to see in Kartographer. You can take this survey in simple English. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/12|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W12"/> 16:01, 21 March 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23034693 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/13|Tech News: 2022-13]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W13"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/13|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * There is a simple new Wikimedia Commons upload tool available for macOS users, [[c:Commons:Sunflower|Sunflower]]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.5|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-29|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-30|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-03-31|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of regular database maintenance. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-03-29|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s3.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-03-31|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s5.dblist targeted wikis]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301850][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T303798] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/13|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W13"/> 19:54, 28 March 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23073711 --> == [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/14|Tech News: 2022-14]] == <section begin="technews-2022-W14"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/14|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * For a few days last week, edits that were suggested to newcomers were not tagged in the [[{{#special:recentchanges}}]] feed. This bug has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304747] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.6|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-05|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-06|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-07|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-04-07|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s4.dblist targeted wikis]). '''Future changes''' * Starting next week, Tech News' title will be translatable. When the newsletter is distributed, its title may not be <code dir=ltr>Tech News: 2022-14</code> anymore. It may affect some filters that have been set up by some communities. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T302920] * Over the next few months, the "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]" Growth feature [[phab:T304110|will become available to more Wikipedias]]. Each week, a few wikis will get the feature. You can test this tool at [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth#deploymentstable|a few wikis where "Link recommendation" is already available]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/14|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W14"/> 21:01, 4 April 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23097604 --> == Tech News: 2022-15 == <section begin="technews-2022-W15"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/15|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * There is a new public status page at <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[https://www.wikimediastatus.net/ www.wikimediastatus.net]</span>. This site shows five automated high-level metrics where you can see the overall health and performance of our wikis' technical environment. It also contains manually-written updates for widespread incidents, which are written as quickly as the engineers are able to do so while also fixing the actual problem. The site is separated from our production infrastructure and hosted by an external service, so that it can be accessed even if the wikis are briefly unavailable. You can [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2022/03/31/announcing-www-wikimediastatus-net/ read more about this project]. * On Wiktionary wikis, the software to play videos and audio files on pages has now changed. The old player has been removed. Some audio players will become wider after this change. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TimedMediaHandler/VideoJS_Player|The new player]] has been a beta feature for over four years. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100106][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248418] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.7|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-12|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-13|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-14|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/15|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W15"/> 19:44, 11 April 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23124108 --> == Tech News: 2022-16 == <section begin="technews-2022-W16"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/16|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.8|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-19|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-20|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-21|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-04-19|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s7.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-04-21|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s8.dblist targeted wikis]). * Administrators will now have [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2021/(Un)delete associated talk page|the option to delete/undelete the associated "Talk" page]] when they are deleting a given page. An API endpoint with this option is also available. This concludes the [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Admins and patrollers/(Un)delete associated talk page|11th wish of the 2021 Community Wishlist Survey]]. * On [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements#test-wikis|selected wikis]], 50% of logged-in users will see the new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Features/Table of contents|table of contents]]. When scrolling up and down the page, the table of contents will stay in the same place on the screen. This is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Desktop Improvements]] project. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304169] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Message boxes produced by MediaWiki code will no longer have these CSS classes: <code dir=ltr>successbox</code>, <code dir=ltr>errorbox</code>, <code dir=ltr>warningbox</code>. The styles for those classes and <code dir=ltr>messagebox</code> will be removed from MediaWiki core. This only affects wikis that use these classes in wikitext, or change their appearance within site-wide CSS. Please review any local usage and definitions for these classes you may have. This was previously announced in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/09|28 February issue of Tech News]]. '''Future changes''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] will become compatible with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevisions page stabilization]]. Kartographer maps will also work on pages with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Pending changes|pending changes]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation#Project_descriptions] The Kartographer documentation has been thoroughly updated. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer/Getting_started] [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:VisualEditor/Maps] [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/16|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W16"/> 23:11, 18 April 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23167004 --> == Tech News: 2022-17 == <section begin="technews-2022-W17"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/17|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * On [https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/dblists/group1.dblist many wikis] (group 1), the software to play videos and audio files on pages has now changed. The old player has been removed. Some audio players will become wider after this change. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TimedMediaHandler/VideoJS_Player|The new player]] has been a beta feature for over four years. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100106][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248418] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.9|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-26|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-27|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-04-28|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-04-26|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s2.dblist targeted wikis]). * Some very old browsers and operating systems are no longer supported. Some things on the wikis might look weird or not work in very old browsers like Internet Explorer 9 or 10, Android 4, or Firefox 38 or older. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306486] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/17|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W17"/> 22:56, 25 April 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23187115 --> == Tech News: 2022-18 == <section begin="technews-2022-W18"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/18|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * On [https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/dblists/group2.dblist all remaining wikis] (group 2), the software to play videos and audio files on pages has now changed. The old player has been removed. Some audio players will become wider after this change. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:TimedMediaHandler/VideoJS_Player|The new player]] has been a beta feature for over four years. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100106][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248418] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.10|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-03|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-04|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-05|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * The developers are working on talk pages in the [[mw:Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS|Wikipedia app for iOS]]. You can [https://wikimedia.qualtrics.com/jfe/form/SV_9GBcHczQGLbQWTY give feedback]. You can take the survey in English, German, Hebrew or Chinese. * [[m:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/VisualEditor_template_dialog_improvements#Status_and_next_steps|Most wikis]] will receive an [[m:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/VisualEditor_template_dialog_improvements|improved template dialog]] in VisualEditor and New Wikitext mode. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T296759] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306967] * If you use syntax highlighting while editing wikitext, you can soon activate a [[m:WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Improved_Color_Scheme_of_Syntax_Highlighting#Color-blind_mode|colorblind-friendly color scheme]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306867] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Several CSS IDs related to MediaWiki interface messages will be removed. Technical editors should please [[phab:T304363|review the list of IDs and links to their existing uses]]. These include <code dir=ltr>#mw-anon-edit-warning</code>, <code dir=ltr>#mw-undelete-revision</code> and 3 others. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/18|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W18"/> 19:33, 2 May 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23232924 --> == Tech News: 2022-19 == <section begin="technews-2022-W19"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/19|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * You can now see categories in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android|Wikipedia app for Android]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T73966] '''Problems''' * Last week, there was a problem with Wikidata's search autocomplete. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307586] * Last week, all wikis had slow access or no access for 20 minutes, for logged-in users and non-cached pages. This was caused by a problem with a database change. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307647] '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T305217#7894966] * [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Geoinformation#Current issues|Incompatibility issues]] with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] and the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevs extension]] will be fixed: Deployment is planned for May 10 on all wikis. Kartographer will then be enabled on the [[phab:T307348|five wikis which have not yet enabled the extension]] on May 24. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Vector (2022)]] skin will be set as the default on several more wikis, including Arabic and Catalan Wikipedias. Logged-in users will be able to switch back to the old Vector (2010). See the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/2022-04 for the largest wikis|latest update]] about Vector (2022). '''Future meetings''' * The next [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|open meeting with the Web team]] about Vector (2022) will take place on 17 May. The following meetings are currently planned for: 7 June, 21 June, 5 July, 19 July. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/19|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W19"/> 15:22, 9 May 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23256717 --> == Tech News: 2022-20 == <section begin="technews-2022-W20"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/20|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * Some wikis can soon use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|add a link]] feature. This will start on Wednesday. The wikis are {{int:project-localized-name-cawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hiwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ptwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-simplewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-svwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ukwiki/en}}. This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304542] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Hackathon 2022|Wikimedia Hackathon 2022]] will take place online on May 20–22. It will be in English. There are also local [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Hackathon 2022/Meetups|hackathon meetups]] in Germany, Ghana, Greece, India, Nigeria and the United States. Technically interested Wikimedians can work on software projects and learn new skills. You can also host a session or post a project you want to work on. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.12|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-17|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-18|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-19|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * You can soon edit translatable pages in the visual editor. Translatable pages exist on for examples Meta and Commons. [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2022/05/12/mediawiki-1-38-brings-support-for-editing-translatable-pages-with-the-visual-editor/] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/20|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W20"/> 18:58, 16 May 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23291515 --> == Tech News: 2022-21 == <section begin="technews-2022-W21"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/21|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Administrators using the mobile web interface can now access Special:Block directly from user pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307341] * The <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[https://www.wiktionary.org/ www.wiktionary.org]</span> portal page now uses an automated update system. Other [[m:Project_portals|project portals]] will be updated over the next few months. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304629] '''Problems''' * The Growth team maintains a mentorship program for newcomers. Previously, newcomers weren't able to opt out from the program. Starting May 19, 2022, newcomers are able to fully opt out from Growth mentorship, in case they do not wish to have any mentor at all. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287915] * Some editors cannot access the content translation tool if they load it by clicking from the contributions menu. This problem is being worked on. It should still work properly if accessed directly via Special:ContentTranslation. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308802] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.13|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-24|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-25|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-26|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Gadget and user scripts developers are invited to give feedback on a [[mw:User:Jdlrobson/Extension:Gadget/Policy|proposed technical policy]] aiming to improve support from MediaWiki developers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308686] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/21|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W21"/> 00:21, 24 May 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23317250 --> == Tech News: 2022-22 == <section begin="technews-2022-W22"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/22|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] In the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]] extension, an <code dir=ltr>ip_in_ranges()</code> function has been introduced to check if an IP is in any of the ranges. Wikis are advised to combine multiple <code dir=ltr>ip_in_range()</code> expressions joined by <code>|</code> into a single expression for better performance. You can use the search function on [[Special:AbuseFilter|Special:AbuseFilter]] to locate its usage. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T305017] * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Info feature|IP Info feature]] which helps abuse fighters access information about IPs, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Info feature#May 24, 2022|has been deployed]] to all wikis as a beta feature. This comes after weeks of beta testing on test.wikipedia.org. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.14|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-05-31|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-01|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-02|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-05-31|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s5.dblist targeted wikis]). * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#New topic tool|New Topic Tool]] will be deployed for all editors at most wikis soon. You will be able to opt out from within the tool and in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Preferences]]. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Talk_pages_project/New_discussion][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287804] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|Advanced item]] The [[:mw:Special:ApiHelp/query+usercontribs|list=usercontribs API]] will support fetching contributions from an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Range blocks#Non-technical explanation|IP range]] soon. API users can set the <code>uciprange</code> parameter to get contributions from any IP range within [[:mw:Manual:$wgRangeContributionsCIDRLimit|the limit]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T177150] * A new parser function will be introduced: <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{{=}}</nowiki></code></bdi>. It will replace existing templates named "=". It will insert an [[w:en:Equals sign|equal sign]]. This can be used to escape the equal sign in the parameter values of templates. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T91154] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/22|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W22"/> 20:28, 30 May 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23340178 --> == Tech News: 2022-23 == <section begin="technews-2022-W23"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/23|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.15|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-07|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-08|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-09|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] A new <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>str_replace_regexp()</code></bdi> function can be used in [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filters]] to replace parts of text using a [[w:en:Regular expression|regular expression]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285468] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/23|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W23"/> 02:46, 7 June 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23366979 --> == Tech News: 2022-24 == <section begin="technews-2022-W24"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/24|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * All wikis can now use [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] maps. Kartographer maps now also work on pages with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Pending changes|pending changes]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation#Project_descriptions][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307348] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.16|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-14|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-15|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-16|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-06-14|en}} at 06:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s6.dblist targeted wikis]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T300471] * Starting on Wednesday, a new set of Wikipedias will get "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]" ({{int:project-localized-name-abwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-acewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-adywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-afwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-akwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-alswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-amwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-anwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-angwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-arcwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-arzwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-astwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-atjwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-avwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-aywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-azwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-azbwiki/en}}). This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304548] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#New topic tool|New Topic Tool]] will be deployed for all editors at Commons, Wikidata, and some other wikis soon. You will be able to opt out from within the tool and in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|Preferences]]. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Talk_pages_project/New_discussion][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287804] '''Future meetings''' * The next [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|open meeting with the Web team]] about Vector (2022) will take place today (13 June). The following meetings will take place on: 28 June, 12 July, 26 July. '''Future changes''' * By the end of July, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Vector 2022]] skin should be ready to become the default across all wikis. Discussions on how to adjust it to the communities' needs will begin in the next weeks. It will always be possible to revert to the previous version on an individual basis. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/2022-04 for the largest wikis|Learn more]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/24|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W24"/> 16:58, 13 June 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23389956 --> == Tech News: 2022-25 == <section begin="technews-2022-W25"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/25|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android|Wikipedia App for Android]] now has an option for editing the whole page at once, located in the overflow menu (three-dots menu [[File:Ic more vert 36px.svg|15px|link=|alt=]]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T103622] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Some recent database changes may affect queries using the [[m:Research:Quarry|Quarry tool]]. Queries for <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>site_stats</code></bdi> at English Wikipedia, Commons, and Wikidata will need to be updated. [[phab:T306589|Read more]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] A new <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>user_global_editcount</code></bdi> variable can be used in [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filters]] to avoid affecting globally active users. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T130439] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.17|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-21|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-22|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-23|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Users of non-responsive skins (e.g. MonoBook or Vector) on mobile devices may notice a slight change in the default zoom level. This is intended to optimize zooming and ensure all interface elements are present on the page (for example the table of contents on Vector 2022). In the unlikely event this causes any problems with how you use the site, we'd love to understand better, please ping <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[[m:User:Jon (WMF)|Jon (WMF)]]</span> to any on-wiki conversations. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306910] '''Future changes''' * The Beta Feature for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] will be updated throughout July. Discussions will look different. You can see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Prototype|some of the proposed changes]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Parsoid's HTML output will soon stop annotating file links with different <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>typeof</code></bdi> attribute values, and instead use <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>mw:File</code></bdi> for all types. Tool authors should adjust any code that expects: <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>mw:Image</code></bdi>, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>mw:Audio</code></bdi>, or <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>mw:Video</code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273505] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/25|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W25"/> 20:18, 20 June 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23425855 --> == Tech News: 2022-26 == <section begin="technews-2022-W26"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/26|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise|Wikimedia Enterprise]] API service now has self-service accounts with free on-demand requests and monthly snapshots ([https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/docs/ API documentation]). Community access [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise/FAQ#community-access|via database dumps & Wikimedia Cloud Services]] continues. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:Wiktionary#lua|All Wikimedia wikis can now use Wikidata Lexemes in Lua]] after creating local modules and templates. Discussions are welcome [[d:Wikidata_talk:Lexicographical_data#You_can_now_reuse_Wikidata_Lexemes_on_all_wikis|on the project talk page]]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.18|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-28|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-29|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-06-30|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-06-28|en}} at 06:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s7.dblist targeted wikis]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T311033] * Some global and cross-wiki services will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-06-30|en}} at 06:00 UTC. This will impact ContentTranslation, Echo, StructuredDiscussions, Growth experiments and a few more services. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T300472] * Users will be able to sort columns within sortable tables in the mobile skin. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T233340] '''Future meetings''' * The next [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|open meeting with the Web team]] about Vector (2022) will take place tomorrow (28 June). The following meetings will take place on 12 July and 26 July. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/26|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W26"/> 20:02, 27 June 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23453785 --> == Tech News: 2022-27 == <section begin="technews-2022-W27"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/27|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.19|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-05|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-06|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-07|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-07-05|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s6.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-07-07|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s4.dblist targeted wikis]). * The Beta Feature for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] will be updated throughout July. Discussions will look different. You can see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Prototype|some of the proposed changes]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=| Advanced item]] This change only affects pages in the main namespace in Wikisource. The Javascript config variable <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>proofreadpage_source_href</code></bdi> will be removed from <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Interface/JavaScript#mw.config|mw.config]]</code></bdi> and be replaced with the variable <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>prpSourceIndexPage</code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T309490] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/27|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W27"/> 19:32, 4 July 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23466250 --> == Tech News: 2022-28 == <section begin="technews-2022-W28"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/28|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * In the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Vector 2022 skin]], the page title is now displayed above the tabs such as Discussion, Read, Edit, View history, or More. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates#Page title/tabs switch|Learn more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T303549] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] It is now possible to easily view most of the configuration settings that apply to just one wiki, and to compare settings between two wikis if those settings are different. For example: [https://noc.wikimedia.org/wiki.php?wiki=jawiktionary Japanese Wiktionary settings], or [https://noc.wikimedia.org/wiki.php?wiki=eswiki&compare=eowiki settings that are different between the Spanish and Esperanto Wikipedias]. Local communities may want to [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Requesting_wiki_configuration_changes|discuss and propose changes]] to their local settings. Details about each of the named settings can be found by [[mw:Special:Search|searching MediaWiki.org]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308932] *The Anti-Harassment Tools team [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Info feature#May|recently deployed]] the IP Info Feature as a [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta Feature at all wikis]]. This feature allows abuse fighters to access information about IP addresses. Please check our update on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Info feature#April|how to find and use the tool]]. Please share your feedback using a link you will be given within the tool itself. '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-07-12|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s3.dblist targeted wikis]). '''Future changes''' * The Beta Feature for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] will be updated throughout July. Discussions will look different. You can see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Prototype|some of the proposed changes]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/28|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W28"/> 19:24, 11 July 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23502519 --> == Tech News: 2022-29 == <section begin="technews-2022-W29"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/29|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * The feature on mobile web for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:NearbyPages|Nearby Pages]] was missing last week. It will be fixed this week. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T312864] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.21|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-19|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-20|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-21|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * The [[mw:Technical_decision_making/Forum|Technical Decision Forum]] is seeking [[mw:Technical_decision_making/Community_representation|community representatives]]. You can apply on wiki or by emailing <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">TDFSupport@wikimedia.org</span> before 12 August. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/29|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W29"/> 22:59, 18 July 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23517957 --> == Tech News: 2022-30 == <section begin="technews-2022-W30"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/30|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[https://www.wikibooks.org/ www.wikibooks.org]</span> and <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[https://www.wikiquote.org/ www.wikiquote.org]</span> portal pages now use an automated update system. Other [[m:Project_portals|project portals]] will be updated over the next few months. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273179] '''Problems''' * Last week, some wikis were in read-only mode for a few minutes because of an emergency switch of their main database ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s7.dblist targeted wikis]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T313383] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.22|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-26|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-27|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-07-28|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * The external link icon will change slightly in the skins Vector legacy and Vector 2022. The new icon uses simpler shapes to be more recognizable on low-fidelity screens. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T261391] * Administrators will now see buttons on user pages for "{{int:changeblockip}}" and "{{int:unblockip}}" instead of just "{{int:blockip}}" if the user is already blocked. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308570] '''Future meetings''' * The next [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|open meeting with the Web team]] about Vector (2022) will take place tomorrow (26 July). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/30|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W30"/> 19:27, 25 July 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23545370 --> == Tech News: 2022-31 == <section begin="technews-2022-W31"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/31|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Improved [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Displaying_a_formula#Phantom|LaTeX capabilities for math rendering]] are now available in the wikis thanks to supporting <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>Phantom</code></bdi> tags. This completes part of [[m:Community_Wishlist_Survey_2022/Editing/Missing_LaTeX_capabilities_for_math_rendering|the #59 wish]] of the 2022 Community Wishlist Survey. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.23|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-08-02|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-08-03|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-08-04|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:WikiEditor/Realtime_Preview|Realtime Preview]] will be available as a Beta Feature on wikis in [https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists%2Fgroup0.dblist Group 0]. This feature was built in order to fulfill [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey_2021/Real_Time_Preview_for_Wikitext|one of the Community Wishlist Survey proposals]]. '''Future changes''' * The Beta Feature for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] will be updated throughout August. Discussions will look different. You can see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Prototype|some of the proposed changes]]. '''Future meetings''' * This week, three meetings about [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Vector (2022)]] with live interpretation will take place. On Tuesday, interpretation in Russian will be provided. On Thursday, meetings for Arabic and Spanish speakers will take place. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/Talk to Web|See how to join]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/31|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W31"/> 21:21, 1 August 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23615613 --> == Tech News: 2022-32 == <section begin="technews-2022-W32"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/32|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Meta:GUS2Wiki/Script|GUS2Wiki]] copies the information from [[{{#special:GadgetUsage}}]] to an on-wiki page so you can review its history. If your project isn't already listed on the [[d:Q113143828|Wikidata entry for Project:GUS2Wiki]] you can either run GUS2Wiki yourself or [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Meta:GUS2Wiki/Script#Opting|make a request to receive updates]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T121049] '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-08-09|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s5.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-08-11|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s2.dblist targeted wikis]). '''Future meetings''' * The [[wmania:Special:MyLanguage/Hackathon|Wikimania Hackathon]] will take place online from August 12–14. Don't miss [[wmania:Special:MyLanguage/Hackathon/Schedule|the pre-hacking showcase]] to learn about projects and find collaborators. Anyone can [[phab:/project/board/6030/|propose a project]] or [[wmania:Special:MyLanguage/Hackathon/Schedule|host a session]]. [[wmania:Special:MyLanguage/Hackathon/Newcomers|Newcomers are welcome]]! '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/32|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W32"/> 19:50, 8 August 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23627807 --> == Tech News: 2022-33 == <section begin="technews-2022-W33"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/33|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The Persian (Farsi) Wikipedia community decided to block IP editing from October 2021 to April 2022. The Wikimedia Foundation's Product Analytics team tracked the impact of this change. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/IP Editing Restriction Study/Farsi Wikipedia|An impact report]] is now available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.25|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-08-16|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-08-17|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-08-18|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-08-16|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s1.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-08-18|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s8.dblist targeted wikis]). * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:WikiEditor/Realtime_Preview|Realtime Preview]] will be available as a Beta Feature on wikis in [https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists%2Fgroup1.dblist Group 1]. This feature was built in order to fulfill [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey_2021/Real_Time_Preview_for_Wikitext|one of the Community Wishlist Survey proposals]]. '''Future changes''' * The Beta Feature for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] will be updated throughout August. Discussions will look different. You can see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Prototype|some of the proposed changes]]. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Talk_pages_project/Usability#4_August_2022][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Talk_pages_project/Usability#Phase_1:_Topic_containers][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T312672] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/33|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W33"/> 21:08, 15 August 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23658001 --> == Tech News: 2022-34 == <section begin="technews-2022-W34"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/34|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Two problems with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] maps have been fixed. Maps are no longer shown as empty when a geoline was created via VisualEditor. Geolines consisting of points with QIDs (e.g., subway lines) are no longer shown with pushpins. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T292613][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308560] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.26|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-08-23|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-08-24|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-08-25|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-08-25|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s4.dblist targeted wikis]). * The colours of links and visited links will change. This is to make the difference between links and other text more clear. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T213778] '''Future changes''' * The new [{{int:discussiontools-topicsubscription-button-subscribe}}] button [[mw:Talk pages project/Notifications#12 August 2022|helps newcomers get answers]]. The Editing team is enabling this tool everywhere. You can turn it off in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|your preferences]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T284489] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/34|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W34"/> 00:12, 23 August 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23675501 --> == Tech News: 2022-35 == <section begin="technews-2022-W35"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/35|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:WikiEditor/Realtime_Preview|Realtime Preview]] is available as a Beta Feature on wikis in [https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists%2Fgroup2.dblist Group 2]. This feature was built in order to fulfill [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey_2021/Real_Time_Preview_for_Wikitext|one of the Community Wishlist Survey proposals]]. Please note that when this Beta feature is enabled, it may cause conflicts with some wiki-specific Gadgets. '''Problems''' * In recent months, there have been inaccurate numbers shown for various [[{{#special:statistics}}]] at Commons, Wikidata, and English Wikipedia. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T315693] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.27|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-08-30|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-08-31|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-01|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-08-30|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s6.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-09-01|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s7.dblist targeted wikis]). '''Future changes''' * The Wikimedia Foundation wants to improve how Wikimedia communities report harmful incidents by building the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Private Incident Reporting System|Private Incident Reporting System (PIRS)]] to make it easy and safe for users to make reports. You can leave comments on the talk page, by answering the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Private Incident Reporting System#Phase 1|questions provided]]. If you have ever faced a harmful situation that you wanted to report/reported, join a PIRS interview to share your experience. To sign up [[m:Special:EmailUser/MAna_(WMF)|please email]] <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[[m:User:MAna (WMF)|Madalina Ana]]</span>. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/35|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W35"/> 23:05, 29 August 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23725814 --> == Tech News: 2022-36 == <section begin="technews-2022-W36"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/36|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/wmf.28|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-06|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-07|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-08|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-09-06|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s1.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-09-08|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s3.dblist targeted wikis]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] On Special pages that only have one tab, the tab-bar's row will be hidden in the Vector-2022 skin to save space. The row will still show if Gadgets use it. Gadgets that currently append directly to the CSS id of <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>#p-namespaces</code></bdi> should be updated to use the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>[[mw:ResourceLoader/Core_modules#addPortletLink|mw.util.addPortletLink]]</code></bdi> function instead. Gadgets that style this id should consider also targeting <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>#p-associated-pages</code></bdi>, the new id for this row. [[phab:T316908|Examples are available]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T316908][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T313409] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/36|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W36"/> 23:22, 5 September 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23757743 --> == Tech News: 2022-37 == <section begin="technews-2022-W37"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/37|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The search servers have been upgraded to a new major version. If you notice any issues with searching, please report them on [[phab:project/view/1849/|Phabricator]]. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/message/XPCTYYTN67FVFKN6XOHULJVGUO44J662] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.1|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-13|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-14|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-15|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:SyntaxHighlight|Syntax highlighting]] is now tracked as an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:$wgExpensiveParserFunctionLimit|expensive parser function]]. Only 500 expensive function calls can be used on a single page. Pages that exceed the limit are added to a [[:Category:{{MediaWiki:expensive-parserfunction-category}}|tracking category]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T316858] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/37|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W37"/> 01:50, 13 September 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23787318 --> == Tech News: 2022-38 == <section begin="technews-2022-W38"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/38|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Two database fields in the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>templatelinks</nowiki></code></bdi> table are now being dropped: <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>tl_namespace</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>tl_title</nowiki></code></bdi>. Any queries that rely on these fields need to be changed to use the new normalization field called <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>tl_target_id</nowiki></code></bdi>. See <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[[phab:T299417|T299417]]</span> for more information. This is part of [[w:Database normalization|normalization]] of links tables. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/message/U2U6TXIBABU3KDCVUOITIGI5OJ4COBSW/][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/User:ASarabadani_(WMF)/Database_for_devs_toolkit/Concepts/Normalization] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.2|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-20|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-21|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-22|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * In [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] maps, you can use icons on markers for common points of interest. On Tuesday, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer/Icons|previous icon set]] will be updated to [https://de.wikipedia.beta.wmflabs.org/wiki/Hilfe:Extension:Kartographer/Icons version maki 7.2]. That means, around 100 new icons will be available. Additionally, all existing icons were updated for clarity and to make them work better in international contexts. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T302861][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation#Update_maki_icons] '''Future changes''' * In a [[m:Content_Partnerships_Hub/Software/Volunteer_developers_discussion_at_Wikimania_2022|group discussion at Wikimania]], more than 30 people talked about how to make content partnership software in the Wikimedia movement more sustainable. What kind of support is acceptable for volunteer developers? Read the summary and [[m:Talk:Content Partnerships Hub/Software/Volunteer developers discussion at Wikimania 2022|leave your feedback]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/38|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W38"/> <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</span> 22:16, 19 September 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23826293 --> == Tech News: 2022-39 == <section begin="technews-2022-W39"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/39|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Parsoid clients should be updated to allow for space-separated multi-values in the <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr"><code>rel</code></bdi> attribute of links. Further details are in <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[phab:T315209|T315209]]</bdi>. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.3|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-27|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-28|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-09-29|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/VisualEditor/Diffs|Visual diffs]] will become available to all users, except at the Wiktionaries and Wikipedias. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T314588] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#Mobile|Talk pages on the mobile site]] will change at the Arabic, Bangla, Chinese, French, Haitian Creole, Hebrew, Korean, and Vietnamese Wikipedias. They should be easier to use and provide more information. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T318302] [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Talk_pages_project/Mobile] * In the [[mw:Lua/Scripting|{{ns:828}}]] namespace, pages ending with <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr"><code>.json</code></bdi> will be treated as JSON, just like they already are in the {{ns:2}} and {{ns:8}} namespaces. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T144475] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/39|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W39"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:30, 27 September 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23860085 --> == Tech News: 2022-40 == <section begin="technews-2022-W40"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/40|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] maps can now show geopoints from Wikidata, via QID or SPARQL query. Previously, this was only possible for geoshapes and geolines. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T307695] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation/Geopoints_via_QID] * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Coolest_Tool_Award|Coolest Tool Award 2022]] is looking for nominations. You can recommend tools until 12 October. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.4|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-10-04|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-10-05|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-10-06|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#Mobile|Talk pages on the mobile site]] will change at the Arabic, Bangla, Chinese, French, Haitian Creole, Hebrew, Korean, and Vietnamese Wikipedias. They should be easier to use and provide more information. (Last week's release was delayed) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T318302] [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Talk_pages_project/Mobile] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>scribunto-console</code></bdi> API module will require a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/API:Tokens|CSRF token]]. This module is documented as internal and use of it is not supported. [[phab:T212071|[5]]] * The Vector 2022 skin will become the default across the smallest Wikimedia projects. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements#Deployment_plan_and_timeline|Learn more]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/40|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W40"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:23, 4 October 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23885489 --> == Tech News: 2022-41 == <section begin="technews-2022-W41"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/41|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.5|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-10-11|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-10-12|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-10-13|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * On some wikis, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] maps in full size view will be able to display nearby articles. After a feedback period, more wikis will follow. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T316782][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation/Nearby_articles] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/41|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W41"/> 14:08, 10 October 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23912412 --> == Tech News: 2022-42 == <section begin="technews-2022-W42"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/42|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The recently implemented feature of [[phab:T306883|article thumbnails in Special:Search]] will be limited to Wikipedia projects only. Further details are in [[phab:T320510|T320510]]. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Structured_Data_Across_Wikimedia/Search_Improvements] * A bug that caused problems in loading article thumbnails in Special:Search has been fixed. Further details are in [[phab:T320406|T320406]]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.6|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-10-18|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-10-19|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-10-20|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.39/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Lua module authors can use <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#mw.loadJsonData|mw.loadJsonData()]]</code></bdi> to load data from JSON pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T217500] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Lua module authors can enable <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Scribunto/Lua_reference_manual#Strict_library|require( "strict" )]]</code></bdi> to add errors for some possible code problems. This replaces "[[wikidata:Q16748603|Module:No globals]]" on most wikis. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T209310] '''Future changes''' * The [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta Feature]] for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] will be updated at most wikis. The "{{int:discussiontools-replylink}}" button will look different after this change. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T320683] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/42|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W42"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:46, 17 October 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23943992 --> == Tech News: 2022-43 == <section begin="technews-2022-W43"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/43|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * There have been some minor visual fixes in Special:Search, regarding audio player alignment and image placeholder height. Further details are in [[phab:T319230|T319230]]. * On Wikipedias, a new [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-searchoptions|preference]] has been added to hide article thumbnails in Special:Search. Full details are in [[phab:T320337|T320337]]. '''Problems''' * Last week, three wikis ({{int:project-localized-name-frwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-jawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ruwiki/en}}) had read-only access for 25 minutes. This was caused by a hardware problem. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T320990] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.7|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-10-25|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-10-26|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-10-27|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-10-25|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s5.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-10-27|en}} at 7:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s4.dblist targeted wikis]). * Starting on Wednesday, a new set of Wikipedias will get "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]" ({{int:project-localized-name-aswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-banwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-barwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bat smgwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bclwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-be x oldwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bgwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bhwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-biwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bjnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bmwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bpywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-brwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bugwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bxrwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-idwiki/en}}). This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304549] * Starting on Wednesday October 26, 2022, the list of mentors will be upgraded [[d:Q14339834 | at wikis where Growth mentorship is available]]. The mentorship system will continue to work as it does now. The signup process [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Communities/How to configure the mentors' list#add|will be replaced]], and a new management option will be provided. Also, this change simplifies [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Communities/How to configure the mentors' list#create|the creation of mentorship systems at Wikipedias]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T314858][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T310905][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Structured_mentor_list] * Pages with titles that start with a lower-case letter according to Unicode 11 will be renamed or deleted. There is a list of affected pages at <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[m:Unicode 11 case map migration]]</bdi>. More information can be found at [[phab:T292552|T292552]]. * The Vector 2022 skin will become the default across the smallest Wikipedias. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements#smallest-1|Learn more]]. '''Future changes''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Replying|Reply tool]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/New discussion|New Topic tool]] will soon get a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/VisualEditor/Special characters|special characters menu]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T249072] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/43|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W43"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:22, 24 October 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23975411 --> == Tech News: 2022-44 == <section begin="technews-2022-W44"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/44|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * When using keyboard navigation on a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] map, the focus will become more visible. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T315997] * In {{#special:RecentChanges}}, you can now hide the log entries for new user creations with the filter for "{{int:rcfilters-filter-newuserlogactions-label}}". [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T321155] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.8|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-11-01|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-11-02|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-11-03|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|maps dialog]] in VisualEditor now has some help texts. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T318818] * It is now possible to select the language of a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] map in VisualEditor via a dropdown menu. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T318817] * It is now possible to add a caption to a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] map in VisualEditor. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T318815] * It is now possible to hide the frame of a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] map in VisualEditor. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T318813] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/44|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W44"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:15, 31 October 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=23977539 --> == Tech News: 2022-45 == <section begin="technews-2022-W45"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/45|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * An updated version of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/EventCenter/Registration|Event Registration]] tool is now available for testing at [[testwiki:|testwiki]] and [[test2wiki:| test2wiki]]. The tool provides features for event organizers and participants. Your feedback is welcome at our [[m:Talk:Campaigns/Foundation Product Team/Registration|project talkpage]]. More information about [[m:Campaigns/Foundation Product Team/Registration|the project]] is available. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T318592] '''Problems''' * Twice last week, for about 45 minutes, some files and thumbnails failed to load and uploads failed, mostly for logged-in users. The cause is being investigated and an incident report will be available soon. '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/45|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W45"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:32, 8 November 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24001035 --> == Tech News: 2022-46 == <section begin="technews-2022-W46"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/46|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * At Wikidata, an interwiki link can now point to a redirect page if certain conditions are met. This new feature is called [[wikidata:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:Sitelinks_to_redirects|sitelinks to redirects]]. It is needed when one wiki uses one page to cover multiple concepts but another wiki uses more pages to cover the same concepts. Your [[wikidata:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata talk:Sitelinks to redirects|feedback on the talkpage]] of the new proposed guideline is welcome. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T278962] * The <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[https://www.wikinews.org/ www.wikinews.org]</span>, <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[https://www.wikiversity.org/ www.wikiversity.org]</span>, and <span class="mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr">[https://www.wikivoyage.org/ www.wikivoyage.org]</span> portal pages now use an automated update system. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273179] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.10|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-11-15|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-11-16|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-11-17|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * There will be a new link to directly "Edit template data" on Template pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T316759] '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Wikis where mobile [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] are enabled ([[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Deployment Status|these ones]]) will soon use full CSS styling to display any templates that are placed at the top of talk pages. To adapt these “talk page boxes” for narrow mobile devices you can use media queries, such as in [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Module:Message_box/tmbox.css&oldid=1097618699#L-69 this example]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T312309] * Starting in January 2023, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Tech|Community Tech]] will be [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey/Updates/2023 Changes Update|running the Community Wishlist Survey (CWS) every two years]]. This means that in 2024, there will be no new proposals or voting. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/46|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W46"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:54, 14 November 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24071290 --> == Tech News: 2022-47 == <section begin="technews-2022-W47"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/47|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The display of non-free media in the search bar and for article thumbnails in Special:Search has been deactivated. Further details are in [[phab:T320661|T320661]]. '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-11-22|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s2.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-11-24|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s7.dblist targeted wikis]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/47|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W47"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:22, 21 November 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24071290 --> == Tech News: 2022-48 == <section begin="technews-2022-W48"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/48|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * A new preference, “Enable limited width mode”, has been added to the [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-rendering|Vector 2022 skin]]. The preference is also available as a toggle on every page if your monitor is 1600 pixels or wider. It allows for increasing the width of the page for logged-out and logged-in users. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T319449] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.12|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-11-29|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-11-30|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-12-01|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2022-11-29|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s3.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2022-12-01|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s1.dblist targeted wikis]). * Mathematical formulas shown in SVG image format will no longer have PNG fall-backs for browsers that don't support them. This is part of work to modernise the generation system. Showing only PNG versions was the default option until in February 2018. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikimedia-l@lists.wikimedia.org/message/3BGOKWJIZGL4TC4HJ22ICRU2SEPWGCR4/][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T311620][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T186327] * On [[phab:P40224|some wikis]] that use flagged revisions, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:FlaggedRevs#Special:Contributions|a new checkbox will be added]] to Special:Contributions that enables you to see only the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Pending changes|pending changes]] by a user. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T321445] '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] How media is structured in the parser's HTML output will change early next week at [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train#Wednesday group1 wikis] (but not Wikimedia Commons or Meta-Wiki). This change improves the accessibility of content, and makes it easier to write related CSS. You may need to update your site-CSS, or userscripts and gadgets. There are [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser_Unification/Media_structure/FAQ|details on what code to check, how to update the code, and where to report any related problems]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T314318] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/48|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W48"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:03, 28 November 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24114342 --> == Tech News: 2022-49 == <section begin="technews-2022-W49"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/49|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The Wikisources use a tool called ProofreadPage. ProofreadPage uses OpenSeadragon which is an open source tool. The OpenSeadragon JavaScript API has been significantly re-written to support dynamically loading images. The functionality provided by the older version of the API should still work but it is no longer supported. User scripts and gadgets should migrate over to the newer version of the API. The functionality provided by the newer version of the API is [[mw:Extension:Proofread_Page/Page_viewer#JS_API|documented on MediaWiki]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308098][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Proofread_Page/Edit-in-Sequence] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.13|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-12-06|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-12-07|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-12-08|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/49|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W49"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:41, 6 December 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24151590 --> == Tech News: 2022-50 == <section begin="technews-2022-W50"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/50|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * An [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Mobile|A/B test has begun]] at 15 Wikipedias for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#Mobile|DiscussionTools on mobile]]. Half of the editors on the [[mw:Reading/Web/Mobile|mobile web site]] will have access to the {{int:discussiontools-replybutton}} tool and other features. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T321961] * The character <code>=</code> cannot be used in new usernames, to make usernames work better with templates. Existing usernames are not affected. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T254045] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.14|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2022-12-13|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2022-12-14|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2022-12-15|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The HTML markup used by [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk_pages_project/Usability#Phase_1:_Topic_containers|show discussion metadata below section headings]] will be inserted after these headings, not inside of them. This change improves the accessibility of discussion pages for screen reader software. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T314714] '''Events''' * The fourth edition of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Coolest_Tool_Award|Coolest Tool Award]] will happen online on [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1671210002 Friday 16 December 2022 at 17:00 UTC]! The event will be live-streamed on YouTube in the [https://www.youtube.com/user/watchmediawiki MediaWiki channel] and added to Commons afterwards. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/50|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W50"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:34, 12 December 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24216570 --> == Tech News: 2022-51 == <section begin="technews-2022-W51"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/51|Translations]] are available. '''Tech News''' * Because of the [[w:en:Christmas and holiday season|holidays]] the next issue of Tech News will be sent out on 9 January 2023. '''Recent changes''' * On a user's contributions page, you can filter it for edits with a tag like 'reverted'. Now, you can also filter for all edits that are not tagged like that. This was part of a Community Wishlist 2022 request. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T119072] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] A new function has been used for gadget developers to add content underneath the title on article pages. This is considered a stable API that should work across all skins. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/ResourceLoader/Core_modules#addSubtitle|Documentation is available]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T316830] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] [[test2wiki:|One of our test wikis]] is now being served from a new infrastructure powered by [[w:Kubernetes|Kubernetes]] ([[wikitech:MediaWiki On Kubernetes|read more]]). More Wikis will switch to this new infrastructure in early 2023. Please test and let us know of any issues. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T290536] '''Problems''' * Last week, all wikis had no edit access for 9 minutes. This was caused by a database problem. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incidents/2022-12-13_sessionstore] '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week or next week. * The word "{{int:discussiontools-replybutton}}" is very short in some languages, such as Arabic ("<bdi lang="ar">ردّ</bdi>"). This makes the {{int:discussiontools-preference-label}} button on talk pages difficult to use. An arrow icon will be added to those languages. This will only be visible to editors who have the [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta Feature]] turned on. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Talk_pages_project/Usability#Status] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T323537] '''Future changes''' * Edits can be automatically "tagged" by the system software or the {{int:Abusefilter}} system. Those tags link to a help page about the tags. Soon they will also link to Recent Changes to let you see other edits tagged this way. This was a Community Wishlist 2022 request. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T301063] * The Trust & Safety tools team [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Private Incident Reporting System/Timeline and Updates|have shared new plans]] for building the Private Incident Reporting System. The system will make it easier for editors to ask for help if they are harassed or abused. * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Real Time Preview for Wikitext|Realtime Preview for Wikitext]] is coming out of beta as an enabled feature for every user of the 2010 Wikitext [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Editor|editor]] in the week of January 9, 2023. It will be available to use via the toolbar in the 2010 Wikitext editor. The feature was the 4th most popular wish of the Community Wishlist Survey 2021. '''Events''' * You can now [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Hackathon 2023/Participate|register for the Wikimedia Hackathon 2023]], taking place on May 19–21 in Athens, Greece. You can also apply for a scholarship until January 14th. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2022/51|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2022-W51"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:00, 20 December 2022 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24258101 --> == Tech News: 2023-02 == <section begin="technews-2023-W02"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/02|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * You can use tags to filter edits in the recent changes feed or on your watchlist. You can now use tags to filter out edits you don't want to see. Previously you could only use tags to focus on the edits with those tags. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T174349] * [[Special:WhatLinksHere|Special:WhatLinksHere]] shows all pages that link to a specific page. There is now a [https://wlh.toolforge.org prototype] for how to sort those pages alphabetically. You can see the discussion in the [[phab:T4306|Phabricator ticket]]. * You can now use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Thanks|thanks]] function on your watchlist and the user contribution page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T51541] * A wiki page can be moved to give it a new name. You can now get a dropdown menu with common reasons when you move a page. This is so you don't have to write the explanation every time. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T325257] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Matrix.org|Matrix]] is a chat tool. You can now use <code>matrix:</code> to create Matrix links on wiki pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T326021] * You can filter out translations when you look at the recent changes on multilingual wikis. This didn't hide translation pages. You can now also hide subpages which are translation pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T233493] '''Changes later this week''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Real Time Preview for Wikitext|Realtime preview for wikitext]] is a tool which lets editors preview the page when they edit wikitext. It will be enabled for all users of the 2010 wikitext editor. You will find it in the editor toolbar. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] Some wikis will be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. It will be performed on {{#time:j xg|2023-01-10|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s5.dblist targeted wikis]) and on {{#time:j xg|2023-01-12|en}} at 07:00 UTC ([https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s6.dblist targeted wikis]). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.18|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-01-10|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-01-11|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-01-12|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/02|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W02"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:07, 10 January 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24342971 --> == Tech News: 2023-03 == <section begin="technews-2023-W03"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/03|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The URLs in "{{int:last}}" links on page history now contain <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>diff=prev&oldid=[revision ID]</nowiki></code></bdi> in place of <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>diff=[revision ID]&oldid=[revision ID]</nowiki></code></bdi>. This is to fix a problem with links pointing to incorrect diffs when history was filtered by a tag. Some user scripts may break as a result of this change. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T243569] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.19|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-01-17|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-01-18|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-01-19|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Some [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability|changes to the appearance of talk pages]] have only been available on <code>{{ns:1}}:</code> and <code>{{ns:3}}:</code> namespaces. These will be extended to other talk namespaces, such as <code>{{ns:5}}:</code>. They will continue to be unavailable in non-talk namespaces, including <code>{{ns:4}}:</code> pages (e.g., at the Village Pump). You can [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|change your preferences]] ([[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|beta feature]]). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T325417] *On Wikisources, when an image is zoomed or panned in the Page: namespace, the same zoom and pan settings will be remembered for all Page: namespace pages that are linked to a particular Index: namespace page. [https://gerrit.wikimedia.org/r/c/mediawiki/extensions/ProofreadPage/+/868841] * The Vector 2022 skin will become the default for the English Wikipedia desktop users. The change will take place on January 18 at 15:00 UTC. [[:en:w:Wikipedia:Vector 2022|Learn more]]. '''Future changes''' * The 2023 edition of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2023|Community Wishlist Survey]], which invites contributors to make technical proposals and vote for tools and improvements, starts next week on 23 January 2023 at 18:00 UTC. You can start drafting your proposals in [[m:Community Wishlist Survey/Sandbox|the CWS sandbox]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/03|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W03"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:10, 17 January 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24381020 --> == Tech News: 2023-04 == <section begin="technews-2023-W04"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/04|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * Last week, for ~15 minutes, all wikis were unreachable for logged-in users and non-cached pages. This was caused by a timing issue. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incidents/2023-01-17_MediaWiki] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.20|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-01-24|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-01-25|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-01-26|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * If you have the Beta Feature for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project|DiscussionTools]] enabled, the appearance of talk pages will add more information about discussion activity. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Talk_pages_project/Usability#Status][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T317907] * The 2023 edition of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2023|Community Wishlist Survey]] (CWS), which invites contributors to make technical proposals and vote for tools and improvements, starts on Monday 23 January 2023 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1674496814 18:00 UTC]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/04|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W04"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:46, 23 January 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24418874 --> == Tech News: 2023-05 == <section begin="technews-2023-W05"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/05|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * Last week, for ~15 minutes, some users were unable to log in or edit pages. This was caused by a problem with session storage. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incidents/2023-01-24_sessionstore_quorum_issues] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.21|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-01-31|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-02-01|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-02-02|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Wikis that use localized numbering schemes for references need to add new CSS. This will help to show citation numbers the same way in all reading and editing modes. If your wiki would prefer to do it yourselves, please see the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification/Cite CSS|details and example CSS to copy from]], and also add your wiki to the list. Otherwise, the developers will directly help out starting the week of February 5. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/05|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W05"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:05, 31 January 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24455949 --> == Tech News: 2023-06 == <section begin="technews-2023-W06"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/06|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * In the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements|Vector 2022 skin]], logged-out users using the full-width toggle will be able to see the setting of their choice even after refreshing pages or opening new ones. This only applies to wikis where Vector 2022 is the default. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T321498] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.22|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-02-07|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-02-08|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-02-09|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Previously, we announced when some wikis would be in read-only for a few minutes because of a switch of their main database. These switches will not be announced any more, as the read-only time has become non-significant. Switches will continue to happen at 7AM UTC on Tuesdays and Thursdays. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T292543#8568433] * Across all the wikis, in the Vector 2022 skin, logged-in users will see the page-related links such as "What links here" in a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements/Features/Page_tools|new side menu]]. It will be displayed on the other side of the screen. This change had previously been made on Czech, English, and Vietnamese Wikipedias. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T328692] *[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2023|Community Wishlist Survey 2023]] will stop receiving new proposals on [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1675706431 Monday, 6 February 2023, at 18:00 UTC]. Proposers should complete any edits by then, to give time for [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey/Help_us|translations]] and review. Voting will begin on Friday, 10 February. '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Gadgets and user scripts will be changing to load on desktop and mobile sites. Previously they would only load on the desktop site. It is recommended that wiki administrators audit the [[MediaWiki:Gadgets-definition|gadget definitions]] prior to this change, and add <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>skins=…</code></bdi> for any gadgets which should not load on mobile. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T328610 More details are available]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/06|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W06"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 10:21, 6 February 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24491749 --> == Tech News: 2023-07 == <section begin="technews-2023-W07"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/07|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * On wikis where patrolled edits are enabled, changes made to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Communities/How to configure the mentors' list|mentor list]] by autopatrolled mentors are not correctly marked as patrolled. It will be fixed later this week. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T328444] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.23|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-02-14|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-02-15|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-02-16|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * The Reply tool and other parts of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#Mobile|DiscussionTools]] will be deployed for all editors using the mobile site. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk_pages_project/Mobile#Status_Updates|read more about this decision]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298060] '''Future changes''' * All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes on March 1. This is planned for [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1677679222 14:00 UTC]. More information will be published in Tech News and will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T328287][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T327920][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/07|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W07"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:48, 14 February 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24540832 --> == Tech News: 2023-08 == <section begin="technews-2023-W08"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/08|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * Last week, during planned maintenance of Cloud Services, unforeseen complications forced the team to turn off all tools for 2–3 hours to prevent data corruption. Work is ongoing to prevent similar problems in the future. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T329535] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.23|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-02-21|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-02-22|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-02-23|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). *The voting phase for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2023|Community Wishlist Survey 2023]] ends on [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1677261621 24 February at 18:00 UTC]. The results of the survey will be announced on 28 February. '''Future changes''' * All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes on March 1. This is planned for [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1677679222 14:00 UTC]. More information will be published in Tech News and will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T328287][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T327920][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/08|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W08"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:57, 21 February 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24570514 --> == Tech News: 2023-09 == <section begin="technews-2023-W09"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/09|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * Last week, in some areas of the world, there were problems with loading pages for 20 minutes and saving edits for 55 minutes. These issues were caused by a problem with our caching servers due to unforseen events during a routine maintenance task. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incidents/2023-02-22_wiki_outage][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incidents/2023-02-22_read_only] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.25|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-02-28|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-01|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-02|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes on March 1. This is planned for [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1677679222 14:00 UTC]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server_switch] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/09|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W09"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:47, 27 February 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24634242 --> == Tech News: 2023-10 == <section begin="technews-2023-W10"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/10|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The Community Wishlist Survey 2023 edition has been concluded. Community Tech has [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Results|published the results]] of the survey and will provide an update on what is next in April 2023. * On wikis which use [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Writing_systems|LanguageConverter]] to handle multiple writing systems, articles which used custom conversion rules in the wikitext (primarily on Chinese Wikipedia) would have these rules applied inconsistently in the table of contents, especially in the Vector 2022 skin. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306862] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.26|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-07|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-08|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-09|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * A search system has been added to the [[Special:Preferences|Preferences screen]]. This will let you find different options more easily. Making it work on mobile devices will happen soon. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T313804] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/10|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W10"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:49, 6 March 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24676916 --> == Tech News: 2023-11 == <section begin="technews-2023-W11"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/11|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/wmf.27|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-14|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-15|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-16|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Starting on Wednesday, a new set of Wikipedias will get "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]" ({{int:project-localized-name-cbk_zamwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-cdowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-cewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-cebwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-chwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-chrwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-chywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ckbwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-cowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-csbwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-cuwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-cvwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-cywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-itwiki/en}}). This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304542][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304550] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/11|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W11"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:20, 13 March 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24700189 --> == Tech News: 2023-12 == <section begin="technews-2023-W12"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/12|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * Last week, some users experienced issues loading image thumbnails. This was due to incorrectly cached images. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T331820] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.1|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-21|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-22|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-23|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] A link to the user's [[{{#special:CentralAuth}}]] page will appear on [[{{#special:Contributions}}]] — some user scripts which previously added this link may cause conflicts. This feature request was [[:m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Admins and patrollers/Add link to CentralAuth on Special:Contributions|voted #17 in the 2023 Community Wishlist Survey]]. * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] The [[{{#special:AbuseFilter}}]] edit window will be resizable and larger by default. This feature request was [[:m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Anti-harassment/Make the AbuseFilter edit window resizable and larger by default|voted #80 in the 2023 Community Wishlist Survey]]. * There will be a new option for Administrators when they are unblocking a user, to add the unblocked user’s user page to their watchlist. This will work both via [[{{#special:Unblock}}]] and via the API. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T257662] '''Meetings''' * You can join the next meeting with the Wikipedia mobile apps teams. During the meeting, we will discuss the current features and future roadmap. The meeting will be on [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1679677204 24 March at 17:00 (UTC)]. See [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Office Hours|details and how to join]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/12|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W12"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:25, 21 March 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24732558 --> == Tech News: 2023-13 == <section begin="technews-2023-W13"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/13|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]] condition limit was increased from 1000 to 2000. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T309609] * [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Global AbuseFilter#Locally disabled actions|Some Global AbuseFilter]] actions will no longer apply to local projects. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T332521] * Desktop users are now able to subscribe to talk pages by clicking on the {{int:discussiontools-newtopicssubscription-button-subscribe-label}} link in the {{int:toolbox}} menu. If you subscribe to a talk page, you receive [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Notifications|notifications]] when new topics are started on that talk page. This is separate from putting the page on your watchlist or subscribing to a single discussion. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T263821] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.2|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-28|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-29|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-03-30|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.40/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * You will be able to choose [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/VisualEditor/Diffs|visual diffs]] on all [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Page history|history pages]] at the Wiktionaries and Wikipedias. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T314588] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The legacy [[mw:Mobile Content Service|Mobile Content Service]] is going away in July 2023. Developers are encouraged to switch to Parsoid or another API before then to ensure service continuity. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/4MVQQTONJT7FJAXNVOFV3WWVVMCHRINE/] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/13|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W13"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:13, 28 March 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24780854 --> == Tech News: 2023-14 == <section begin="technews-2023-W14"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/14|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The system for automatically creating categories for the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Babel|Babel]] extension has had several important changes and fixes. One of them allows you to insert templates for automatic category descriptions on creation, allowing you to categorize the new categories. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T211665][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T64714][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T170654][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T184941][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T33074] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.3|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-04-04|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-04-05|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-04-06|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Some older [[w:en:Web browser|Web browsers]] will stop being able to use [[w:en:JavaScript|JavaScript]] on Wikimedia wikis from this week. This mainly affects users of Internet Explorer 11. If you have an old web browser on your computer you can try to upgrade to a newer version. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T178356] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The deprecated <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>jquery.hoverIntent</code></bdi> module has been removed. This module could be used by gadgets and user scripts, to create an artificial delay in how JavaScript responds to a hover event. Gadgets and user scripts should now use jQuery <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>hover()</code></bdi> or <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>on()</code></bdi> instead. Examples can be found in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/ResourceLoader/Migration_guide_(users)#jquery.hoverIntent|migration guide]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T311194] * Some of the links in [[{{#special:SpecialPages}}]] will be re-arranged. There will be a clearer separation between links that relate to all users, and links related to your own user account. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T333242] * You will be able to hide the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Replying|Reply button]] in archived discussion pages with a new <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>__ARCHIVEDTALK__</nowiki></code></bdi> magic word. There will also be a new <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>.mw-archivedtalk</code></bdi> CSS class for hiding the Reply button in individual sections on a page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T249293][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T295553][https://gerrit.wikimedia.org/r/c/mediawiki/extensions/DiscussionTools/+/738221] '''Future changes''' * The Vega software that creates data visualizations in pages, such as graphs, will be upgraded to the newest version in the future. Graphs that still use the very old version 1.5 syntax may stop working properly. Most existing uses have been found and updated, but you can help to check, and to update any local documentation. [[phab:T260542|Examples of how to find and fix these graphs are available]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/14|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W14"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:39, 3 April 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24820268 --> == Tech News: 2023-15 == <section begin="technews-2023-W15"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/15|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] In the visual editor, it is now possible to edit captions of images in galleries without opening the gallery dialog. This feature request was [[:m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Editing/Editable gallery captions in Visual Editor|voted #61 in the 2023 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T190224] * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] You can now receive notifications when another user edits your user page. See the "{{int:Echo-category-title-edit-user-page}}" option in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-echo|your Preferences]]. This feature request was [[:m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Anti-harassment/Notifications for user page edits|voted #3 in the 2023 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T3876] '''Problems''' * There was a problem with all types of CentralNotice banners still being shown to logged-in users even if they had [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-centralnotice-banners|turned off]] specific banner types. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T331671] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.4|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-04-11|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-04-12|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-04-13|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Starting on Wednesday, a new set of Wikipedias will get "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]" ({{int:project-localized-name-arywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-dawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-dinwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-dsbwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-eewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-elwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-emlwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-eowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-etwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-euwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-extwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tumwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ffwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-fiwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-fiu_vrowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-fjwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-fowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-frpwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-frrwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-furwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-gawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-gcrwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-gdwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-glwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-glkwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-gnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-gomwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-gotwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-guwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-gvwiki/en}}). This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304551][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308133] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/15|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W15"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:05, 10 April 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24851886 --> == Tech News: 2023-16 == <section begin="technews-2023-W16"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/16|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * You can now see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer#Show_nearby_articles|nearby articles on a Kartographer map]] with the button for the new feature "{{int:Kartographer-sidebar-nearbybutton}}". Six wikis have been testing this feature since October. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/Geoinformation/Nearby_articles#Implementation][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334079] * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] The [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlist|Special:GlobalWatchlist]] page now has links for "{{int:globalwatchlist-markpageseen}}" for each entry. This feature request was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Notifications, Watchlists and Talk Pages/Button to mark a single change as read in the global watch list|voted #161 in the 2023 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334246] '''Problems''' * At Wikimedia Commons, some thumbnails have not been getting replaced correctly after a new version of the image is uploaded. This should be fixed later this week. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T331138][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T333042] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] For the last few weeks, some external tools had inconsistent problems with logging-in with OAuth. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T332650] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.5|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-04-18|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-04-19|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-04-20|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/16|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W16"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:54, 18 April 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24881071 --> == Tech News: 2023-17 == <section begin="technews-2023-W17"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/17|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] The date-selection menu on pages such as [[{{#special:Contributions}}]] will now show year-ranges that are in the current and past decade, instead of the current and future decade. This feature request was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Miscellaneous/Change year range shown in date selection popup|voted #145 in the 2023 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334316] '''Problems''' * Due to security issues with the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Graph|Graph extension]], graphs have been disabled in all Wikimedia projects. Wikimedia Foundation teams are working to respond to these vulnerabilities. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334940] * For a few days, it was not possible to save some kinds of edits on the mobile version of a wiki. This has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334797][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334799][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334794] '''Changes later this week''' * All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes on April 26. This is planned for [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1682517653 14:00 UTC]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server_switch] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.6|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-04-25|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-04-26|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-04-27|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * The Editing team plans an A/B test for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability|a usability analysis of the Talk page project]]. The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Analysis|planned measurements are available]]. Your wiki [[phab:T332946|may be invited to participate]]. Please suggest improvements to the measurement plan at [[mw:Talk:Talk pages project/Usability|the discussion page]]. * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2023-2024|The Wikimedia Foundation annual plan 2023-2024 draft is open for comment and input]] until May 19. The final plan will be published in July 2023 on Meta-wiki. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/17|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W17"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:03, 24 April 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24933592 --> == Tech News: 2023-18 == <section begin="technews-2023-W18"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/18|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] The content attribution tools [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Who Wrote That?|Who Wrote That?]], [[xtools:authorship|XTools Authorship]], and [[xtools:blame|XTools Blame]] now support the French and Italian Wikipedias. More languages will be added in the near future. This is part of the [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Reading/Extend "Who Wrote That?" tool to more wikis|#7 wish in the 2023 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T243711][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T270490][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334891] * The [[:commons:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Video2commons|Video2commons]] tool has been updated. This fixed several bugs related to YouTube uploads. [https://github.com/toolforge/video2commons/pull/162/commits] * The [[{{#special:Preferences}}]] page has been redesigned on mobile web. The new design makes it easier to browse the different categories and settings at low screen widths. You can also now access the page via a link in the Settings menu in the mobile web sidebar. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Moderator_Tools/Content_moderation_on_mobile_web/Preferences] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.7|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-02|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-03|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-04|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/18|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W18"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:45, 2 May 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24966974 --> == Tech News: 2023-19 == <section begin="technews-2023-W19"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/19|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] Last week, Community Tech released the first update for providing [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Better diff handling of paragraph splits|better diffs]], the #1 request in the 2022 Community Wishlist Survey. [[phab:T324759|This update]] adds legends and tooltips to inline diffs so that users unfamiliar with the blue and yellow highlights can better understand the type of edits made. * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] When you close an image that is displayed via MediaViewer, it will now return to the wiki page instead of going back in your browser history. This feature request was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Reading/Return to the article when closing the MediaViewer|voted #65 in the 2023 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T236591] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:SyntaxHighlight|SyntaxHighlight]] extension now supports <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr"><code>wikitext</code></bdi> as a selected language. Old alternatives that were used to highlight wikitext, such as <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr"><code>html5</code></bdi>, <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr"><code>moin</code></bdi>, and <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr"><code>html+handlebars</code></bdi>, can now be replaced. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T29828] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Creating pages with preloaded text|Preloading text to new pages/sections]] now supports preloading from localized MediaWiki interface messages. [https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Martin_Urbanec_(WMF)?action=edit&section=new&preload=MediaWiki:July Here is an example] at the {{int:project-localized-name-cswiki/en}} that uses <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>preload=MediaWiki:July</nowiki></code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T330337] '''Problems''' * Graph Extension update: Foundation developers have completed upgrading the visualization software to Vega5. Existing community graphs based on Vega2 are no longer compatible. Communities need to update local graphs and templates, and shared lua modules like <bdi lang="de" dir="ltr">[[:de:Modul:Graph]]</bdi>. The [https://vega.github.io/vega/docs/porting-guide/ Vega Porting guide] provides the most comprehensive detail on migration from Vega2 and [https://www.mediawiki.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Graph:PageViews&action=history here is an example migration]. Vega5 has currently just been enabled on mediawiki.org to provide a test environment for communities. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334940#8813922] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.8|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-09|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-10|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-11|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Until now, all new OAuth apps went through manual review. Starting this week, apps using identification-only or basic authorizations will not require review. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T67750] '''Future changes''' * During the next year, MediaWiki will stop using IP addresses to identify logged-out users, and will start automatically assigning unique temporary usernames. Read more at [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Updates|IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Updates]]. You can [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#What should it look like?|join the discussion]] about the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Updates#What will temporary usernames look like?|format of the temporary usernames]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T332805] * There will be an [[:w:en:A/B testing|A/B test]] on 10 Wikipedias where the Vector 2022 skin is the default skin. Half of logged-in desktop users will see an interface where the different parts of the page are more clearly separated. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Updates/2023-05 Zebra9 A/B test|read more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T333180][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T335972] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] <code>jquery.tipsy</code> will be removed from the MediaWiki core. This will affect some user scripts. Many lines with <code>.tipsy(</code> can be commented out. <code>OO.ui.PopupWidget</code> can be used to keep things working like they are now. You can [[phab:T336019|read more]] and [[:mw:Help:Locating broken scripts|read about how to find broken scripts]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T336019] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/19|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W19"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:36, 9 May 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=24998636 --> == Tech News: 2023-20 == <section begin="technews-2023-W20"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/20|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * Citations that are automatically generated based on [[d:Q33057|ISBN]] are currently broken. This affects citations made with the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:VisualEditor/User_guide/Citations-Full#Automatic|VisualEditor Automatic tab]], and the use of the citoid API in gadgets and user scripts. Work is ongoing to restore this feature. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T336298] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.9|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-16|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-17|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-18|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Starting on Wednesday, a new set of Wikipedias will get "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]" ({{int:project-localized-name-gorwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hakwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hawwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hifwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hrwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hsbwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-htwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-iawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-iewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-igwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ilowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-inhwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-iowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-iswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-iuwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-jamwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-jvwiki/en}}). This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308134] '''Future changes''' * There is a recently formed team at the Wikimedia Foundation which will be focusing on experimenting with new tools. Currently they are building [[m:Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2023-2024/Draft/Future_Audiences#FA2.2_Conversational_AI|a prototype ChatGPT plugin that allows information generated by ChatGPT to be properly attributed]] to the Wikimedia projects. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Gadget and userscript developers should replace <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>jquery.cookie</code></bdi> with <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>mediawiki.cookie</code></bdi>. The <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>jquery.cookie</code></bdi> library will be removed in ~1 month, and staff developers will run a script to replace any remaining uses at that time. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T336018] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/20|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W20"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:45, 15 May 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25011501 --> == Tech News: 2023-21 == <section begin="technews-2023-W21"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/21|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] The "recent edits" time period for page watchers is now 30 days. It used to be 180 days. This was a [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Notifications, Watchlists and Talk Pages/Change information about the number of watchers on a page|Community Wishlist Survey proposal]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T336250] '''Changes later this week''' * An [[mw:special:MyLanguage/Growth/Positive reinforcement#Impact|improved impact module]] will be available at Wikipedias. The impact module is a feature available to newcomers [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature summary#Newcomer homepage|at their personal homepage]]. It will show their number of edits, how many readers their edited pages have, how many thanks they have received and similar things. It is also accessible by accessing Special:Impact. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T336203] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.10|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-23|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-24|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-25|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/21|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W21"/> 16:55, 22 May 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25028325 --> == Tech News: 2023-22 == <section begin="technews-2023-W22"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/22|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Citations can once again be added automatically from ISBNs, thanks to Zotero's ISBN searches. The current data sources are the Library of Congress (United States), the Bibliothèque nationale de France (French National Library), and K10plus ISBN (German repository). Additional data source searches can be [[mw:Citoid/Creating Zotero translators|proposed to Zotero]]. The ISBN labels in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:VisualEditor/User_guide/Citations-Full#Automatic|VisualEditor Automatic tab]] will reappear later this week. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T336298#8859917] * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] The page [[{{#special:EditWatchlist}}]] now has "{{int:watchlistedit-normal-check-all}}" options to select all the pages within a namespace. This feature request was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Notifications, Watchlists and Talk Pages/Watchlist edit - "check all" checkbox|voted #161 in the 2023 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334252] '''Problems''' * For a few days earlier this month, the "Add interlanguage link" item in the Tools menu did not work properly. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T337081] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.11|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-30|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-05-31|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-06-01|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * VisualEditor will be switched to a new backend on [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/source/mediawiki-config/browse/master/dblists/small.dblist small] and [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/source/mediawiki-config/browse/master/dblists/medium.dblist medium] wikis this week. Large wikis will follow in the coming weeks. This is part of the effort to move Parsoid into MediaWiki core. The change should have no noticeable effect on users, but if you experience any slow loading or other strangeness when using VisualEditor, please report it on the phabricator ticket linked here. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T320529] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/22|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W22"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:03, 29 May 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25079963 --> == Tech News: 2023-23 == <section begin="technews-2023-W23"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/23|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:RealMe|RealMe]] extension allows you to mark URLs on your user page as verified for Mastodon and similar software. * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] Citation and footnote editing can now be started from the reference list when using the visual editor. This feature request was [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Citations/Allow citations to be edited in the references section with VisualEditor|voted #2 in the 2023 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T54750] * Previously, clicking on someone else's link to Recent Changes with filters applied within the URL could unintentionally change your preference for "{{int:Rcfilters-group-results-by-page}}". This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T202916#8874081] '''Problems''' * For a few days last week, some tools and bots returned outdated information due to database replication problems, and may have been down entirely while it was being fixed. These issues have now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T337446] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.12|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-06-06|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-06-07|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-06-08|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Bots will no longer be prevented from making edits because of URLs that match the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:SpamBlacklist|spam blacklist]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T313107] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/23|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W23"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:52, 5 June 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25114640 --> == Tech News: 2023-24 == <section begin="technews-2023-W24"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/24|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] The content attribution tools [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Who Wrote That?|Who Wrote That?]], [[xtools:authorship|XTools Authorship]], and [[xtools:blame|XTools Blame]] now support the Dutch, German, Hungarian, Indonesian, Japanese, Polish and Portuguese Wikipedias. This was the [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Reading/Extend "Who Wrote That?" tool to more wikis|#7 wish in the 2023 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334891] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Structured Data Across Wikimedia/Search Improvements#Search Preview panel|Search Preview panel]] has been deployed on four Wikipedias (Catalan, Dutch, Hungarian and Norwegian). The panel will show an image related to the article (if existing), the top sections of the article, related images (coming from MediaSearch on Commons), and eventually the sister projects associated with the article. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306341] * The [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:RealMe#Verifying_a_link_on_non-user_pages|RealMe]] extension now allows administrators to verify URLs for any page, for Mastodon and similar software. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T324937] * The default project license [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikimediaannounce-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/7G6XPWZPQFLZ2JANN3ZX6RT4DVUI3HZQ/ has been officially upgraded] to CC BY-SA 4.0. The software interface messages have been updated. Communities should feel free to start updating any mentions of the old CC BY-SA 3.0 licensing within policies and related documentation pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T319064] '''Problems''' * For three days last month, some Wikipedia pages edited with VisualEditor or DiscussionTools had an unintended <code><nowiki>__TOC__</nowiki></code> (or its localized form) added during an edit. There is [[mw:Parsoid/Deployments/T336101_followup|a listing of affected pages sorted by wiki]], that may still need to be fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T336101] * Currently, the "{{int:Visualeditor-dialog-meta-categories-defaultsort-label}}" feature in VisualEditor is broken. Existing <code><nowiki>{{DEFAULTSORT:...}}</nowiki></code> keywords incorrectly appear as missing templates in VisualEditor. Developers are exploring how to fix this. In the meantime, those wishing to edit the default sortkey of a page are advised to switch to source editing. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T337398] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Last week, an update to the delete form may have broken some gadgets or user scripts. If you need to manipulate (empty) the reason field, replace <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>#wpReason</code></bdi> with <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr" style="white-space: nowrap;"><code>#wpReason > input</code></bdi>. See [https://cs.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki%3AGadget-CleanDeleteReasons.js&diff=22859956&oldid=12794189 an example fix]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T337809] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.13|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-06-13|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-06-14|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-06-15|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * VisualEditor will be switched to a new backend on English Wikipedia on Monday, and all other [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/source/mediawiki-config/browse/master/dblists/large.dblist large] wikis on Thursday. The change should have no noticeable effect on users, but if you experience any slow loading or other strangeness when using VisualEditor, please report it on the phabricator ticket linked here. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T320529] '''Future changes''' * From 5 June to 17 July, the Foundation's [[:mw:Wikimedia Security Team|Security team]] is holding a consultation with contributors regarding a draft policy to govern the use of third-party resources in volunteer-developed gadgets and scripts. Feedback and suggestions are warmly welcome at [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Third-party resources policy|Third-party resources policy]] on meta-wiki. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/24|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W24"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 14:51, 12 June 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25133779 --> == Tech News: 2023-25 == <section begin="technews-2023-W25"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/25|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Flame graphs are now available in WikimediaDebug. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/JXNQD3EHG5V5QW5UXFDPSHQG4MJ3FWJQ/][https://techblog.wikimedia.org/2023/06/08/flame-graphs-arrive-in-wikimediadebug/] '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. * There is now a toolbar search popup in the visual editor. You can trigger it by typing <code>\</code> or pressing <code>ctrl + shift + p</code>. It can help you quickly access most tools in the editor. [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Visual_editor_toolbar_search_feature.png][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T66905] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/25|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W25"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:08, 19 June 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25159510 --> == Tech News: 2023-26 == <section begin="technews-2023-W26"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/26|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The Action API modules and Special:LinkSearch will now add a trailing <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>/</code></bdi> to all <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>prop=extlinks</code></bdi> responses for bare domains. This is part of the work to remove duplication in the <code>externallinks</code> database table. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T337994] '''Problems''' * Last week, search was broken on Commons and Wikidata for 23 hours. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T339810][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incidents/2023-06-18_search_broken_on_wikidata_and_commons] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.15|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-06-27|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-06-28|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-06-29|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The Minerva skin now applies more predefined styles to the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>.mbox-text</code></bdi> CSS class. This enables support for mbox templates that use divs instead of tables. Please make sure that the new styles won't affect other templates in your wiki. [https://gerrit.wikimedia.org/r/c/mediawiki/skins/MinervaNeue/+/930901/][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T339040] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Gadgets will now load on both desktop and mobile by default. Previously, gadgets loaded only on desktop by default. Changing this default using the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>|targets=</code></bdi> parameter is also deprecated and should not be used. You should make gadgets work on mobile or disable them based on the skin (with the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>|skins=</code></bdi> parameter in <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">MediaWiki:Gadgets-definition</bdi>) rather than whether the user uses the mobile or the desktop website. Popular gadgets that create errors on mobile will be disabled by developers on the Minerva skin as a temporary solution. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T127268] * All namespace tabs now have the same browser [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Keyboard_shortcuts|access key]] by default. Previously, custom and extension-defined namespaces would have to have their access keys set manually on-wiki, but that is no longer necessary. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T22126] * The review form of the Flagged Revisions extension now uses the standardized [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Codex|user interface components]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T191156] '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] How media is structured in the parser's HTML output will change in the coming weeks at [[:wikitech:Deployments/Train#Thursday|group2 wikis]]. This change improves the accessibility of content. You may need to update your site-CSS, or userscripts and gadgets. There are [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser_Unification/Media_structure/FAQ|details on what code to check, how to update the code, and where to report any related problems]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T314318] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/26|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W26"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 16:18, 26 June 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25202311 --> == Tech News: 2023-27 == <section begin="technews-2023-W27"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/27|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] As part of the rolling out of the [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Multimedia and Commons/Audio links that play on click|audio links that play on click]] wishlist proposal, [https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/small.dblist small wikis] will now be able to use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Phonos#Inline audio player mode|inline audio player]] that is implemented by the [[mw:Extension:Phonos|Phonos]] extension. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T336763] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] From this week all gadgets automatically load on mobile and desktop sites. If you see any problems with gadgets on your wikis, please adjust the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Gadgets#Options|gadget options]] in your gadget definitions file. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T328610] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.16|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-07-04|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-07-05|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-07-06|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/27|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W27"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:51, 3 July 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25231546 --> == Tech News: 2023-28 == <section begin="technews-2023-W28"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/28|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Structured Data Across Wikimedia/Section-level Image Suggestions|Section-level Image Suggestions feature]] has been deployed on seven Wikipedias (Portuguese, Russian, Indonesian, Catalan, Hungarian, Finnish and Norwegian Bokmål). The feature recommends images for articles on contributors' watchlists that are a good match for individual sections of those articles. * [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Global AbuseFilter|Global abuse filters]] have been enabled on all Wikimedia projects, except English and Japanese Wikipedias (who opted out). This change was made following a [[:m:Requests for comment/Make global abuse filters opt-out|global request for comments]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T341159] * [[{{#special:BlockedExternalDomains}}]] is a new tool for administrators to help fight spam. It provides a clearer interface for blocking plain domains (and their subdomains), is more easily searchable, and is faster for the software to process for each edit on the wiki. It does not support regex (for complex cases), nor URL path-matching, nor the [[MediaWiki:Spam-whitelist|MediaWiki:Spam-whitelist]], but otherwise it replaces most of the functionalities of the existing [[MediaWiki:Spam-blacklist|MediaWiki:Spam-blacklist]]. There is a Python script to help migrate all simple domains into this tool, and more feature details, within [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:BlockedExternalDomains|the tool's documentation]]. It is available at all wikis except for Meta-wiki, Commons, and Wikidata. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T337431] * The WikiEditor extension was updated. It includes some of the most frequently used features of wikitext editing. In the past, many of its messages could only be translated by administrators, but now all regular translators on translatewiki can translate them. Please check [https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Special:MessageGroupStats?group=ext-wikieditor&messages=&x=D#sortable:0=asc the state of WikiEditor localization into your language], and if the "Completion" for your language shows anything less than 100%, please complete the translation. See [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-ambassadors@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/D4YELU2DXMZ75PGELUOKXXMFF3FH45XA/ a more detailed explanation]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.17|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-07-11|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-07-12|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-07-13|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * The default protocol of [[{{#special:LinkSearch}}]] and API counterparts has changed from http to both http and https. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T14810] * [[{{#special:LinkSearch}}]] and its API counterparts will now search for all of the URL provided in the query. It used to be only the first 60 characters. This feature was requested fifteen years ago. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T17218] '''Future changes''' * There is an experiment with a [[:w:en:ChatGPT|ChatGPT]] plugin. This is to show users where the information is coming from when they read information from Wikipedia. It has been tested by Wikimedia Foundation staff and other Wikimedians. Soon all ChatGPT plugin users can use the Wikipedia plugin. This is the same plugin which was mentioned in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/20|Tech News 2023/20]]. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2023-2024/Draft/Future_Audiences#FA2.2_Conversational_AI] * There is an ongoing discussion on a [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Third-party resources policy|proposed Third-party resources policy]]. The proposal will impact the use of third-party resources in gadgets and userscripts. Based on the ideas received so far, policy includes some of the risks related to user scripts and gadgets loading third-party resources, some best practices and exemption requirements such as code transparency and inspectability. Your feedback and suggestions are warmly welcome until July 17, 2023 on [[m:Talk:Third-party resources policy|on the policy talk page]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/28|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W28"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:54, 10 July 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25278797 --> == Tech News: 2023-29 == <section begin="technews-2023-W29"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/29|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] We are now serving 1% of all global user traffic from [[w:en:Kubernetes|Kubernetes]] (you can [[wikitech:MediaWiki On Kubernetes|read more technical details]]). We are planning to increment this percentage regularly. You can [[phab:T290536|follow the progress of this work]]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.18|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-07-18|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-07-19|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-07-20|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] MediaWiki [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:System_message|system messages]] will now look for available local fallbacks, instead of always using the default fallback defined by software. This means wikis no longer need to override each language on the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Language#Fallback_languages|fallback chain]] separately. For example, English Wikipedia doesn't have to create <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>en-ca</code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>en-gb</code></bdi> subpages with a transclusion of the base pages anymore. This makes it easier to maintain local overrides. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T229992] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>action=growthsetmentorstatus</code></bdi> API will be deprecated with the new MediaWiki version. Bots or scripts calling that API should use the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>action=growthmanagementorlist</code></bdi> API now. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T321503] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/29|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W29"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:08, 17 July 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25289122 --> == Tech News: 2023-30 == <section begin="technews-2023-W30"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/30|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] On July 18, the Wikimedia Foundation launched a survey about the [[:mw:Technical_decision_making|technical decision making process]] for people who do technical work that relies on software that is maintained by the Foundation or affiliates. If this applies to you, [https://wikimediafoundation.limesurvey.net/885471 please take part in the survey]. The survey will be open for three weeks, until August 7. You can find more information in [[listarchive:list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/Q7DUCFA75DXG3G2KHTO7CEWMLCYTSDB2/|the announcement e-mail on wikitech-l]]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.19|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-07-25|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-07-26|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-07-27|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/30|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W30"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 02:20, 25 July 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25332248 --> == Tech News: 2023-31 == <section begin="technews-2023-W31"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/31|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The [[mw:Synchronizer|Synchronizer]] tool is now available to keep Lua modules synced across Wikimedia wikis, along with [[mw:Multilingual Templates and Modules|updated documentation]] to develop global Lua modules and templates. * The tag filter on [[{{#special:NewPages}}]] and revision history pages can now be inverted. For example, you can hide edits that were made using an automated tool. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334337][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334338] * The Wikipedia [[:w:en:ChatGPT|ChatGPT]] plugin experiment can now be used by ChatGPT users who can use plugins. You can participate in a [[:m:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2023-2024/Draft/Future Audiences#Announcing monthly Future Audiences open "office hours"|video call]] if you want to talk about this experiment or similar work. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2023-2024/Draft/Future_Audiences#FA2.2_Conversational_AI] '''Problems''' * It was not possible to generate a PDF for pages with non-Latin characters in the title, for the last two weeks. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T342442] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.20|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-08-01|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-08-02|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-08-03|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Starting on Tuesday, a new set of Wikipedias will get "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]" ({{int:project-localized-name-kawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kaawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kabwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kbdwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kbpwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kiwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kkwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kmwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-knwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kshwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kuwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kwwiki/en}}). This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308135] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/31|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W31"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:54, 31 July 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25362228 --> == Tech News: 2023-32 == <section begin="technews-2023-W32"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/32|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Mobile Web editors can now [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Advanced_mobile_contributions#August_1,_2023_-_Full-page_editing_added_on_mobile|edit a whole page at once]]. To use this feature, turn on "{{int:Mobile-frontend-mobile-option-amc}}" in your settings and use the "{{int:Minerva-page-actions-editfull}}" button in the "{{int:Minerva-page-actions-overflow}}" menu. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T203151] '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/32|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W32"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:20, 7 August 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25420038 --> == Tech News: 2023-33 == <section begin="technews-2023-W33"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/33|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The Content translation system is no longer using Youdao's [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Content_translation/Translating/Initial_machine_translation|machine translation service]]. The service was in place for several years, but due to no usage, and availability of alternatives, it was deprecated to reduce maintenance overheads. Other services which cover the same languages are still available. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T329137] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.22|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-08-15|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-08-16|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-08-17|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Starting on Wednesday, a new set of Wikipedias will get "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]" ({{int:project-localized-name-lawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ladwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-lbwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-lbewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-lezwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-lfnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-lgwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-liwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-lijwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-lmowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-lnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ltgwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-lvwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-maiwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-map_bmswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mdfwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mgwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kywiki/en}}). This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308136] <!-- TODO replace wiki codes --> '''Future changes''' * A few gadgets/user scripts which add icons to the Minerva skin need to have their CSS updated. There are more details available including a [[phab:T344067|search for all existing instances and how to update them]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/33|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W33"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 05:59, 15 August 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25428668 --> == Tech News: 2023-34 == <section begin="technews-2023-W34"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/34|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [https://gdrive-to-commons.toolforge.org/ GDrive to Commons Uploader] tool is now available. It enables [[m:Special:MyLanguage/GDrive to Commons Uploader|securely selecting and uploading files]] from your Google Drive directly to Wikimedia Commons. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T267868] * From now on, we will announce new Wikimedia wikis in Tech News, so you can update any tools or pages. ** Since the last edition, two new wikis have been created: *** a Wiktionary in [[d:Q7121294|Pa'O]] ([[wikt:blk:|<code>wikt:blk:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T343540] *** a Wikisource in [[d:Q34002|Sundanese]] ([[s:su:|<code>s:su:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T343539] ** To catch up, the next most recent six wikis are: *** Wikifunctions ([[f:|<code>f:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275945] *** a Wiktionary in [[d:Q2891049|Mandailing]] ([[wikt:btm:|<code>wikt:btm:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T335216] *** a Wikipedia in [[d:Q5555465|Ghanaian Pidgin]] ([[w:gpe:|<code>w:gpe:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T335969] *** a Wikinews in [[d:Q3111668|Gungbe]] ([[n:guw:|<code>n:guw:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334394] *** a Wiktionary in [[d:Q33522|Kabardian]] ([[wikt:kbd:|<code>wikt:kbd:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T333266] *** a Wikipedia in [[d:Q35570|Fante]] ([[w:fat:|<code>w:fat:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T335016] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.23|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-08-22|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-08-23|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-08-24|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] There is an existing [[mw:Stable interface policy|stable interface policy]] for MediaWiki backend code. There is a [[mw:User:Jdlrobson/Stable interface policy/frontend|proposed stable interface policy for frontend code]]. This is relevant for anyone who works on gadgets or Wikimedia frontend code. You can read it, discuss it, and let the proposer know if there are any problems. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T344079] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/34|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W34"/> 15:25, 21 August 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25497111 --> == Tech News: 2023-35 == <section begin="technews-2023-W35"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/35|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] As part of the changes for the [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Better diff handling of paragraph splits|better diff handling of paragraph splits]], improved detection of splits is being rolled out. Over the last two weeks, we deployed this support to [[wikitech:Deployments/Train#Groups|group0]] and group1 wikis. This week it will be deployed to group2 wikis. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T341754] * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] All [[{{#special:Contributions}}]] pages now show the user's local edit count and the account's creation date. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T324166] * Wikisource users can now use the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>prpbengalicurrency</code></bdi> label to denote Bengali currency characters as page numbers inside the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><pagelist></nowiki></code></bdi> tag. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T268932] * Two preferences have been relocated. The preference "{{int:visualeditor-preference-visualeditor}}" is now shown on the [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|"{{int:prefs-editing}}" tab]] at all wikis. Previously it was shown on the "{{int:prefs-betafeatures}}" tab at some wikis. The preference "{{int:visualeditor-preference-newwikitexteditor-enable}}" is now also shown on the "{{int:prefs-editing}}" tab at all wikis, instead of the "{{int:prefs-betafeatures}}" tab. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T335056][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T344158] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.24|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-08-29|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-08-30|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-08-31|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] New signups for a Wikimedia developer account will start being pushed towards <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[https://idm.wikimedia.org/ idm.wikimedia.org]</bdi>, rather than going via Wikitech. [[wikitech:IDM|Further information about the new system is available]]. * All right-to-left language wikis, plus Korean, Armenian, Ukrainian, Russian, and Bulgarian Wikipedias, will have a link in the sidebar that provides a short URL of that page, using the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia URL Shortener|Wikimedia URL Shortener]]. This feature will come to more wikis in future weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T267921] '''Future changes''' * The removal of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:DoubleWiki|DoubleWiki extension]] is being discussed. This extension currently allows Wikisource users to view articles from multiple language versions side by side when the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><=></code></bdi> symbol next to a specific language edition is selected. Comments on this are welcomed at [[phab:T344544|the phabricator task]]. * A proposal has been made to merge the second hidden-categories list (which appears below the wikitext editing form) with the main list of categories (which is further down the page). [[phab:T340606|More information is available on Phabricator]]; feedback is welcome! '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/35|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W35"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 14:00, 28 August 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25510866 --> == Tech News: 2023-36 == <section begin="technews-2023-W36"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/36|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[m:Wikisource_EditInSequence|EditInSequence]], a feature that allows users to edit pages faster on Wikisource has been moved to a Beta Feature based on community feedback. To enable it, you can navigate to the [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|beta features tab in Preferences]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308098] * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] As part of the changes for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Generate Audio for IPA|Generate Audio for IPA]] and [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Multimedia and Commons/Audio links that play on click|Audio links that play on click]] wishlist proposals, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Phonos#Inline_audio_player_mode|inline audio player mode]] of [[mw:Extension:Phonos|Phonos]] has been deployed to all projects. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T336763] * There is a new option for Administrators when they are changing the usergroups for a user, to add the user’s user page to their watchlist. This works both via [[{{#special:UserRights}}]] and via the API. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T272294] * One new wiki has been created: ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q34318|Talysh]] ([[w:tly:|<code>w:tly:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T345166] '''Problems''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:LoginNotify|LoginNotify extension]] was not sending notifications since January. It has now been fixed, so going forward, you may see notifications for failed login attempts, and successful login attempts from a new device. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T344785] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.25|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-09-05|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-09-06|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-09-07|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Starting on Wednesday, a new set of Wikipedias will get "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]" ({{int:project-localized-name-mhrwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-miwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-minwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mkwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mlwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mrwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mrjwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mtwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mwlwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-myvwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mznwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nahwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-napwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ndswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nds_nlwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-newiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-newwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-novwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nqowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nrmwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nsowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nvwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ocwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-olowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-omwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-orwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-oswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-pawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-pagwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-pamwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-papwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-pcdwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-pdcwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-pflwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-pihwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-pmswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-pnbwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-pntwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-pswiki/en}}). This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308137][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308138] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/36|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W36"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:33, 4 September 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25566983 --> == Tech News: 2023-37 == <section begin="technews-2023-W37"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/37|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/ORES|ORES]], the revision evaluation service, is now using a new open-source infrastructure on all wikis except for English Wikipedia and Wikidata. These two will follow this week. If you notice any unusual results from the Recent Changes filters that are related to ORES (for example, "{{int:ores-rcfilters-damaging-title}}" and "{{int:ores-rcfilters-goodfaith-title}}"), please [[mw:Talk:Machine Learning|report them]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T342115] * When you are logged in on one Wikimedia wiki and visit a different Wikimedia wiki, the system tries to log you in there automatically. This has been unreliable for a long time. You can now visit the login page to make the system try extra hard. If you feel that made logging in better or worse than it used to be, your feedback is appreciated. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T326281] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.26|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-09-12|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-09-13|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-09-14|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Technical decision making|Technical Decision-Making Forum Retrospective]] team invites anyone involved in the technical field of Wikimedia projects to signup to and join [[mw:Technical decision making/Listening Sessions|one of their listening sessions]] on 13 September. Another date will be scheduled later. The goal is to improve the technical decision-making processes. * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] As part of the changes for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2022/Better diff handling of paragraph splits|Better diff handling of paragraph splits]] wishlist proposal, the inline switch widget in diff pages is being rolled out this week to all wikis. The inline switch will allow viewers to toggle between a unified inline or two-column diff wikitext format. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T336716] '''Future changes''' * All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes on 20 September. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|This is planned at 14:00 UTC.]] More information will be published in Tech News and will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T345263] * The Enterprise API is launching a new feature called "[http://breakingnews-beta.enterprise.wikimedia.com/ breaking news]". Currently in BETA, this attempts to identify likely "newsworthy" topics as they are currently being written about in any Wikipedia. Your help is requested to improve the accuracy of its detection model, especially on smaller language editions, by recommending templates or identifiable editing patterns. See more information at [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise/Breaking news|the documentation page]] on MediaWiki or [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise/FAQ#What is Breaking News|the FAQ]] on Meta. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/37|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W37"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:07, 11 September 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25589064 --> == Tech News: 2023-38 == <section begin="technews-2023-W38"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/38|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] MediaWiki now has a [[mw:Stable interface policy/frontend|stable interface policy for frontend code]] that more clearly defines how we deprecate MediaWiki code and wiki-based code (e.g. gadgets and user scripts). Thank you to everyone who contributed to the content and discussions. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T346467][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T344079] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.27|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-09-19|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-09-20|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-09-21|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes on September 20. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|This is planned at 14:00 UTC.]] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T345263] * All wikis will have a link in the sidebar that provides a short URL of that page, using the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia URL Shortener|Wikimedia URL Shortener]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T267921] '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The team investigating the Graph Extension posted [[mw:Extension:Graph/Plans#Proposal|a proposal for reenabling it]] and they need your input. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/38|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W38"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:19, 18 September 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25623533 --> == Tech News: 2023-39 == <section begin="technews-2023-W39"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/39|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The Vector 2022 skin will now remember the pinned/unpinned status for the Table of Contents for all logged-out users. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T316060] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.28|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-09-26|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-09-27|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-09-28|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The ResourceLoader <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>mediawiki.ui</nowiki></code></bdi> modules are now deprecated as part of the move to Vue.js and Codex. There is a [[mw:Codex/Migrating_from_MediaWiki_UI|guide for migrating from MediaWiki UI to Codex]] for any tools that use it. More [[phab:T346468|details are available in the task]] and your questions are welcome there. * Gadget definitions will have a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Gadgets#Options|new "namespaces" option]]. The option takes a list of namespace IDs. Gadgets that use this option will only load on pages in the given namespaces. '''Future changes''' * New variables will be added to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]]: <code><bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr">global_account_groups</bdi></code> and <code><bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr">global_account_editcount</bdi></code>. They are available only when an account is being created. You can use them to prevent blocking automatic creation of accounts when users with many edits elsewhere visit your wiki for the first time. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T345632][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter/Rules_format] '''Meetings''' * You can join the next meeting with the Wikipedia mobile apps teams. During the meeting, we will discuss the current features and future roadmap. The meeting will be on [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1698426015 27 October at 17:00 (UTC)]. See [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Apps/Office_Hours#October_2023|details and how to join]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/39|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W39"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 16:51, 26 September 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25655264 --> == Tech News: 2023-40 == <section begin="technews-2023-W40"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/40|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * There is a new [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-rendering-advancedrendering|user preference]] for "{{int:tog-forcesafemode}}". This setting will make pages load without including any on-wiki JavaScript or on-wiki stylesheet pages. It can be useful for debugging broken JavaScript gadgets. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T342347] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Gadget definitions now have a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Gadgets#Options|new "<var>contentModels</var>" option]]. The option takes a list of page content models, like <code><bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr">wikitext</bdi></code> or <code><bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr">css</bdi></code>. Gadgets that use this option will only load on pages with the given content models. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.29|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-03|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-04|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-05|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The Vector 2022 skin will no longer use the custom styles and scripts of Vector legacy (2010). The change will be made later this year or in early 2024. See [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Features/Loading Vector 2010 scripts|how to adjust the CSS and JS pages on your wiki]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T331679] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/40|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W40"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:26, 3 October 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25686930 --> == Tech News: 2023-41 == <section begin="technews-2023-W41"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/41|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q33291|Fon]] ([[w:fon:|<code>w:fon:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T347935] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/wmf.30|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-10|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-11|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-12|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Starting on Wednesday, a new set of Wikipedias will get "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]" ({{int:project-localized-name-swwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-wawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-warwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-wowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-xalwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-xhwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-xmfwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-yiwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-yowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-zawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-zeawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-zh_min_nanwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-zuwiki/en}}). This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308139] * At some wikis, newcomers are suggested images from Commons to add to articles without any images. Starting on Tuesday, newcomers at these wikis will be able to add images to unillustrated article sections. The specific wikis are listed under "Images recommendations" [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Deployment table|at the Growth team deployment table]]. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add an image|learn more about this feature.]] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T345940] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] In the mobile web skin (Minerva) the CSS ID <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>#page-actions</nowiki></code></bdi> will be replaced with <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>#p-views</nowiki></code></bdi>. This change is to make it consistent with other skins and to improve support for gadgets and extensions in the mobile skin. A few gadgets may need to be updated; there are [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T348267 details and search-links in the task]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/41|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W41"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 14:39, 9 October 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25712895 --> == Tech News: 2023-42 == <section begin="technews-2023-W42"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/42|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Unified login|Unified login]] system's edge login should now be fixed for some browsers (Chrome, Edge, Opera). This means that if you visit a new sister project wiki, you should be logged in automatically without the need to click "Log in" or reload the page. Feedback on whether it's working for you is welcome. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T347889] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Interface/Edit_notice|Edit notices]] are now available within the MobileFrontend/Minerva skin. This feature was inspired by [[w:en:Wikipedia:EditNoticesOnMobile|the gadget on English Wikipedia]]. See more details in [[phab:T316178|T316178]]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.1|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-17|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-18|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-19|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.41/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * In 3 weeks, in the Vector 2022 skin, code related to <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>addPortletLink</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>#p-namespaces</nowiki></code></bdi> that was deprecated one year ago will be removed. If you notice tools that should appear next to the "Discussion" tab are then missing, please tell the gadget's maintainers to see [[phab:T347907|instructions in the Phabricator task]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/42|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W42"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:47, 16 October 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25745824 --> == Tech News: 2023-43 == <section begin="technews-2023-W43"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/43|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * There is a new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Language engineering/Newsletter/2023/October|Language and internationalization newsletter]], written quarterly. It contains updates on new feature development, improvements in various language-related technical projects, and related support work. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Source map support has been enabled on all wikis. When you open the debugger in your browser's developer tools, you should be able to see the unminified JavaScript source code. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T47514] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.2|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-24|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-25|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-26|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/43|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W43"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:16, 23 October 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25782286 --> == Tech News: 2023-44 == <section begin="technews-2023-W44"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/44|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The Structured Content team, as part of its project of [[:commons:Commons:WMF support for Commons/Upload Wizard Improvements|improving UploadWizard on Commons]], made some UX improvements to the upload step of choosing own vs not own work ([[phab:T347590|T347590]]), as well as to the licensing step for own work ([[phab:T347756|T347756]]). * The Design Systems team has released version 1.0.0 of [[wmdoc:codex/latest/|Codex]], the new design system for Wikimedia. See the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Design_Systems_Team/Announcing_Codex_1.0|full announcement about the release of Codex 1.0.0]]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.3|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-10-31|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-11-01|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-11-02|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). * Listings on category pages are sorted on each wiki for that language using a [[:w:en:International Components for Unicode|library]]. For a brief period on 2 November, changes to categories will not be sorted correctly for many languages. This is because the developers are upgrading to a new version of the library. They will then use a script to fix the existing categories. This will take a few hours or a few days depending on how big the wiki is. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Technical Operations/ICU announcement|read more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T345561][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T267145] * Starting November 1, the impact module (Special:Impact) will be upgraded by the Growth team. The new impact module shows newcomers more data regarding their impact on the wiki. It was tested by a few wikis during the last few months. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T336203] '''Future changes''' * There is [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Graph/Plans#Roadmap|a proposed plan]] for re-enabling the Graph Extension. You can help by reviewing this proposal and [[mw:Extension_talk:Graph/Plans#c-PPelberg_(WMF)-20231020221600-Update:_20_October|sharing what you think about it]]. * The WMF is working on making it possible for administrators to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Community_configuration_2.0|edit MediaWiki configuration directly]]. This is similar to previous work on Special:EditGrowthConfig. [[phab:T349757|A technical RfC is running until November 08, where you can provide feedback.]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/44|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W44"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:21, 30 October 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25801989 --> == Tech News: 2023-45 == <section begin="technews-2023-W45"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/45|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * In the Vector 2022 skin, the default font-size of a number of navigational elements (tagline, tools menu, navigational links, and more) has been increased slightly to match the font size used in page content. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T346062] '''Problems''' * Last week, there was a problem displaying some recent edits on [https://noc.wikimedia.org/conf/highlight.php?file=dblists/s5.dblist a few wikis], for 1-6 hours. The edits were saved but not immediately shown. This was due to a database problem. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T350443] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.4|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-11-07|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-11-08|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-11-09|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). * The Growth team will reassign newcomers from former mentors to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Structured mentor list|the currently active mentors]]. They have also changed the notification language to be more user-friendly. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T330071][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T327493] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/45|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W45"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:05, 6 November 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25838105 --> == Tech News: 2023-46 == <section begin="technews-2023-W46"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/46|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Four new wikis have been created: ** a Wikipedia in [[d:Q7598268|Moroccan Amazigh]] ([[w:zgh:|<code>w:zgh:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T350216] ** a Wikipedia in [[d:Q35159|Dagaare]] ([[w:dga:|<code>w:dga:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T350218] ** a Wikipedia in [[d:Q33017|Toba Batak]] ([[w:bbc:|<code>w:bbc:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T350320] ** a Wikiquote in [[d:Q33151|Banjar]] ([[q:bjn:|<code>q:bjn:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T350217] '''Problems''' * Last week, users who previously visited Meta-Wiki or Wikimedia Commons and then became logged out on those wikis could not log in again. The problem is now resolved. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T350695] * Last week, some pop-up dialogs and menus were shown with the wrong font size. The problem is now resolved. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T350544] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.5|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-11-14|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-11-15|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-11-16|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). '''Future changes''' * Reference Previews are coming to many wikis as a default feature. They are popups for references, similar to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Page Previews|PagePreviews feature]]. [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/ReferencePreviews#Opt-out feature|You can opt out]] of seeing them. If you are [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-gadgets|using the gadgets]] Reference Tooltips or Navigation Popups, you won’t see Reference Previews. [[phab:T282999|Deployment]] is planned for November 22, 2023. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Canary (also known as heartbeat) events will be produced into [https://stream.wikimedia.org/?doc#/streams Wikimedia event streams] from December 11. Streams users are advised to filter out these events, by discarding all events where <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>meta.domain == "canary"</nowiki></code></bdi>. Updates to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Pywikibot|Pywikibot]] or [https://github.com/ChlodAlejandro/wikimedia-streams wikimedia-streams] will discard these events by default. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T266798] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/46|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W46"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:52, 13 November 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25859263 --> == Tech News: 2023-47 == <section begin="technews-2023-W47"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/47|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * Starting on Wednesday, a new set of Wikipedias will get "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]" ({{int:project-localized-name-quwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-rmwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-rmywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-rnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-roa_rupwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-roa_tarawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ruewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-rwwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-sawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-sahwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-satwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-scwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-scnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-scowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-sdwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-sewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-sgwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-shwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-siwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-skwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-slwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-smwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-sowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-sqwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-srwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-srnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-sswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-stwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-stqwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-suwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-szlwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tcywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tetwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tgwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-thwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tkwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tlwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-towiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tpiwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-trwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ttwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-twwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tyvwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-udmwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ugwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-uzwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-vewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-vecwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-vepwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-vlswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-vowiki/en}}). This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to more Wikipedias]]. The communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|configure how this feature works locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308141][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308142][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308143] * The Vector 2022 skin will have some minor visual changes to drop-down menus, column widths, and more. These changes were added to four Wikipedias last week. If no issues are found, these changes will proceed to all wikis this week. These changes will make it possible to add new menus for readability and dark mode. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop_Improvements/Updates#November_2023:_Visual_changes,_more_deployments,_and_shifting_focus|Learn more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T347711] '''Future changes''' * There is [[mw:Extension talk:Graph/Plans#Update: 15 November|an update on re-enabling the Graph Extension]]. To speed up the process, Vega 2 will not be supported and only [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T335325 some protocols] will be available at launch. You can help by sharing what you think about the plan. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/47|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W47"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:55, 21 November 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25884616 --> == Tech News: 2023-48 == <section begin="technews-2023-W48"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/48|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.7|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-11-28|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-11-29|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-11-30|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). There is no new MediaWiki version next week. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] MediaWiki's JavaScript system will now allow <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>async</code>/<code>await</code></bdi> syntax in gadgets and user scripts. Gadget authors should remember that users' browsers may not support it, so it should be used appropriately. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T343499] * The deployment of "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add_a_link|Add a link]]" announced [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/47|last week]] was postponed. It will resume this week. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/48|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W48"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:08, 27 November 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25906379 --> == Tech News: 2023-49 == <section begin="technews-2023-W49"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/49|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The spacing between paragraphs on Vector 2022 has been changed from 7px to 14px to match the size of the text. This will make it easier to distinguish paragraphs from sentences. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T351754] * The "{{int:Visualeditor-dialog-meta-categories-defaultsort-label}}" feature in VisualEditor is working again. You no longer need to switch to source editing to edit <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{{DEFAULTSORT:...}}</nowiki></code></bdi> keywords. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T337398] '''Changes later this week''' * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * On 6 December, people who have the enabled the preference for "{{int:Discussiontools-preference-visualenhancements}}" will notice the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability|talk page usability improvements]] appear on pages that include the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>__NEWSECTIONLINK__</nowiki></code></bdi> magic word. If you notice any issues, please [[phab:T352232|share them with the team on Phabricator]]. '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The Toolforge [[wikitech:News/Toolforge Grid Engine deprecation|Grid Engine shutdown process]] will start on December 14. Maintainers of [[toolforge:grid-deprecation|tools that still use this old system]] should plan to migrate to Kubernetes, or tell the team your plans on Phabricator in the task about your tool, before that date. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/VIWWQKMSQO2ED3TVUR7KPPWRTOBYBVOA/] * Communities using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Structured_Discussions|Structured Discussions]] are being contacted regarding [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Structured_Discussions/Deprecation|the upcoming deprecation of Structured Discussions]]. You can read more about this project, and share your comments, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Structured_Discussions/Deprecation|on the project's page]]. '''Events''' * Registration & Scholarship applications are now open for the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Hackathon 2024|Wikimedia Hackathon 2024]] that will take place from 3–5 May in Tallinn, Estonia. Scholarship applications are open until 5 January 2024. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/49|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W49"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:50, 4 December 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25914435 --> == Tech News: 2023-50 == <section begin="technews-2023-W50"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/50|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * On Wikimedia Commons, there are some minor user-interface improvements for the "choosing own vs not own work" step in the UploadWizard. This is part of the Structured Content team's project of [[:commons:Commons:WMF support for Commons/Upload Wizard Improvements|improving UploadWizard on Commons]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T352707][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T352709] '''Problems''' * There was a problem showing the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Personalized first day/Newcomer homepage|Newcomer homepage]] feature with the "impact module" and their page-view graphs, for a few days in early December. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T352352][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T352349] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.9|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-12-12|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-12-13|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-12-14|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=]] The [https://wikimediafoundation.limesurvey.net/796964 2023 Developer Satisfaction Survey] is seeking the opinions of the Wikimedia developer community. Please take the survey if you have any role in developing software for the Wikimedia ecosystem. The survey is open until 5 January 2024, and has an associated [[foundation:Legal:December_2023_Developer_Satisfaction_Survey|privacy statement]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/50|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W50"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 02:12, 12 December 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25945501 --> == Tech News: 2023-51 == <section begin="technews-2023-W51"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/51|Translations]] are available. '''Tech News''' * The next issue of Tech News will be sent out on 8 January 2024 because of [[w:en:Christmas and holiday season|the holidays]]. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.10|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2023-12-19|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2023-12-20|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2023-12-21|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). There is no new MediaWiki version next week. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * Starting December 18, it won't be possible to activate Structured Discussions on a user's own talk page using the Beta feature. The Beta feature option remains available for users who want to deactivate Structured Discussions. This is part of [[mw:Structured Discussions/Deprecation|Structured Discussions' deprecation work]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248309] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] There will be full support for redirects in the Module namespace. The "Move Page" feature will leave an appropriate redirect behind, and such redirects will be appropriately recognized by the software (e.g. hidden from [[{{#special:UnconnectedPages}}]]). There will also be support for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#Renaming or moving modules|manual redirects]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T120794] '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The MediaWiki JavaScript documentation is moving to a new format. During the move, you can read the old docs using [https://doc.wikimedia.org/mediawiki-core/REL1_41/js/ version 1.41]. Feedback about [https://doc.wikimedia.org/mediawiki-core/master/js/ the new site] is welcome on the [[mw:Talk:JSDoc_WMF_theme|project talk page]]. * The Wishathon is a new initiative that encourages collaboration across the Wikimedia community to develop solutions for wishes collected through the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey|Community Wishlist Survey]]. The first community Wishathon will take place from 15–17 March. If you are interested in a project proposal as a user, developer, designer, or product lead, you can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:WishathonMarch2024|register for the event and read more]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/51|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2023-W51"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 16:17, 18 December 2023 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=25959059 --> == Tech News: 2024-02 == <section begin="technews-2024-W02"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/02|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [https://mediawiki2latex.wmflabs.org/ mediawiki2latex] is a tool that converts wiki content into the formats of LaTeX, PDF, ODT, and EPUB. The code now runs many times faster due to recent improvements. There is also an optional Docker container you can [[b:de:Benutzer:Dirk_Hünniger/wb2pdf/install#Using_Docker|install]] on your local machine. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The way that Random pages are selected has been updated. This will slowly reduce the problem of some pages having a lower chance of appearing. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T309477] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.13|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-01-09|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-01-10|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-01-11|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/02|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W02"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:19, 9 January 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26026251 --> == Tech News: 2024-03 == <section begin="technews-2024-W03"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/03|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Pages that use the JSON [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:ContentHandler|contentmodel]] will now use tabs instead of spaces for auto-indentation. This will significantly reduce the page size. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T326065] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Gadgets|Gadgets]] and personal user scripts may now use JavaScript syntax introduced in ES6 (also known as "ES2015") and ES7 ("ES2016"). MediaWiki validates the source code to protect other site functionality from syntax errors, and to ensure scripts are valid in all [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Compatibility#Browsers|supported browsers]]. Previously, Gadgets could use the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>requiresES6</nowiki></code></bdi> option. This option is no longer needed and will be removed in the future. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T75714] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Bot passwords|Bot passwords]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/OAuth/Owner-only consumers|owner-only OAuth consumers]] can now be restricted to allow editing only specific pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T349957] * You can now [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Thanks|thank]] edits made by bots. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T341388] * An update on the status of the Community Wishlist Survey for 2024 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey/Future Of The Wishlist/January 4, 2024 Update|has been published]]. Please read and give your feedback. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.14|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-01-16|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-01-17|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-01-18|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * Starting on January 17, it will not be possible to login to Wikimedia wikis from some specific old versions of the Chrome browser (versions 51–66, released between 2016 and 2018). Additionally, users of iOS 12, or Safari on Mac OS 10.14, may need to login to each wiki separately. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T344791] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>jquery.cookie</code></bdi> module was deprecated and replaced with the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>mediawiki.cookie</code></bdi> module last year. A script has now been run to replace any remaining uses, and this week the temporary alias will be removed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T354966] '''Future changes''' * Wikimedia Deutschland is working to [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Reusing references|make reusing references easier]]. They are looking for people who are interested in participating in [https://wikimedia.sslsurvey.de/User-research-into-Reusing-References-Sign-up-Form-2024/en/ individual video calls for user research in January and February]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/03|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W03"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:13, 16 January 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26074460 --> == Tech News: 2024-04 == <section begin="technews-2024-W04"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/04|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * A bug in UploadWizard prevented linking to the userpage of the uploader when uploading. It has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T354529] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.15|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-01-23|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-01-24|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-01-25|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/04|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W04"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:03, 23 January 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26096197 --> == Tech News: 2024-05 == <section begin="technews-2024-W05"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/05|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Starting Monday January 29, all talk pages messages' timestamps will become a link. This link is a permanent link to the comment. It allows users to find the comment they are looking for, even if this comment was moved elsewhere. This will affect all wikis except for the English Wikipedia. You can read more about this change [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2024/01/29/talk-page-permalinks-dont-lose-your-threads/ on Diff] or [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#Talk_pages_permalinking|on Mediawiki.org]].<!-- The Diff post will be published on Monday morning UTC--> [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T302011] * There are some improvements to the CAPTCHA to make it harder for spam bots and scripts to bypass it. If you have feedback on this change, please comment on [[phab:T141490|the task]]. Staff are monitoring metrics related to the CAPTCHA, as well as secondary metrics such as account creations and edit counts. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.16|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-01-30|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-01-31|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-01|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] On February 1, a link will be added to the "Tools" menu to download a [[w:en:QR code|QR code]] that links to the page you are viewing. There will also be a new [[{{#special:QrCode}}]] page to create QR codes for any Wikimedia URL. This addresses the [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Mobile and apps/Add ability to share QR code for a page in any Wikimedia project|#19 most-voted wish]] from the [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Results|2023 Community Wishlist Survey]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T329973] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Gadgets|Gadgets]] which only work in some skins have sometimes used the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>targets</code></bdi> option to limit where you can use them. This will stop working this week. You should use the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>skins</code></bdi> option instead. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T328497] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/05|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W05"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:31, 29 January 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26137870 --> == Tech News: 2024-06 == <section begin="technews-2024-W06"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/06|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' *The mobile site history pages now use the same HTML as the desktop history pages. If you hear of any problems relating to mobile history usage please point them to [[phab:T353388|the phabricator task]]. *On most wikis, admins can now block users from making specific actions. These actions are: uploading files, creating new pages, moving (renaming) pages, and sending thanks. The goal of this feature is to allow admins to apply blocks that are adequate to the blocked users' activity. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community health initiative/Partial blocks#action-blocks|Learn more about "action blocks"]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T242541][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T280531] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.17|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-06|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-07|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-08|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * Talk pages permalinks that included diacritics and non-Latin script were malfunctioning. This issue is fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T356199] '''Future changes''' * [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/ReferencePreviews#24WPs|24 Wikipedias]] with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reference_Tooltips|Reference Tooltips]] as a default gadget are encouraged to remove that default flag. This would make [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Reference_Previews|Reference Previews]] the new default for reference popups, leading to a more consistent experience across wikis. For [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/ReferencePreviews#46WPs|46 Wikipedias]] with less than 4 interface admins, the change is already scheduled for mid-February, [[m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/ReferencePreviews#Reference Previews to become the default for previewing references on more wikis.|unless there are concerns]]. The older Reference Tooltips gadget will still remain usable and will override this feature, if it is available on your wiki and you have enabled it in your settings. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/ReferencePreviews#Reference_Previews_to_become_the_default_for_previewing_references_on_more_wikis][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T355312] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/06|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W06"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:22, 5 February 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26180971 --> == Tech News: 2024-07 == <section begin="technews-2024-W07"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/07|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [[d:Wikidata:SPARQL query service/WDQS graph split|WDQS Graph Split experiment]] is working and loaded onto 3 test servers. The team in charge is testing the split's impact and requires feedback from WDQS users through the UI or programmatically in different channels. [https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata_talk:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_graph_split][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T356773][https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/User:Sannita_(WMF)] Users' feedback will validate the impact of various use cases and workflows around the Wikidata Query service. [https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:SPARQL_query_service/WDQS_backend_update/October_2023_scaling_update][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Wikidata_Query_Service/User_Manual#Federation] '''Problems''' *There was a bug that affected the appearance of visited links when using mobile device to access wiki sites. It made the links appear black; [[phab:T356928|this issue]] is fixed. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.18|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-13|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-14|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-15|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] As work continues on the grid engine deprecation,[https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/News/Toolforge_Grid_Engine_deprecation] tools on the grid engine will be stopped starting on February 14th, 2024. If you have tools actively migrating you can ask for an extension so they are not stopped. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Portal:Toolforge/About_Toolforge#Communication_and_support] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/07|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W07"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 05:48, 13 February 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26223994 --> == Tech News: 2024-08 == <section begin="technews-2024-W08"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/08|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * If you have the "{{int:Tog-enotifwatchlistpages}}" option enabled, edits by bot accounts no longer trigger notification emails. Previously, only minor edits would not trigger the notification emails. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T356984] * There are changes to how user and site scripts load for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:Vector/2022| Vector 2022]] on specific wikis. The changes impacted the following Wikis: all projects with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:Vector|Vector legacy]] as the default skin, Wikivoyage, and Wikibooks. Other wikis will be affected over the course of the next three months. Gadgets are not impacted. If you have been affected or want to minimize the impact on your project, see [[Phab:T357580| this ticket]]. Please coordinate and take action proactively. *Newly auto-created accounts (the accounts you get when you visit a new wiki) now have the same local notification preferences as users who freshly register on that wiki. It is effected in four notification types listed in the [[phab:T353225|task's description]]. *The maximum file size when using [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Upload_Wizard|Upload Wizard]] is now 5 GiB. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T191804] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.19|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-20|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-21|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-22|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Selected tools on the grid engine have been [[wikitech:News/Toolforge_Grid_Engine_deprecation|stopped]] as we prepare to shut down the grid on March 14th, 2024. The tool's code and data have not been deleted. If you are a maintainer and you want your tool re-enabled reach out to the [[wikitech:Portal:Toolforge/About_Toolforge#Communication_and_support|team]]. Only tools that have asked for extension are still running on the grid. * The CSS <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>[https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/filter filter]</code></bdi> property can now be used in HTML <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>style</code></bdi> attributes in wikitext. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308160] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/08|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W08"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 15:36, 19 February 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26254282 --> == Tech News: 2024-09 == <section begin="technews-2024-W09"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/09|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/VisualEditor_on_mobile|mobile visual editor]] is now the default editor for users who never edited before, at a small group of wikis. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/VisualEditor_on_mobile/VE_mobile_default#A/B_test_results| Research ]] shows that users using this editor are slightly more successful publishing the edits they started, and slightly less successful publishing non-reverted edits. Users who defined the wikitext editor as their default on desktop will get the wikitext editor on mobile for their first edit on mobile as well. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T352127] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/ResourceLoader/Core modules#mw.config|mw.config]] value <code>wgGlobalGroups</code> now only contains groups that are active in the wiki. Scripts no longer have to check whether the group is active on the wiki via an API request. A code example of the above is: <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>if (/globalgroupname/.test(mw.config.get("wgGlobalGroups")))</code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T356008] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.20|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-27|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-28|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-02-29|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] '''Future changes''' * The right to change [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Tags|edit tags]] (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>changetags</code></bdi>) will be removed from users in Wikimedia sites, keeping it by default for admins and bots only. Your community can ask to retain the old configuration on your wiki before this change happens. Please indicate in [[phab:T355639|this ticket]] to keep it for your community before the end of March 2024. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/09|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W09"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:23, 26 February 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26294125 --> == Tech News: 2024-10 == <section begin="technews-2024-W10"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/10|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>Special:Book</code></bdi> page (as well as the associated "Create a book" functionality) provided by the old [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Collection|Collection extension]] has been removed from all Wikisource wikis, as it was broken. This does not affect the ability to download normal books, which is provided by the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Wikisource|Wikisource extension]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T358437] * [[m:Wikitech|Wikitech]] now uses the next-generation [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid|Parsoid]] wikitext parser by default to generate all pages in the Talk namespace. Report any problems on the [[mw:Talk:Parsoid/Parser_Unification/Known_Issues|Known Issues discussion page]]. You can use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:ParserMigration|ParserMigration]] extension to control the use of Parsoid; see the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:ParserMigration|ParserMigration help documentation]] for more details. * Maintenance on [https://etherpad.wikimedia.org etherpad] is completed. If you encounter any issues, please indicate in [[phab:T316421|this ticket]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=| Advanced item]] [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Gadgets|Gadgets]] allow interface admins to create custom features with CSS and JavaScript. The <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>Gadget</code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>Gadget_definition</code></bdi> namespaces and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>gadgets-definition-edit</code></bdi> user right were reserved for an experiment in 2015, but were never used. These were visible on Special:Search and Special:ListGroupRights. The unused namespaces and user rights are now removed. No pages are moved, and no changes need to be made. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T31272] * A usability improvement to the "Add a citation" in Wikipedia workflow has been made, the insert button was moved to the popup header. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T354847] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.21|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-03-05|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-03-06|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-03-07|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] '''Future changes''' * All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes on March 20. This is planned at 14:00 UTC. More information will be published in Tech News and will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T358233] * The HTML markup of headings and section edit links will be changed later this year to improve accessibility. See [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Heading_HTML_changes|Heading HTML changes]] for details. The new markup will be the same as in the new Parsoid wikitext parser. You can test your gadget or stylesheet with the new markup if you add <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>?useparsoid=1</code></bdi> to your URL ([[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:ParserMigration#Selecting_a_parser_using_a_URL_query_string|more info]]) or turn on Parsoid read views in your user options ([[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:ParserMigration#Enabling_via_user_preference|more info]]). * '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/10|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W10"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:47, 4 March 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26329807 --> == Tech News: 2024-11 == <section begin="technews-2024-W11"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/11|Translations]] are available. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.22|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-03-12|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-03-13|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-03-14|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * After consulting with various communities, the line height of the text on the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:Minerva Neue|Minerva skin]] will be increased to its previous value of 1.65. Different options for typography can also be set using the options in the menu, as needed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T358498] *The active link color in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:Minerva Neue|Minerva]] will be changed to provide more consistency with our other platforms and best practices. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T358516] * [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Structured data|Structured data on Commons]] will no longer ask whether you want to leave the page without saving. This will prevent the “information you’ve entered may not be saved” popups from appearing when no information have been entered. It will also make file pages on Commons load faster in certain cases. However, the popups will be hidden even if information has indeed been entered. If you accidentally close the page before saving the structured data you entered, that data will be lost. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T312315] '''Future changes''' * All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes on March 20. This is planned at 14:00 UTC. More information will be published in Tech News and will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T358233][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server_switch] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/11|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W11"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:04, 11 March 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26374013 --> == Tech News: 2024-12 == <section begin="technews-2024-W12"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/12|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The notice "Language links are at the top of the page" that appears in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:Vector/2022|Vector 2022 skin]] main menu has been removed now that users have learned the new location of the Language switcher. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T353619] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] [[m:Special:MyLanguage/IP_Editing:_Privacy_Enhancement_and_Abuse_Mitigation/IP_Info_feature|IP info feature]] displays data from Spur, an IP addresses database. Previously, the only data source for this feature was MaxMind. Now, IP info is more useful for patrollers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T341395] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The Toolforge Grid Engine services have been shut down after the final migration process from Grid Engine to Kubernetes. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Obsolete:Toolforge/Grid][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/News/Toolforge_Grid_Engine_deprecation][https://techblog.wikimedia.org/2022/03/14/toolforge-and-grid-engine/] * Communities can now customize the default reasons for undeleting a page by creating [[MediaWiki:Undelete-comment-dropdown]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T326746] '''Problems''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE_Technical_Wishes/RevisionSlider|RevisionSlider]] is an interface to interactively browse a page's history. Users in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:RevisionSlider/Developing_a_RTL-accessible_feature_in_MediaWiki_-_what_we%27ve_learned_while_creating_the_RevisionSlider|right-to-left]] languages reported RevisionSlider reacting wrong to mouse clicks. This should be fixed now. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T352169] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.23|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-03-19|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-03-20|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-03-21|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes on March 20. This is planned at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1710943200 14:00 UTC]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T358233][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server_switch] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/12|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W12"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 17:39, 18 March 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26410165 --> == Tech News: 2024-13 == <section begin="technews-2024-W13"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/13|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] An update was made on March 18th 2024 to how various projects load site, user JavaScript and CSS in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:Vector/2022|Vector 2022 skin]]. A [[phab:T360384|checklist]] is provided for site admins to follow. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.24|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-03-26|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-03-27|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-03-28|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/13|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W13"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:56, 25 March 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26446209 --> == Tech News: 2024-14 == <section begin="technews-2024-W14"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/14|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Users of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Accessibility_for_reading|reading accessibility]] beta feature will notice that the default line height for the standard and large text options has changed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T359030] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.25|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-02|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-03|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-04|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] '''Future changes''' * The Wikimedia Foundation has an annual plan. The annual plan decides what the Wikimedia Foundation will work on. You can now read [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2024-2025/Product & Technology OKRs#Draft Key Results|the draft key results]] for the Product and Technology department. They are suggestions for what results the Foundation wants from big technical changes from July 2024 to June 2025. You can [[m:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2024-2025/Product & Technology OKRs|comment on the talk page]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/14|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W14"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 03:36, 2 April 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26462933 --> == Tech News: 2024-15 == <section begin="technews-2024-W15"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/15|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Web browsers can use tools called [[:w:en:Browser extension|extensions]]. There is now a Chrome extension called [[m:Future Audiences/Experiment:Citation Needed|Citation Needed]] which you can use to see if an online statement is supported by a Wikipedia article. This is a small experiment to see if Wikipedia can be used this way. Because it is a small experiment, it can only be used in Chrome in English. * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Wishlist item]] A new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit Recovery|Edit Recovery]] feature has been added to all wikis, available as a [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|user preference]]. Once you enable it, your in-progress edits will be stored in your web browser, and if you accidentally close an editing window or your browser or computer crashes, you will be prompted to recover the unpublished text. Please leave any feedback on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Edit-recovery feature|project talk page]]. This was the #8 wish in the 2023 Community Wishlist Survey. * Initial results of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check|Edit check]] experiments [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit_check#4_April_2024|have been published]]. Edit Check is now deployed as a default feature at [[phab:T342930#9538364|the wikis that tested it]]. [[mw:Talk:Edit check|Let us know]] if you want your wiki to be part of the next deployment of Edit check. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T342930][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T361727] * Readers using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:Minerva Neue|Minerva skin]] on mobile will notice there has been an improvement in the line height across all typography settings. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T359029] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/wmf.26|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-09|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-10|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-11|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.42/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * New accounts and logged-out users will get the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/VisualEditor|visual editor]] as their default editor on mobile. This deployment is made at all wikis except for the English Wikipedia. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T361134] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/15|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W15"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:37, 8 April 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26564838 --> == Tech News: 2024-16 == <section begin="technews-2024-W16"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/16|Translations]] are available. '''Problems''' * Between 2 April and 8 April, on wikis using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:FlaggedRevs|Flagged Revisions]], the "{{Int:tag-mw-reverted}}" tag was not applied to undone edits. In addition, page moves, protections and imports were not autoreviewed. This problem is now fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T361918][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T361940] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/wmf.1|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-16|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-17|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-18|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic words#DEFAULTSORT|Default category sort keys]] will now affect categories added by templates placed in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Cite|footnotes]]. Previously footnotes used the page title as the default sort key even if a different default sort key was specified (category-specific sort keys already worked). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T40435] * A new variable <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>page_last_edit_age</code></bdi> will be added to [[Special:AbuseFilter|abuse filters]]. It tells how many seconds ago the last edit to a page was made. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T269769] '''Future changes''' * Volunteer developers are kindly asked to update the code of their tools and features to handle [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|temporary accounts]]. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/For developers/2024-04 CTA|Learn more]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Four database fields will be removed from database replicas (including [[quarry:|Quarry]]). This affects only the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>abuse_filter</code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>abuse_filter_history</code></bdi> tables. Some queries might need to be updated. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T361996] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/16|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W16"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:29, 15 April 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26564838 --> == Tech News: 2024-17 == <section begin="technews-2024-W17"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/17|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Starting this week, newcomers editing Wikipedia [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Positive reinforcement#Leveling up 3|will be encouraged]] to try structured tasks. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature summary#Newcomer tasks|Structured tasks]] have been shown to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Personalized first day/Structured tasks/Add a link/Experiment analysis, December 2021|improve newcomer activation and retention]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T348086] * You can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Coolest Tool Award|nominate your favorite tools]] for the fifth edition of the Coolest Tool Award. Nominations will be open until May 10. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/wmf.2|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-23|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-24|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-25|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] '''Future changes''' * This is the last warning that by the end of May 2024 the Vector 2022 skin will no longer share site and user scripts/styles with old Vector. For user-scripts that you want to keep using on Vector 2022, copy the contents of [[{{#special:MyPage}}/vector.js]] to [[{{#special:MyPage}}/vector-2022.js]]. There are [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Desktop Improvements/Features/Loading Vector 2010 scripts|more technical details]] available. Interface administrators who foresee this leading to lots of technical support questions may wish to send a mass message to your community, as was done on French Wikipedia. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T362701] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/17|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W17"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:28, 22 April 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26647188 --> == Tech News: 2024-18 == <section begin="technews-2024-W18"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/18|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' [[File:Talk_pages_default_look_(April_2023).jpg|thumb|alt=Screenshot of the visual improvements made on talk pages|Example of a talk page with the new design, in French.]] * The appearance of talk pages changed for the following wikis: {{int:project-localized-name-azwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-dewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-fawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hiwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-idwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nlwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ptwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-rowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-thwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-trwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ukwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-viwiki/en}}. These wikis participated to a test, where 50% of users got the new design, for one year. As this test [[Mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability/Analysis|gave positive results]], the new design is deployed on these wikis as the default design. It is possible to opt-out these changes [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|in user preferences]] ("{{int:discussiontools-preference-visualenhancements}}"). The deployment will happen at all wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T341491] * Seven new wikis have been created: ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q33014|Betawi]] ([[w:bew:|<code>w:bew:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T357866] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q35708|Kusaal]] ([[w:kus:|<code>w:kus:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T359757] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q35513|Igala]] ([[w:igl:|<code>w:igl:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T361644] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wiktionary}} in [[d:Q33541|Karakalpak]] ([[wikt:kaa:|<code>wikt:kaa:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T362135] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikisource}} in [[d:Q9228|Burmese]] ([[s:my:|<code>s:my:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T361085] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikisource}} in [[d:Q9237|Malay]] ([[s:ms:|<code>s:ms:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T363039] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikisource}} in [[d:Q8108|Georgian]] ([[s:ka:|<code>s:ka:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T363085] * You can now [https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Support#Early_access:_Watch_Message_Groups_on_Translatewiki.net watch message groups/projects] on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/translatewiki.net|Translatewiki.net]]. Initially, this feature will notify you of added or deleted messages in these groups. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T348501] * Dark mode is now available on all wikis, on mobile web for logged-in users who opt into the [[Special:MobileOptions|advanced mode]]. This is the early release of the feature. Technical editors are invited to [https://night-mode-checker.wmcloud.org/ check for accessibility issues on wikis]. See [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Accessibility for reading/Updates/2024-04|more detailed guidelines]]. '''Problems''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] maps can use an alternative visual style without labels, by using <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>mapstyle="osm"</nowiki></code></bdi>. This wasn't working in previews, creating the wrong impression that it wasn't supported. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T362531] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/wmf.3|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-04-30|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-01|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-02|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/18|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W18"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 03:33, 30 April 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26689057 --> == Tech News: 2024-19 == <section begin="technews-2024-W19"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/19|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' [[File:Talk_pages_default_look_(April_2023).jpg|thumb|alt=Screenshot of the visual improvements made on talk pages|Example of a talk page with the new design, in French.]] * The appearance of talk pages changed for all wikis, except for Commons, Wikidata and most Wikipedias ([[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/18|a few]] have already received this design change). You can read the detail of the changes [[diffblog:2024/05/02/making-talk-pages-better-for-everyone/|on ''Diff'']]. It is possible to opt-out these changes [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|in user preferences]] ("{{int:discussiontools-preference-visualenhancements}}"). The deployment will happen at remaining wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T352087][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T319146] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Interface admins now have greater control over the styling of article components on mobile with the introduction of the <code>SiteAdminHelper</code>. More information on how styles can be disabled can be found [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:WikimediaMessages#Site_admin_helper|at the extension's page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T363932] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise|Wikimedia Enterprise]] has added article body sections in JSON format and a curated short description field to the existing parsed Infobox. This expansion to the API is also available via Wikimedia Cloud Services. [https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/blog/article-sections-and-description/] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/wmf.4|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-07|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-08|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-09|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * When you look at the Special:Log page, the first view is labelled "All public logs", but it only shows some logs. This label will now say "Main public logs". [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T237729] '''Future changes''' * A new service will be built to replace [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Graph|Extension:Graph]]. Details can be found in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Graph/Plans|the latest update]] regarding this extension. * Starting May 21, English Wikipedia and German Wikipedia will get the possibility to activate "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]]". This is part of the [[phab:T304110|progressive deployment of this tool to all Wikipedias]]. These communities can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Community configuration|activate and configure the feature locally]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T308144] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/19|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W19"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 16:44, 6 May 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26729363 --> == Tech News: 2024-20 == <section begin="technews-2024-W20"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/20|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * On Wikisource there is a special page listing pages of works without corresponding scan images. Now you can use the new magic word <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>__EXPECTWITHOUTSCANS__</code></bdi> to exclude certain pages (list of editions or translations of works) from that list. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T344214] * If you use the [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|user-preference]] "{{int:tog-uselivepreview}}", then the template-page feature "{{int:Templatesandbox-editform-legend}}" will now also work without reloading the page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T136907] * [[mw:Special:Mylanguage/Extension:Kartographer|Kartographer]] maps can now specify an alternative text via the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>alt=</nowiki></code></bdi> attribute. This is identical in usage to the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>alt=</nowiki></code></bdi> attribute in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Images#Syntax|image and gallery syntax]]. An exception for this feature is wikis like Wikivoyage where the miniature maps are interactive. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T328137] * The old [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:GuidedTour|Guided Tour]] for the "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit Review Improvements/New filters for edit review|New Filters for Edit Review]]" feature has been removed. It was created in 2017 to show people with older accounts how the interface had changed, and has now been seen by most of the intended people. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T217451] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/wmf.5|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-14|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-15|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-16|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The [[{{#special:search}}]] results page will now use CSS flex attributes, for better accessibility, instead of a table. If you have a gadget or script that adjusts search results, you should update your script to the new HTML structure. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T320295] '''Future changes''' * In the Vector 2022 skin, main pages will be displayed at full width (like special pages). The goal is to keep the number of characters per line large enough. This is related to the coming changes to typography in Vector 2022. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Accessibility for reading/Updates|Learn more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T357706] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Two columns of the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:pagelinks table|pagelinks]]</code></bdi> database table (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>pl_namespace</code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>pl_title</code></bdi>) are being dropped soon. Users must use two columns of the new <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>[[mw:special:MyLanguage/Manual:linktarget table|linktarget]]</code></bdi> table instead (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>lt_namespace</code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>lt_title</code></bdi>). In your existing SQL queries: *# Replace <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>JOIN pagelinks</code></bdi> with <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>JOIN linktarget</code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>pl_</code></bdi> with <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>lt_</code></bdi> in the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>ON</code></bdi> statement *# Below that add <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>JOIN pagelinks ON lt_id = pl_target_id</code></bdi> ** See <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[phab:T222224]]</bdi> for technical reasoning. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T222224][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T299947] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/20|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W20"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:58, 13 May 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26762074 --> == Tech News: 2024-21 == <section begin="technews-2024-W21"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/21|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Nuke|Nuke]] feature, which enables administrators to mass delete pages, will now correctly delete pages which were moved to another title. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T43351] * New changes have been made to the UploadWizard in Wikimedia Commons: the overall layout has been improved, by following new styling and spacing for the form and its fields; the headers and helper text for each of the fields was changed; the Caption field is now a required field, and there is an option for users to copy their caption into the media description. [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:WMF_support_for_Commons/Upload_Wizard_Improvements#Changes_to_%22Describe%22_workflow][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T361049] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/wmf.6|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-21|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-22|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-23|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The HTML used to render all headings [[mw:Heading_HTML_changes|is being changed to improve accessibility]]. It will change on 22 May in some skins (Timeless, Modern, CologneBlue, Nostalgia, and Monobook). Please test gadgets on your wiki on these skins and [[phab:T13555|report any related problems]] so that they can be resolved before this change is made in all other skins. The developers are also considering the introduction of a [[phab:T337286|Gadget API for adding buttons to section titles]] if that would be helpful to tool creators, and would appreciate any input you have on that. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/21|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W21"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:04, 20 May 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26786311 --> == Tech News: 2024-22 == <section begin="technews-2024-W22"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/22|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Several bugs related to the latest updates to the UploadWizard on Wikimedia Commons have been fixed. For more information, see [[:phab:T365107|T365107]] and [[:phab:T365119|T365119]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] In March 2024 a new [[mw:ResourceLoader/Core_modules#addPortlet|addPortlet]] API was added to allow gadgets to create new portlets (menus) in the skin. In certain skins this can be used to create dropdowns. Gadget developers are invited to try it and [[phab:T361661|give feedback]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Some CSS in the Minerva skin has been removed to enable easier community configuration. Interface editors should check the rendering on mobile devices for aspects related to the classes: <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>.collapsible</code></bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>.multicol</code></bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>.reflist</code></bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>.coordinates</code></bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>.topicon</code></bdi>. [[phab:T361659|Further details are available on replacement CSS]] if it is needed. '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/wmf.7|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-28|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-29|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-05-30|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * When you visit a wiki where you don't yet have a local account, local rules such as edit filters can sometimes prevent your account from being created. Starting this week, MediaWiki takes your global rights into account when evaluating whether you can override such local rules. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T316303] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/22|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W22"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:15, 28 May 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26832205 --> == Tech News: 2024-23 == <section begin="technews-2024-W23"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/23|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * It is now possible for local administrators to add new links to the bottom of the site Tools menu without JavaScript. [[mw:Manual:Interface/Sidebar#Add or remove toolbox sections|Documentation is available]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T6086] * The message name for the definition of the tracking category of WikiHiero has changed from "<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>MediaWiki:Wikhiero-usage-tracking-category</code></bdi>" to "<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>MediaWiki:Wikihiero-usage-tracking-category</code></bdi>". [https://gerrit.wikimedia.org/r/c/mediawiki/extensions/wikihiero/+/1035855] * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q5317225|Kadazandusun]] ([[w:dtp:|<code>w:dtp:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T365220] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/wmf.8|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-06-04|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-06-05|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-06-06|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] '''Future changes''' * Next week, on wikis with the Vector 2022 skin as the default, logged-out desktop users will be able to choose between different font sizes. The default font size will also be increased for them. This is to make Wikimedia projects easier to read. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Accessibility for reading/Updates/2024-06 deployments|Learn more]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/23|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W23"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:35, 3 June 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26844397 --> == Tech News: 2024-24 == <section begin="technews-2024-W24"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/24|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * The software used to render SVG files has been updated to a new version, fixing many longstanding bugs in SVG rendering. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T265549] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The HTML used to render all headings [[mw:Heading HTML changes|is being changed to improve accessibility]]. It was changed last week in some skins (Vector legacy and Minerva). Please test gadgets on your wiki on these skins and [[phab:T13555|report any related problems]] so that they can be resolved before this change is made in Vector-2022. The developers are still considering the introduction of a [[phab:T337286|Gadget API for adding buttons to section titles]] if that would be helpful to tool creators, and would appreciate any input you have on that. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The HTML markup used for citations by [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid|Parsoid]] changed last week. In places where Parsoid previously added the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>mw-reference-text</code></bdi> class, Parsoid now also adds the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>reference-text</code></bdi> class for better compatibility with the legacy parser. [[mw:Specs/HTML/2.8.0/Extensions/Cite/Announcement|More details are available]]. [https://gerrit.wikimedia.org/r/1036705] '''Problems''' * There was a bug with the Content Translation interface that caused the tools menus to appear in the wrong location. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T366374] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/wmf.9|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-06-11|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-06-12|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-06-13|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The new version of MediaWiki includes another change to the HTML markup used for citations: [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid|Parsoid]] will now generate a <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><span class="mw-cite-backlink"></nowiki></code></bdi> wrapper for both named and unnamed references for better compatibility with the legacy parser. Interface administrators should verify that gadgets that interact with citations are compatible with the new markup. [[mw:Specs/HTML/2.8.0/Extensions/Cite/Announcement|More details are available]]. [https://gerrit.wikimedia.org/r/1035809] * On multilingual wikis that use the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><translate></nowiki></code></bdi> system, there is a feature that shows potentially-outdated translations with a pink background until they are updated or confirmed. From this week, confirming translations will be logged, and there is a new user-right that can be required for confirming translations if the community [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Requesting wiki configuration changes|requests it]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T49177] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/24|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W24"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:20, 10 June 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26893898 --> == Tech News: 2024-25 == <section begin="technews-2024-W25"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/25|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * People who attempt to add an external link in the visual editor will now receive immediate feedback if they attempt to link to a domain that a project has decided to block. Please see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit_check#11_June_2024|Edit check]] for more details. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T366751] * The new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CommunityConfiguration|Community Configuration extension]] is available [[testwiki:Special:CommunityConfiguration|on Test Wikipedia]]. This extension allows communities to customize specific features to meet their local needs. Currently only Growth features are configurable, but the extension will support other [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Community_configuration#Use_cases|Community Configuration use cases]] in the future. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T323811][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T360954] * The dark mode [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|beta feature]] is now available on category and help pages, as well as more special pages. There may be contrast issues. Please report bugs on the [[mw:Talk:Reading/Web/Accessibility_for_reading|project talk page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T366370] '''Problems''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] Cloud Services tools were not available for 25 minutes last week. This was caused by a faulty hardware cable in the data center. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Incidents/2024-06-11_WMCS_Ceph] * Last week, styling updates were made to the Vector 2022 skin. This caused unforeseen issues with templates, hatnotes, and images. Changes to templates and hatnotes were reverted. Most issues with images were fixed. If you still see any, [[phab:T367463|report them here]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T367480] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/wmf.10|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-06-18|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-06-19|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-06-20|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * Starting June 18, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit check#ref|Reference Edit Check]] will be deployed to [[phab:T361843|a new set of Wikipedias]]. This feature is intended to help newcomers and to assist edit-patrollers by inviting people who are adding new content to a Wikipedia article to add a citation when they do not do so themselves. During [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit_check#Reference_Check_A/B_Test|a test at 11 wikis]], the number of citations added [https://diff.wikimedia.org/?p=127553 more than doubled] when Reference Check was shown to people. Reference Check is [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/Configuration|community configurable]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T361843]<!-- NOTE: THE DIFF BLOG WILL BE PUBLISHED ON MONDAY --> * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Mailing_lists|Mailing lists]] will be unavailable for roughly two hours on Tuesday 10:00–12:00 UTC. This is to enable migration to a new server and upgrade its software. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T367521] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/25|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W25"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:48, 17 June 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26911987 --> == Tech News: 2024-26 == <section begin="technews-2024-W26"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/26|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Editors will notice that there have been some changes to the background color of text in the diff view, and the color of the byte-change numbers, last week. These changes are intended to make text more readable in both light mode and dark mode, and are part of a larger effort to increase accessibility. You can share your comments or questions [[mw:Talk:Reading/Web/Accessibility for reading|on the project talkpage]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T361717] * The text colors that are used for visited-links, hovered-links, and active-links, were also slightly changed last week to improve their accessibility in both light mode and dark mode. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T366515] '''Problems''' * You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#Talk pages permalinking|copy permanent links to talk page comments]] by clicking on a comment's timestamp. [[mw:Talk pages project/Permalinks|This feature]] did not always work when the topic title was very long and the link was used as a wikitext link. This has been fixed. Thanks to Lofhi for submitting the bug. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T356196] '''Changes later this week''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Recurrent item]] The [[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/wmf.11|new version]] of MediaWiki will be on test wikis and MediaWiki.org from {{#time:j xg|2024-06-25|en}}. It will be on non-Wikipedia wikis and some Wikipedias from {{#time:j xg|2024-06-26|en}}. It will be on all wikis from {{#time:j xg|2024-06-27|en}} ([[mw:MediaWiki 1.43/Roadmap|calendar]]). [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Train][https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] * Starting 26 June, all talk pages messages' timestamps will become a link at English Wikipedia, making this feature available for you to use at all wikis. This link is a permanent link to the comment. It allows users to find the comment they were linked to, even if this comment has since been moved elsewhere. You can read more about this feature [[DiffBlog:/2024/01/29/talk-page-permalinks-dont-lose-your-threads/|on Diff]] or [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools#Talk pages permalinking|on Mediawiki.org]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T365974] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/26|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W26"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:32, 24 June 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=26989424 --> == Tech News: 2024-27 == <section begin="technews-2024-W27"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/27|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * Over the next three weeks, dark mode will become available for all users, both logged-in and logged-out, starting with the mobile web version. This fulfils one of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist_Survey_2023/Reading/Dark_mode|top-requested community wishes]], and improves low-contrast reading and usage in low-light settings. As part of these changes, dark mode will also work on User-pages and Portals. There is more information in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Accessibility_for_reading/Updates#June_2024:_Typography_and_dark_mode_deployments,_new_global_preferences|the latest Web team update]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T366364] * Logged-in users can now set [[m:Special:GlobalPreferences#mw-prefsection-rendering-skin-skin-prefs|global preferences for the text-size and dark-mode]], thanks to a combined effort across Foundation teams. This allows Wikimedians using multiple wikis to set up a consistent reading experience easily, for example by switching between light and dark mode only once for all wikis. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T341278] * If you use a very old web browser some features might not work on the Wikimedia wikis. This affects Internet Explorer 11 and versions of Chrome, Firefox and Safari older than 2016. This change makes it possible to use new [[d:Q46441|CSS]] features and to send less code to all readers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T288287][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Manual:How_to_make_a_MediaWiki_skin#Using_CSS_variables_for_supporting_different_themes_e.g._dark_mode] * Wikipedia Admins can customize local wiki configuration options easily using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Community Configuration|Community Configuration]]. Community Configuration was created to allow communities to customize how some features work, because each language wiki has unique needs. At the moment, admins can configure [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature_summary|Growth features]] on their home wikis, in order to better recruit and retain new editors. More options will be provided in the coming months. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T366458] * Editors interested in language issues that are related to [[w:en:Unicode|Unicode standards]], can now discuss those topics at [[mw:Talk:WMF membership with Unicode Consortium|a new conversation space in MediaWiki.org]]. The Wikimedia Foundation is now a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/WMF membership with Unicode Consortium|member of the Unicode Consortium]], and the coordination group can collaboratively review the issues discussed and, where appropriate, bring them to the attention of the Unicode Consortium. * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q2891049|Mandailing]] ([[w:btm:|<code>w:btm:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T368038] '''Problems''' * Editors can once again click on links within the visual editor's citation-preview, thanks to a bug fix by the Editing Team. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T368119] '''Future changes''' * Please [https://wikimediafoundation.limesurvey.net/758713?lang=en help us to improve Tech News by taking this short survey]. The goal is to better meet the needs of the various types of people who read Tech News. The survey will be open for 2 weeks. The survey is covered by [https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Legal:Tech_News_Survey_2024_Privacy_Statement this privacy statement]. Some translations are available. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/27|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W27"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:59, 1 July 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27038456 --> == Tech News: 2024-28 == <section begin="technews-2024-W28"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/28|Translations]] are available. '''Recent changes''' * At the Wikimedia Foundation a new task force was formed to replace the disabled Graph with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Project|more secure, easy to use, and extensible Chart]]. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Newsletter:Chart Project|subscribe to the newsletter]] to get notified about new project updates and other news about Chart. * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents]] extension is now available on Meta-wiki, Igbo Wikipedia, and Swahili Wikipedia, and can be requested on your wiki. This extension helps in managing and making events more visible, giving Event organizers the ability to use tools like the Event registration tool. To learn more about the deployment status and how to request this extension for your wiki, visit the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Deployment_status|CampaignEvents page on Meta-wiki]]. * Editors using the iOS Wikipedia app who have more than 50 edits can now use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/iOS Suggested edits#Add an image|Add an Image]] feature. This feature presents opportunities for small but useful contributions to Wikipedia. * Thank you to [[mw:MediaWiki Product Insights/Contributor retention and growth/Celebration|all of the authors]] who have contributed to MediaWiki Core. As a result of these contributions, the [[mw:MediaWiki Product Insights/Contributor retention and growth|percentage of authors contributing more than 5 patches has increased by 25% since last year]], which helps ensure the sustainability of the platform for the Wikimedia projects. '''Problems''' * A problem with the color of the talkpage tabs always showing as blue, even for non-existent pages which should have been red, affecting the Vector 2022 skin, [[phab:T367982|has been fixed]]. '''Future changes''' * The Trust and Safety Product team wants to introduce [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|temporary accounts]] with as little disruption to tools and workflows as possible. Volunteer developers, including gadget and user-script maintainers, are kindly asked to update the code of their tools and features to handle temporary accounts. The team has [[mw:Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/For developers|created documentation]] explaining how to do the update. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/For developers/2024-04 CTA|Learn more]]. '''Tech News survey''' * Please [https://wikimediafoundation.limesurvey.net/758713?lang=en help us to improve Tech News by taking this short survey]. The goal is to better meet the needs of the various types of people who read Tech News. The survey will be open for 1 more week. The survey is covered by [https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Legal:Tech_News_Survey_2024_Privacy_Statement this privacy statement]. Some translations are available. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/28|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W28"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:31, 8 July 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27080357 --> == Tech News: 2024-29 == <section begin="technews-2024-W29"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/29|Translations]] are available. '''Tech News survey''' * Please [https://wikimediafoundation.limesurvey.net/758713?lang=en help us to improve Tech News by taking this short survey]. The goal is to better meet the needs of the various types of people who read Tech News. The survey will be open for 3 more days. The survey is covered by [https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Legal:Tech_News_Survey_2024_Privacy_Statement this privacy statement]. Some translations are available. '''Recent changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Wikimedia developers can now officially continue to use both [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Gerrit|Gerrit]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]], due to a June 24 decision by the Wikimedia Foundation to support software development on both platforms. Gerrit and GitLab are both code repositories used by developers to write, review, and deploy the software code that supports the MediaWiki software that the wiki projects are built on, as well as the tools used by editors to create and improve content. This decision will safeguard the productivity of our developers and prevent problems in code review from affecting our users. More details are available in the [[mw:GitLab/Migration status|Migration status]] page. * The Wikimedia Foundation seeks applicants for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council/Proposal|Product and Technology Advisory Council]] (PTAC). This group will bring technical contributors and Wikimedia Foundation together to co-define a more resilient, future-proof technological platform. Council members will evaluate and consult on the movement's product and technical activities, so that we develop multi-generational projects. We are looking for a range of technical contributors across the globe, from a variety of Wikimedia projects. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council/Proposal#Joining the PTAC as a technical volunteer|Please apply here by August 10]]. * Editors with rollback user-rights who use the Wikipedia App for Android can use the new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Anti Vandalism|Edit Patrol]] features. These features include a new feed of Recent Changes, related links such as Undo and Rollback, and the ability to create and save a personal library of user talk messages to use while patrolling. If your wiki wants to make these features available to users who do not have rollback rights but have reached a certain edit threshold, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android#Contact us|you can contact the team]]. You can [[diffblog:2024/07/10/ِaddressing-vandalism-with-a-tap-the-journey-of-introducing-the-patrolling-feature-in-the-mobile-app/|read more about this project on Diff blog]]. * Editors who have access to [[m:Special:MyLanguage/The_Wikipedia_Library|The Wikipedia Library]] can once again use non-open access content in SpringerLinks, after the Foundation [[phab:T368865|contacted]] them to restore access. You can read more about [[m:Tech/News/Recently_resolved_community_tasks|this and 21 other community-submitted tasks that were completed last week]]. '''Changes later this week''' * This week, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Accessibility for reading/Updates/2024-07 deployments|dark mode will be available on a number of Wikipedias]], both desktop and mobile, for logged-in and logged-out users. Interface admins and user script maintainers are encouraged to check gadgets and user scripts in the dark mode, to find any hard-coded colors and fix them. There are some [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Recommendations for night mode compatibility on Wikimedia wikis|recommendations for dark mode compatibility]] to help. '''Future changes''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Next week, functionaries, volunteers maintaining tools, and software development teams are invited to test the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|temporary accounts]] feature on testwiki. Temporary accounts is a feature that will help improve privacy on the wikis. No further temporary account deployments are scheduled yet. Please [[mw:Talk:Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|share your opinions and questions on the project talk page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T348895] * Editors who upload files cross-wiki, or teach other people how to do so, may wish to join a Wikimedia Commons discussion. The Commons community is discussing limiting who can upload files through the cross-wiki upload/Upload dialog feature to users auto-confirmed on Wikimedia Commons. This is due to the large amount of copyright violations uploaded this way. There is a short summary at [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Cross-wiki upload|Commons:Cross-wiki upload]] and [[c:Commons:Village pump/Proposals#Deactivate cross-wiki uploads for new users|discussion at Commons:Village Pump]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/29|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' You can also get other news from the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Bulletin|Wikimedia Foundation Bulletin]]. </div><section end="technews-2024-W29"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:31, 16 July 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27124561 --> == Tech News: 2024-30 == <section begin="technews-2024-W30"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/30|Translations]] are available. '''Feature News''' * Stewards can now [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Global_blocks|globally block]] accounts. Before [[phab:T17294|the change]] only IP addresses and IP ranges could be blocked globally. Global account blocks are useful when the blocked user should not be logged out. [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Global_locks|Global locks]] (a similar tool logging the user out of their account) are unaffected by this change. The new global account block feature is related to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|Temporary Accounts]] project, which is a new type of user account that replaces IP addresses of unregistered editors that are no longer made public. * Later this week, Wikimedia site users will notice that the Interface of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevs]] (also known as "Pending Changes") is improved and consistent with the rest of the MediaWiki interface and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Codex|Wikimedia's design system]]. The FlaggedRevs interface experience on mobile and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Skin:MinervaNeue|Minerva skin]] was inconsistent before it was fixed and ported to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Codex|Codex]] by the WMF Growth team and some volunteers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T191156] * Wikimedia site users can now submit account vanishing requests via [[m:Special:GlobalVanishRequest|GlobalVanishRequest]]. This feature is used when a contributor wishes to stop editing forever. It helps you hide your past association and edit to protect your privacy. Once processed, the account will be locked and renamed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T367329] * Have you tried monitoring and addressing vandalism in Wikipedia using your phone? [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2024/07/10/%d9%90addressing-vandalism-with-a-tap-the-journey-of-introducing-the-patrolling-feature-in-the-mobile-app/ A Diff blog post on Patrolling features in the Mobile App] highlights some of the new capabilities of the feature, including swiping through a feed of recent changes and a personal library of user talk messages for use when patrolling from your phone. * Wikimedia contributors and GLAM (galleries, libraries, archives, and museums) organisations can now learn and measure the impact Wikimedia Commons is having towards creating quality encyclopedic content using the [https://doc.wikimedia.org/generated-data-platform/aqs/analytics-api/reference/commons.html Commons Impact Metrics] analytics dashboard. The dashboard offers organizations analytics on things like monthly edits in a category, the most viewed files, and which Wikimedia articles are using Commons images. As a result of these new data dumps, GLAM organisation can more reliably measure their return on investment for programs bringing content into the digital Commons. [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2024/07/19/commons-impact-metrics-now-available-via-data-dumps-and-api/] '''Project Updates''' * Come share your ideas for improving the wikis on the newly reopened [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist|Community Wishlist]]. The Community Wishlist is Wikimedia’s forum for volunteers to share ideas (called wishes) to improve how the wikis work. The new version of the wishlist is always open, works with both wikitext and Visual Editor, and allows wishes in any language. '''Learn more''' * Have you ever wondered how Wikimedia software works across over 300 languages? This is 253 languages more than the Google Chrome interface, and it's no accident. The Language and Product Localization Team at the Wikimedia Foundation supports your work by adapting all the tools and interfaces in the MediaWiki software so that contributors in our movement who translate pages and strings can translate them and have the sites in all languages. Read more about the team and their upcoming work on [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2024/07/17/building-towards-a-robust-multilingual-knowledge-ecosystem-for-the-wikimedia-movement/ Diff]. * How can Wikimedia build innovative and experimental products while maintaining such heavily used websites? A recent [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2024/07/09/on-the-value-of-experimentation/ blog post] by WMF staff Johan Jönsson highlights the work of the [[m:Future Audiences#Objectives and Key Results|WMF Future Audience initiative]], where the goal is not to build polished products but test out new ideas, such as a [[m:Future_Audiences/Experiments: conversational/generative AI|ChatGPT plugin]] and [[m:Future_Audiences/Experiment:Add a Fact|Add a Fact]], to help take Wikimedia into the future. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/30|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' You can also get other news from the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Bulletin|Wikimedia Foundation Bulletin]]. </div><section end="technews-2024-W30"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:04, 23 July 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27142915 --> == Tech News: 2024-31 == <section begin="technews-2024-W31"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/31|Translations]] are available. '''Feature news''' * Editors using the Visual Editor in languages that use non-Latin characters for numbers, such as Hindi, Manipuri and Eastern Arabic, may notice some changes in the formatting of reference numbers. This is a side effect of preparing a new sub-referencing feature, and will also allow fixing some general numbering issues in Visual Editor. If you notice any related problems on your wiki, please share details at the [[m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|project talkpage]]. '''Bugs status''' * Some logged-in editors were briefly unable to edit or load pages last week. [[phab:T370304|These errors]] were mainly due to the addition of new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Linter|linter]] rules which led to caching problems. Fixes have been applied and investigations are continuing. * Editors can use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/IP Info|IP Information tool]] to get information about IP addresses. This tool is available as a Beta Feature in your preferences. The tool was not available for a few days last week, but is now working again. Thank you to Shizhao for filing the bug report. You can read about that, and [[m:Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks#2024-07-25|28 other community-submitted tasks]] that were resolved last week. '''Project updates''' * There are new features and improvements to Phabricator from the Release Engineering and Collaboration Services teams, and some volunteers, including: the search systems, the new task creation system, the login systems, the translation setup which has resulted in support for more languages (thanks to Pppery), and fixes for many edge-case errors. You can [[phab:phame/post/view/316/iterative_improvements/|read details about these and other improvements in this summary]]. * There is an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Project/Updates|update on the Charts project]]. The team has decided which visualization library to use, which chart types to start focusing on, and where to store chart definitions. * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikivoyage}} in [[d:Q9056|Czech]] ([[voy:cs:|<code>voy:cs:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T370905] '''Learn more''' * There is a [[diffblog:2024/07/26/the-journey-to-open-our-first-data-center-in-south-america/|new Wikimedia Foundation data center]] in São Paulo, Brazil which helps to reduce load times. * There is new [[diffblog:2024/07/22/the-perplexing-process-of-uploading-images-to-wikipedia/|user research]] on problems with the process of uploading images. * Commons Impact Metrics are [[diffblog:2024/07/19/commons-impact-metrics-now-available-via-data-dumps-and-api/|now available]] via data dumps and API. * The latest quarterly [[mw:Technical Community Newsletter/2024/July|Technical Community Newsletter]] is now available. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/31|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W31"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:10, 29 July 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27164109 --> == Tech News: 2024-32 == <section begin="technews-2024-W32"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/32|Translations]] are available. '''Feature news''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Two new parser functions will be available this week: <code><nowiki>{{</nowiki>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic_words#dir|#dir]]<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code> and <code><nowiki>{{</nowiki>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic_words#bcp47|#bcp47]]<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code>. These will reduce the need for <code>Template:Dir</code> and <code>Template:BCP47</code> on Commons and allow us to [[phab:T343131|drop 100 million rows]] from the "what links here" database. Editors at any wiki that use these templates, can help by replacing the templates with these new functions. The templates at Commons will be updated during the Hackathon at Wikimania. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T359761][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T366623] * Communities can request the activation of the visual editor on entire namespaces where discussions sometimes happen (for instance ''Wikipedia:'' or ''Wikisource:'' namespaces) if they understand the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:VisualEditor/FAQ#WPNS|known limitations]]. For discussions, users can already use [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] in these namespaces. * The tracking category "Pages using Timeline" has been renamed to "Pages using the EasyTimeline extension" [https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Special:Translations?message=MediaWiki%3ATimeline-tracking-category&namespace=8 in TranslateWiki]. Wikis that have created the category locally should rename their local creation to match. '''Project updates''' * Editors who help to organize WikiProjects and similar on-wiki collaborations, are invited to share ideas and examples of successful collaborations with the Campaigns and Programs teams. You can fill out [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Campaigns/WikiProjects|a brief survey]] or share your thoughts [[m:Talk:Campaigns/WikiProjects|on the talkpage]]. The teams are particularly looking for details about successful collaborations on non-English wikis. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] The new parser is being rolled out on {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikivoyage}} wikis over the next few months. The {{int:project-localized-name-enwikivoyage}} and {{int:project-localized-name-hewikivoyage}} were [[phab:T365367|switched]] to Parsoid last week. For more information, see [[mw:Parsoid/Parser_Unification|Parsoid/Parser Unification]]. '''Learn more''' * There will be more than 200 sessions at Wikimania this week. Here is a summary of some of the [[diffblog:2024/08/05/interested-in-product-and-tech-here-are-some-wikimania-sessions-you-dont-want-to-miss/|key sessions related to the product and technology area]]. * The latest [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Bulletin/2024/07-02|Wikimedia Foundation Bulletin]] is available. * The latest quarterly [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2024/July|Language and Internationalization newsletter]] is available. It includes: New design previews for Translatable pages; Updates about MinT for Wiki Readers; the release of Translation dumps; and more. * The latest quarterly [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Newsletters/31|Growth newsletter]] is available. * The latest monthly [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Product Insights/Reports/July 2024|MediaWiki Product Insights newsletter]] is available. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/32|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W32"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:43, 5 August 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27233905 --> == Tech News: 2024-33 == <section begin="technews-2024-W33"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/33|Translations]] are available. '''Feature news''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]] editors and maintainers can now [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter/Actions#Show a CAPTCHA|make a CAPTCHA show if a filter matches an edit]]. This allows communities to quickly respond to spamming by automated bots. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T20110] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Stewards|Stewards]] can now specify if global blocks should prevent account creation. Before [[phab:T17273|this change]] by the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product|Trust and Safety Product]] Team, all global blocks would prevent account creation. This will allow stewards to reduce the unintended side-effects of global blocks on IP addresses. '''Project updates''' * [[wikitech:Help talk:Toolforge/Toolforge standards committee#August_2024_committee_nominations|Nominations are open on Wikitech]] for new members to refresh the [[wikitech:Help:Toolforge/Toolforge standards committee|Toolforge standards committee]]. The committee oversees the Toolforge [[wikitech:Help:Toolforge/Right to fork policy|Right to fork policy]] and [[wikitech:Help:Toolforge/Abandoned tool policy|Abandoned tool policy]] among other duties. Nominations will remain open until at least 2024-08-26. * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q2880037|West Coast Bajau]] ([[w:bdr:|<code>w:bdr:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T371757] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/33|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W33"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:21, 12 August 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27253654 --> == Tech News: 2024-34 == <section begin="technews-2024-W34"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/34|Translations]] are available. '''Feature news''' * Editors who want to re-use references but with different details such as page numbers, will be able to do so by the end of 2024, using a new [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#Sub-referencing in a nutshell|sub-referencing]] feature. You can read more [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|about the project]] and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#Test|how to test the prototype]]. * Editors using tracking categories to identify which pages use specific extensions may notice that six of the categories have been renamed to make them more easily understood and consistent. These categories are automatically added to pages that use specialized MediaWiki extensions. The affected names are for: [https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Special:Translations?message=MediaWiki%3Aintersection-category&namespace=8 DynamicPageList], [https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Special:Translations?message=MediaWiki%3Akartographer-tracking-category&namespace=8 Kartographer], [https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Special:Translations?message=MediaWiki%3Aphonos-tracking-category&namespace=8 Phonos], [https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Special:Translations?message=MediaWiki%3Arss-tracking-category&namespace=8 RSS], [https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Special:Translations?message=MediaWiki%3Ascore-use-category&namespace=8 Score], [https://translatewiki.net/wiki/Special:Translations?message=MediaWiki%3Awikihiero-usage-tracking-category&namespace=8 WikiHiero]. Wikis that have created the category locally should rename their local creation to match. Thanks to Pppery for these improvements. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T347324] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Technical volunteers who edit modules and want to get a list of the categories used on a page, can now do so using the <code><bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr">categories</bdi></code> property of <code><bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr">[[mediawikiwiki:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#Title objects|mw.title objects]]</bdi></code>. This enables wikis to configure workflows such as category-specific edit notices. Thanks to SD001 for these improvements. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T50175][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T85372] '''Bugs status''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Your help is needed to check if any pages need to be moved or deleted. A maintenance script was run to clean up unreachable pages (due to Unicode issues or introduction of new namespaces/namespace aliases). The script tried to find appropriate names for the pages (e.g. by following the Unicode changes or by moving pages whose titles on Wikipedia start with <code>Talk:WP:</code> so that their titles start with <code>Wikipedia talk:</code>), but it may have failed for some pages, and moved them to <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr">[[Special:PrefixIndex/T195546/]]</bdi> instead. Your community should check if any pages are listed there, and move them to the correct titles, or delete them if they are no longer needed. A full log (including pages for which appropriate names could be found) is available in [[phab:P67388]]. * Editors who volunteer as [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Mentorship|mentors]] to newcomers on their wiki are once again able to access lists of potential mentees who they can connect with to offer help and guidance. This functionality was restored thanks to [[phab:T372164|a bug fix]]. Thank you to Mbch331 for filing the bug report. You can read about that, and 18 other community-submitted tasks that were [[m:Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Project updates''' * The application deadline for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council/Proposal|Product & Technology Advisory Council]] (PTAC) has been extended to September 16. Members will help by providing advice to Foundation Product and Technology leadership on short and long term plans, on complex strategic problems, and help to get feedback from more contributors and technical communities. Selected members should expect to spend roughly 5 hours per month for the Council, during the one year pilot. Please consider applying, and spread the word to volunteers you think would make a positive contribution to the committee. '''Learn more''' * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Coolest Tool Award#2024 Winners|2024 Coolest Tool Awards]] were awarded at Wikimania, in seven categories. For example, one award went to the ISA Tool, used for adding structured data to files on Commons, which was recently improved during the [[m:Event:Wiki Mentor Africa ISA Hackathon 2024|Wiki Mentor Africa Hackathon]]. You can see video demonstrations of each tool at the awards page. Congratulations to this year's recipients, and thank you to all tool creators and maintainers. * The latest [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Bulletin/2024/08-01|Wikimedia Foundation Bulletin]] is available, and includes some highlights from Wikimania, an upcoming Language community meeting, and other news from the movement. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/34|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W34"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:54, 20 August 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27307284 --> == Tech News: 2024-35 == <section begin="technews-2024-W35"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/35|Translations]] are available. '''Feature news''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Administrators can now test the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|temporary accounts]] feature on test2wiki. This was done to allow cross-wiki testing of temporary accounts, for when temporary accounts switch between projects. The feature was enabled on testwiki a few weeks ago. No further temporary account deployments are scheduled yet. Temporary Accounts is a project to create a new type of user account that replaces IP addresses of unregistered editors which are no longer made public. Please [[mw:Talk:Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|share your opinions and questions on the project talk page]]. * Later this week, editors at wikis that use [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevs]] (also known as "Pending Changes") may notice that the indicators at the top of articles have changed. This change makes the system more consistent with the rest of the MediaWiki interface. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T191156] '''Bugs status''' * Editors who use the 2010 wikitext editor, and use the Character Insert buttons, will [[phab:T361465|no longer]] experience problems with the buttons adding content into the edit-summary instead of the edit-window. You can read more about that, and 26 other community-submitted tasks that were [[m:Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Project updates''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] Please review and vote on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Focus areas|Focus Areas]], which are groups of wishes that share a problem. Focus Areas were created for the newly reopened Community Wishlist, which is now open year-round for submissions. The first batch of focus areas are specific to moderator workflows, around welcoming newcomers, minimizing repetitive tasks, and prioritizing tasks. Once volunteers have reviewed and voted on focus areas, the Foundation will then review and select focus areas for prioritization. * Do you have a project and are willing to provide a three (3) month mentorship for an intern? [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Outreachy|Outreachy]] is a twice a year program for people to participate in a paid internship that will start in December 2024 and end in early March 2025, and they need mentors and projects to work on. Projects can be focused on coding or non-coding (design, documentation, translation, research). See the Outreachy page for more details, and a list of past projects since 2013. '''Learn more''' * If you're curious about the product and technology improvements made by the Wikimedia Foundation last year, read [[diffblog:2024/08/21/wikimedia-foundation-product-technology-improving-the-user-experience/|this recent highlights summary on Diff]]. * To learn more about the technology behind the Wikimedia projects, you can now watch sessions from the technology track at Wikimania 2024 on Commons. This week, check out: ** [[c:File:Wikimania 2024 - Ohrid - Day 2 - Community Configuration - Shaping On-Wiki Functionality Together.webm|Community Configuration - Shaping On-Wiki Functionality Together]] (55 mins) - about the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Community Configuration|Community Configuration]] project. ** [[c:File:Wikimania 2024 - Belgrade - Day 1 - Future of MediaWiki. A sustainable platform to support a collaborative user base and billions of page views.webm|Future of MediaWiki. A sustainable platform to support a collaborative user base and billions of page views]] (30 mins) - an overview for both technical and non technical audiences, covering some of the challenges and open questions, related to the [[mw:MediaWiki Product Insights|platform evolution, stewardship and developer experiences]] research. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/35|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W35"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:33, 26 August 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27341211 --> == Tech News: 2024-36 == <section begin="technews-2024-W36"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/36|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Editors and volunteer developers interested in data visualisation can now test the new software for charts. Its early version is available on beta Commons and beta Wikipedia. This is an important milestone before making charts available on regular wikis. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Project/Updates|read more about this project update]] and help to test the charts. '''Feature news''' * Editors who use the [[{{#special:Unusedtemplates}}]] page can now filter out pages which are expected to be there permanently, such as sandboxes, test-cases, and templates that are always substituted. Editors can add the new magic word [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic words#EXPECTUNUSEDTEMPLATE|<code dir="ltr"><nowiki>__EXPECTUNUSEDTEMPLATE__</nowiki></code>]] to a template page to hide it from the listing. Thanks to Sophivorus and DannyS712 for these improvements. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T184633] * Editors who use the New Topic tool on discussion pages, will [[phab:T334163|now be reminded]] to add a section header, which should help reduce the quantity of newcomers who add sections without a header. You can read more about that, and {{formatnum:28}} other community-submitted tasks that were [[m:Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. * Last week, some Toolforge tools had occasional connection problems. The cause is still being investigated, but the problems have been resolved for now. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T373243] * Translation administrators at multilingual wikis, when editing multiple translation units, can now easily mark which changes require updates to the translation. This is possible with the [[phab:T298852#10087288|new dropdown menu]]. '''Project updates''' * A new draft text of a policy discussing the use of Wikimedia's APIs [[m:Special:MyLanguage/API Policy Update 2024|has been published on Meta-Wiki]]. The draft text does not reflect a change in policy around the APIs; instead, it is an attempt to codify existing API rules. Comments, questions, and suggestions are welcome on [[m:Talk:API Policy Update 2024|the proposed update’s talk page]] until September 13 or until those discussions have concluded. '''Learn more''' * To learn more about the technology behind the Wikimedia projects, you can now watch sessions from the technology track at Wikimania 2024 on Commons. This week, check out: ** [[c:File:Wikimania 2024 - Ohrid - Day 2 - Charts, the successor of Graphs - A secure and extensible tool for data visualization.webm|Charts, the successor of Graphs - A secure and extensible tool for data visualization]] (25 mins) – about the above-mentioned Charts project. ** [[c:File:Wikimania 2024 - Ohrid - Day 3 - State of Language Technology and Onboarding at Wikimedia.webm|State of Language Technology and Onboarding at Wikimedia]] (90 mins) – about some of the language tools that support Wikimedia sites, such as [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation|Content]]/[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation/Section translation|Section Translation]], [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MinT|MinT]], and LanguageConverter; also the current state and future of languages onboarding. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T368772] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/36|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W36"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:07, 3 September 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27390268 --> == Tech News: 2024-37 == <section begin="technews-2024-W37"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/37|Translations]] are available. '''Feature news''' * Starting this week, the standard [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror|syntax highlighter]] will receive new colors that make them compatible in dark mode. This is the first of many changes to come as part of a major upgrade to syntax highlighting. You can learn more about what's to come on the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|help page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T365311][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T259059] * Editors of wikis using Wikidata will now be notified of only relevant Wikidata changes in their watchlist. This is because the Lua functions <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>entity:getSitelink()</code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>mw.wikibase.getSitelink(qid)</code></bdi> will have their logic unified for tracking different aspects of sitelinks to reduce junk notifications from [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Projects/Watchlist Wikidata Sitelinks Tracking|inconsistent sitelinks tracking]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T295356] '''Project updates''' * Users of all Wikis will have access to Wikimedia sites as read-only for a few minutes on September 25, starting at 15:00 UTC. This is a planned datacenter switchover for maintenance purposes. More information will be published in Tech News and will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T370962] * Contributors of [[phab:T363538#10123348|11 Wikipedias]], including English will have a new <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>MOS</code></bdi> namespace added to their Wikipedias. This improvement ensures that links beginning with <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>MOS:</code></bdi> (usually shortcuts to the [[w:en:Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]]) are not broken by [[w:en:Mooré|Mooré]] Wikipedia (language code <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>mos</code></bdi>). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T363538] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/37|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W37"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:52, 9 September 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27424457 --> == Tech News: 2024-38 == <section begin="technews-2024-W38"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/38|Translations]] are available. '''Improvements and Maintenance''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] Editors interested in templates can help by reading the latest Wishlist focus area, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Focus areas/Template recall and discovery|Template recall and discovery]], and share your feedback on the talkpage. This input helps the Community Tech team to decide the right technical approach to build. Everyone is also encouraged to continue adding [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist|new wishes]]. * The new automated [[{{#special:NamespaceInfo}}]] page helps editors understand which [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Namespaces|namespaces]] exist on each wiki, and some details about how they are configured. Thanks to DannyS712 for these improvements. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T263513] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit check#Reference check|References Check]] is a feature that encourages editors to add a citation when they add a new paragraph to a Wikipedia article. For a short time, the corresponding tag "Edit Check (references) activated" was erroneously being applied to some edits outside of the main namespace. This has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T373692] * It is now possible for a wiki community to change the order in which a page’s categories are displayed on their wiki. By default, categories are displayed in the order they appear in the wikitext. Now, wikis with a consensus to do so can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Requesting wiki configuration changes|request]] a configuration change to display them in alphabetical order. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T373480] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Tool authors can now access ToolsDB's [[wikitech:Portal:Data Services#ToolsDB|public databases]] from both [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Research:Quarry|Quarry]] and [[wikitech:Superset|Superset]]. Those databases have always been accessible to every [[wikitech:Portal:Toolforge|Toolforge]] user, but they are now more broadly accessible, as Quarry can be accessed by anyone with a Wikimedia account. In addition, Quarry's internal database can now be [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Research:Quarry#Querying Quarry's own database|queried from Quarry itself]]. This database contains information about all queries that are being run and starred by users in Quarry. This information was already public through the web interface, but you can now query it using SQL. You can read more about that, and {{formatnum:20}} other community-submitted tasks that were [[m:Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. * Any pages or tools that still use the very old CSS classes <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>mw-message-box</code></bdi> need to be updated. These old classes will be removed next week or soon afterwards. Editors can use a [https://global-search.toolforge.org/?q=mw-message-box&regex=1&namespaces=&title= global-search] to determine what needs to be changed. It is possible to use the newer <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>cdx-message</code></bdi> group of classes as a replacement (see [https://doc.wikimedia.org/codex/latest/components/demos/message.html#css-only-version the relevant Codex documentation], and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tech/Header&diff=prev&oldid=27449042 an example update]), but using locally defined onwiki classes would be best. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T374499] '''Technical project updates''' * Next week, all Wikimedia wikis will be read-only for a few minutes. This will start on September 25 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1727276400 15:00 UTC]. This is a planned datacenter switchover for maintenance purposes. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|This maintenance process also targets other services.]] The previous switchover took 3 minutes, and the Site Reliability Engineering teams use many tools to make sure that this essential maintenance work happens as quickly as possible. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T370962] '''Tech in depth''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] The latest monthly [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Product Insights/Reports/August 2024|MediaWiki Product Insights newsletter]] is available. This edition includes details about: research about [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Hooks|hook]] handlers to help simplify development, research about performance improvements, work to improve the REST API for end-users, and more. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] To learn more about the technology behind the Wikimedia projects, you can now watch sessions from the technology track at Wikimania 2024 on Commons. This week, check out: ** [[c:File:Wikimania 2024 - Auditorium Kyiv - Day 4 - Hackathon Showcase.webm|Hackathon Showcase]] (45 mins) - 19 short presentations by some of the Hackathon participants, describing some of the projects they worked on, such as automated testing of maintenance scripts, a video-cutting command line tool, and interface improvements for various tools. There are [[phab:T369234|more details and links available]] in the Phabricator task. ** [[c:File:Co-Creating a Sustainable Future for the Toolforge Ecosystem.webm|Co-Creating a Sustainable Future for the Toolforge Ecosystem]] (40 mins) - a roundtable discussion for tool-maintainers, users, and supporters of Toolforge about how to make the platform sustainable and how to evaluate the tools available there. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/38|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W38"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:02, 17 September 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27460876 --> == Tech News: 2024-39 == <section begin="technews-2024-W39"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/39|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * All wikis will be [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|read-only]] for a few minutes on Wednesday September 25 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1727276400 15:00 UTC]. Reading the wikis will not be interrupted, but editing will be paused. These twice-yearly processes allow WMF's site reliability engineering teams to remain prepared to keep the wikis functioning even in the event of a major interruption to one of our data centers. '''Updates for editors''' [[File:Add alt text from a halfsheet, with the article behind.png|thumb|A screenshot of the interface for the Alt Text suggested-edit feature]] * Editors who use the iOS Wikipedia app in Spanish, Portuguese, French, or Chinese, may see the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/iOS Suggested edits project/Alt Text Experiment|Alt Text suggested-edit experiment]] after editing an article, or completing a suggested edit using "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/iOS Suggested edits project#Hypothesis 2 Add an Image Suggested Edit|Add an image]]". Alt-text helps people with visual impairments to read Wikipedia articles. The team aims to learn if adding alt-text to images is a task that editors can be successful with. Please share any feedback on [[mw:Talk:Wikimedia Apps/iOS Suggested edits project/Alt Text Experiment|the discussion page]]. * The Codex color palette has been updated with new and revised colors for the MediaWiki user interfaces. The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Design System Team/Color/Design documentation#Updates|most noticeable changes]] for editors include updates for: dark mode colors for Links and for quiet Buttons (progressive and destructive), visited Link colors for both light and dark modes, and background colors for system-messages in both light and dark modes. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] It is now possible to include clickable wikilinks and external links inside code blocks. This includes links that are used within <code><nowiki><syntaxhighlight></nowiki></code> tags and on code pages (JavaScript, CSS, Scribunto and Sanitized CSS). Uses of template syntax <code><nowiki>{{…}}</nowiki></code> are also linked to the template page. Thanks to SD0001 for these improvements. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T368166] * Two bugs were fixed in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Account vanishing|GlobalVanishRequest]] system by improving the logging and by removing an incorrect placeholder message. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T370595][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T372223] * View all {{formatnum:25}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:25|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] From [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise|Wikimedia Enterprise]]: ** The API now enables 5,000 on-demand API requests per month and twice-monthly HTML snapshots freely (gratis and libre). More information on the updates and also improvements to the software development kits (SDK) are explained on [https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/blog/enhanced-free-api/ the project's blog post]. While Wikimedia Enterprise APIs are designed for high-volume commercial reusers, this change enables many more community use-cases to be built on the service too. ** The Snapshot API (html dumps) have added beta Structured Contents endpoints ([https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/blog/structured-contents-snapshot-api/ blog post on that]) as well as released two beta datasets (English and French Wikipedia) from that endpoint to Hugging Face for public use and feedback ([https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/blog/hugging-face-dataset/ blog post on that]). These pre-parsed data sets enable new options for researchers, developers, and data scientists to use and study the content. '''In depth''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] The Wikidata Query Service (WDQS) is used to get answers to questions using the Wikidata data set. As Wikidata grows, we had to make a major architectural change so that WDQS could remain performant. As part of the [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:SPARQL query service/WDQS graph split|WDQS Graph Split project]], we have new SPARQL endpoints available for serving the "[https://query-scholarly.wikidata.org scholarly]" and "[https://query-main.wikidata.org main]" subgraphs of Wikidata. The [http://query.wikidata.org query.wikidata.org endpoint] will continue to serve the full Wikidata graph until March 2025. After this date, it will only serve the main graph. For more information, please see [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:SPARQL query service/WDQS backend update/September 2024 scaling update|the announcement on Wikidata]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/39|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W39"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:36, 23 September 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27493779 --> == Tech News: 2024-40 == <section begin="technews-2024-W40"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/40|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Readers of [[phab:T375401|42 more wikis]] can now use Dark Mode. If the option is not yet available for logged-out users of your wiki, this is likely because many templates do not yet display well in Dark Mode. Please use the [https://night-mode-checker.wmcloud.org/ night-mode-checker tool] if you are interested in helping to reduce the number of issues. The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Recommendations for night mode compatibility on Wikimedia wikis|recommendations page]] provides guidance on this. Dark Mode is enabled on additional wikis once per month. * Editors using the 2010 wikitext editor as their default can access features from the 2017 wikitext editor by adding <code dir=ltr>?veaction=editsource</code> to the URL. If you would like to enable the 2017 wikitext editor as your default, it can be set in [[Special:Preferences#mw-input-wpvisualeditor-newwikitext|your preferences]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T239796] * For logged-out readers using the Vector 2022 skin, the "donate" link has been moved from a collapsible menu next to the content area into a more prominent top menu, next to "Create an account". This restores the link to the level of prominence it had in the Vector 2010 skin. [[mw:Readers/2024 Reader and Donor Experiences#Donor Experiences (Key Result WE 3.2 and the related hypotheses)|Learn more]] about the changes related to donor experiences. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T373585] * The CampaignEvents extension provides tools for organizers to more easily manage events, communicate with participants, and promote their events on the wikis. The extension has been [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Deployment status|enabled]] on Arabic Wikipedia, Igbo Wikipedia, Swahili Wikipedia, and Meta-Wiki. [[w:zh:Wikipedia:互助客栈/其他#引進CampaignEvents擴充功能|Chinese Wikipedia has decided]] to enable the extension, and discussions on the extension are in progress [[w:es:Wikipedia:Votaciones/2024/Sobre la política de Organizadores de Eventos|on Spanish Wikipedia]] and [[d:Wikidata:Project chat#Enabling the CampaignEvents Extention on Wikidata|on Wikidata]]. To learn how to enable the extension on your wiki, you can visit [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents|the CampaignEvents page on Meta-Wiki]]. * View all {{formatnum:22}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:22|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Developers with an account on Wikitech-wiki should [[wikitech:Wikitech/SUL-migration|check if any action is required]] for their accounts. The wiki is being changed to use the single-user-login (SUL) system, and other configuration changes. This change will help reduce the overall complexity for the weekly software updates across all our wikis. '''In depth''' * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|server switch]] was completed successfully last week with a read-only time of [[wikitech:Switch Datacenter#Past Switches|only 2 minutes 46 seconds]]. This periodic process makes sure that engineers can switch data centers and keep all of the wikis available for readers, even if there are major technical issues. It also gives engineers a chance to do maintenance and upgrades on systems that normally run 24 hours a day, and often helps to reveal weaknesses in the infrastructure. The process involves dozens of software services and hundreds of hardware servers, and requires multiple teams working together. Work over the past few years has reduced the time from 17 minutes down to 2–3 minutes. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/66ZW7B2MG63AESQVTXDIFQBDBS766JGW/] '''Meetings and events''' * October 4–6: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WikiIndaba conference 2024|WikiIndaba Conference's Hackathon]] in Johannesburg, South Africa * November 4–6: [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Users and Developers Conference Fall 2024|MediaWiki Users and Developers Conference Fall 2024]] in Vienna, Austria '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/40|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W40"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:20, 30 September 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27530062 --> == Tech News: 2024-41 == <section begin="technews-2024-W41"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/41|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Communities can now request installation of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Moderator Tools/Automoderator|Automoderator]] on their wiki. Automoderator is an automated anti-vandalism tool that reverts bad edits based on scores from the new "Revert Risk" machine learning model. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AutoModerator/Deploying|read details about the necessary steps]] for installation and configuration. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T336934] '''Updates for editors''' * Translators in wikis where [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation/Section translation#Try the tool|the mobile experience of Content Translation is available]], can now customize their articles suggestion list from 41 filtering options when using the tool. This topic-based article suggestion feature makes it easy for translators to self-discover relevant articles based on their area of interest and translate them. You can [https://test.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&active-list=suggestions try it with your mobile device]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T368422] * View all {{formatnum:12}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:12|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * It is now possible for <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><syntaxhighlight></nowiki></code></bdi> code blocks to offer readers a "Copy" button if the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>copy=1</nowiki></code></bdi> attribute is [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:SyntaxHighlight#copy|set on the tag]]. Thanks to SD0001 for these improvements. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T40932] * Customized copyright footer messages on all wikis will be updated. The new versions will use wikitext markup instead of requiring editing raw HTML. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T375789] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Later this month, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|temporary accounts]] will be rolled out on several pilot wikis. The final list of the wikis will be published in the second half of the month. If you maintain any tools, bots, or gadgets on [[phab:T376499|these 11 wikis]], and your software is using data about IP addresses or is available for logged-out users, please check if it needs to be updated to work with temporary accounts. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/For developers|Guidance on how to update the code is available]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Rate limiting has been enabled for the code review tools [[Wikitech:Gerrit|Gerrit]] and [[Wikitech:GitLab|GitLab]] to address ongoing issues caused by malicious traffic and scraping. Clients that open too many concurrent connections will be restricted for a few minutes. This rate limiting is managed through [[Wikitech:nftables|nftables]] firewall rules. For more details, see Wikitech's pages on [[Wikitech:Firewall#Throttling with nftables|Firewall]], [[Wikitech:GitLab/Abuse and rate limiting|GitLab limits]] and [[Wikitech:Gerrit/Operations#Throttling IPs|Gerrit operations]]. * Five new wikis have been created: ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q49224|Komering]] ([[w:kge:|<code>w:kge:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T374813] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q36096|Mooré]] ([[m:mos:|<code>m:mos:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T374641] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wiktionary}} in [[d:Q36213|Madurese]] ([[wikt:mad:|<code>wikt:mad:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T374968] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikiquote}} in [[d:Q2501174|Gorontalo]] ([[q:gor:|<code>q:gor:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T375088] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikinews}} in [[d:Q56482|Shan]] ([[n:shn:|<code>n:shn:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T375430] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/41|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W41"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:42, 7 October 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27557422 --> == Tech News: 2024-42 == <section begin="technews-2024-W42"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/42|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The Structured Discussion extension (also known as Flow) is starting to be removed. This extension is unmaintained and causes issues. It will be replaced by [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]], which is used on any regular talk page. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Structured Discussions/Deprecation#Deprecation timeline|A first set of wikis]] are being contacted. These wikis are invited to stop using Flow, and to move all Flow boards to sub-pages, as archives. At these wikis, a script will move all Flow pages that aren't a sub-page to a sub-page automatically, starting on 22 October 2024. On 28 October 2024, all Flow boards at these wikis will be set in read-only mode. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Structured_Discussions/Deprecation][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T370722] * WMF's Search Platform team is working on making it easier for readers to perform text searches in their language. A [[phab:T332342|change last week]] on over 30 languages makes it easier to find words with accents and other diacritics. This applies to both full-text search and to types of advanced search such as the <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">''hastemplate''</bdi> and <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">''incategory''</bdi> keywords. More technical details (including a few other minor search upgrades) are available. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/User:TJones_%28WMF%29/Notes/Language_Analyzer_Harmonization_Notes#ASCII-folding/ICU-folding_%28T332342%29] * View all {{formatnum:20}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:20|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit check|EditCheck]] was installed at Russian Wikipedia, and fixes were made for some missing user interface styles. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Editors who use the Toolforge tool [[toolforge:copyvios|Earwig's Copyright Violation Detector]] will now be required to log in with their Wikimedia account before running checks using the "search engine" option. This change is needed to help prevent external bots from misusing the system. Thanks to Chlod for these improvements. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:New_pages_patrol/Reviewers#Authentication_is_now_required_for_search_engine_checks_on_Earwig's_Copyvio_Tool] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Phabricator|Phabricator]] users can create tickets and add comments on existing tickets via Email again. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Phabricator/Help#Using email|Sending email to Phabricator]] has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T356077] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Some HTML elements in the interface are now wrapped with a <code><nowiki><bdi></nowiki></code> element, to make our HTML output more aligned with Web standards. More changes like this will be coming in future weeks. This change might break some tools that rely on the previous HTML structure of the interface. Note that relying on the HTML structure of the interface is [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Stable interface policy/Frontend#What is not stable?|not recommended]] and might break at any time. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T375975] '''In depth''' * The latest monthly [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Product Insights/Reports/September 2024|MediaWiki Product Insights newsletter]] is available. This edition includes: updates on Wikimedia's authentication system, research to simplify feature development in the MediaWiki platform, updates on Parser Unification and MathML rollout, and more. * The latest quarterly [[mw:Technical Community Newsletter/2024/October|Technical Community Newsletter]] is now available. This edition include: research about improving topic suggestions related to countries, improvements to PHPUnit tests, and more. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/42|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W42"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:21, 14 October 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27597254 --> == Tech News: 2024-43 == <section begin="technews-2024-W43"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/43|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Mobile Apps team has released an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS/Navigation Refresh#Phase 1: Creating a user Profile Menu (T373714)|update]] to the iOS app's navigation, and it is now available in the latest App store version. The team added a new Profile menu that allows for easy access to editor features like Notifications and Watchlist from the Article view, and brings the "Donate" button into a more accessible place for users who are reading an article. This is the first phase of a larger planned [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS/Navigation Refresh|navigation refresh]] to help the iOS app transition from a primarily reader-focused app, to an app that fully supports reading and editing. The Wikimedia Foundation has added more editing features and support for on-wiki communication based on volunteer requests in recent years. [[File:IOS App Navigation refresh first phase 05.png|thumb|iOS Wikipedia App's profile menu and contents]] '''Updates for editors''' * Wikipedia readers can now download a browser extension to experiment with some early ideas on potential features that recommend articles for further reading, automatically summarize articles, and improve search functionality. For more details and to stay updated, check out the Web team's [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Content Discovery Experiments|Content Discovery Experiments page]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Newsletter:Web team's projects|subscribe to their newsletter]]. * Later this month, logged-out editors of [[phab:T376499|these 12 wikis]] will start to have [[mw:Special:Mylanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|temporary accounts]] created. The list may slightly change - some wikis may be removed but none will be added. Temporary account is a new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/User account types|type of user account]]. It enhances the logged-out editors' privacy and makes it easier for community members to communicate with them. If you maintain any tools, bots, or gadgets on these 12 wikis, and your software is using data about IP addresses or is available for logged-out users, please check if it needs to be updated to work with temporary accounts. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/For developers|Guidance on how to update the code is available]]. Read more about the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/Updates|deployment plan across all wikis]]. * View all {{formatnum:33}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:33|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the [[w:nr:Main Page|South Ndebele]], [[w:rsk:Главни бок|Pannonian Rusyn]], [[w:ann:Uwu|Obolo]], [[w:iba:Lambar Keterubah|Iban]] and [[w:tdd:ᥞᥨᥝᥴ ᥘᥣᥲ ᥖᥥᥰ|Tai Nüa]] Wikipedia languages were created last week. [https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36785][https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35660][https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36614][https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q33424][https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36556] * It is now possible to create functions on Wikifunctions using Wikidata lexemes, through the new [[f:Z6005|Wikidata lexeme type]] launched last week. When you go to one of these functions, the user interface provides a lexeme selector that helps you pick a lexeme from Wikidata that matches the word you type. After hitting run, your selected lexeme is retrieved from Wikidata, transformed into a Wikidata lexeme type, and passed into the selected function. Read more about this in [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Status updates/2024-10-17#Function of the Week: select representation from lexeme|the latest Wikifunctions newsletter]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Users of the Wikimedia sites can now format dates more easily in different languages with the new <code dir="ltr">{{[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:ParserFunctions##timef|#timef]]:…}}</code> parser function. For example, <code dir="ltr"><nowiki>{{#timef:now|date|en}}</nowiki></code> will show as "<bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">{{#timef:now|date|en}}</bdi>". Previously, <code dir="ltr"><nowiki>{{#time:…}}</nowiki></code> could be used to format dates, but this required knowledge of the order of the time and date components and their intervening punctuation. <code dir="ltr">#timef</code> (or <code dir="ltr">#timefl</code> for local time) provides access to the standard date formats that MediaWiki uses in its user interface. This may help to simplify some templates on multi-lingual wikis like Commons and Meta. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T223772][https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:ParserFunctions##timef] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Commons and Meta users can now efficiently [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic words#Localization|retrieve the user's language]] using <code dir="ltr"><nowiki>{{USERLANGUAGE}}</nowiki></code> instead of using <code dir="ltr"><nowiki>{{int:lang}}</nowiki></code>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T4085] * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council|Product and Tech Advisory Council]] (PTAC) now has its pilot members with representation across Africa, Asia, Europe, North America and South America. They will work to address the [[Special:MyLanguage/Movement Strategy/Initiatives/Technology Council|Movement Strategy's Technology Council]] initiative of having a co-defined and more resilient technological platform. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Movement_Strategy/Initiatives/Technology_Council] '''In depth''' * The latest quarterly [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Newsletters/32|Growth newsletter]] is available. It includes: an upcoming Newcomer Homepage Community Updates module, new Community Configuration options, and details on new projects. * The Wikimedia Foundation is [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Security Team#CNA Partnership|now an official partner of the CVE program]], which is an international effort to catalog publicly disclosed cybersecurity vulnerabilities. This partnership will allow the Security Team to instantly publish [[w:en:Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures|common vulnerabilities and exposures]] (CVE) records that are affecting MediaWiki core, extensions, and skins, along with any other code the Foundation is a steward of. * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist|Community Wishlist]] is now [[m:Community Wishlist/Updates#October 16, 2024: Conversations Made Easier: Machine-Translated Wishes Are Here!|testing machine translations]] for Wishlist content. Volunteers can now read machine-translated versions of wishes and dive into discussions even before translators arrive to translate content. '''Meetings and events''' * 24 October - Wiki Education Speaker Series Webinar - [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/N4XTB4G55BUY3M3PNGUAKQWJ7A4UOPAK/ Open Source Tech: Building the Wiki Education Dashboard], featuring Wikimedia interns and a Web developer in the panel. * 20–22 December 2024 - [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Indic Wikimedia Hackathon Bhubaneswar 2024|Indic Wikimedia Hackathon Bhubaneswar 2024]] in Odisha, India. A hackathon for community members, including developers, designers and content editors, to build technical solutions that improve contributors' experiences. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/43|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W43"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:52, 21 October 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27634672 --> == Tech News: 2024-44 == <section begin="technews-2024-W44"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/44|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Later in November, the Charts extension will be deployed to the test wikis in order to help identify and fix any issue. A security review is underway to then enable deployment to pilot wikis for broader testing. You can read [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Project/Updates#October 2024: Working towards production deployment|the October project update]] and see the [https://en.wikipedia.beta.wmflabs.org/wiki/Charts latest documentation and examples on Beta Wikipedia]. * View all {{formatnum:32}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:32|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, [[w:en:PediaPress|Pediapress.com]], an external service that creates books from Wikipedia, can now use [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Maps|Wikimedia Maps]] to include existing pre-rendered infobox map images in their printed books on Wikipedia. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T375761] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Wikis can use [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:GuidedTour|the Guided Tour extension]] to help newcomers understand how to edit. The Guided Tours extension now works with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Dark mode|dark mode]]. Guided Tour maintainers can check their tours to see that nothing looks odd. They can also set <code>emitTransitionOnStep</code> to <code>true</code> to fix an old bug. They can use the new flag <code>allowAutomaticBack</code> to avoid back-buttons they don't want. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T73927#10241528] * Administrators in the Wikimedia projects who use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Nuke|Nuke Extension]] will notice that mass deletions done with this tool have the "Nuke" tag. This change will make reviewing and analyzing deletions performed with the tool easier. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T366068] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/44|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W44"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:56, 28 October 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27668811 --> == Tech News: 2024-45 == <section begin="technews-2024-W45"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/45|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Stewards can now make [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global blocks|global account blocks]] cause global [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Autoblock|autoblocks]]. This will assist stewards in preventing abuse from users who have been globally blocked. This includes preventing globally blocked temporary accounts from exiting their session or switching browsers to make subsequent edits for 24 hours. Previously, temporary accounts could exit their current session or switch browsers to continue editing. This is an anti-abuse tool improvement for the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|Temporary Accounts]] project. You can read more about the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/Updates|progress on key features for temporary accounts]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T368949] * Wikis that have the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Deployment status|CampaignEvents extension enabled]] can now use the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Campaigns/Foundation Product Team/Event list#October 29, 2024: Collaboration List launched|Collaboration List]] feature. This list provides a new, easy way for contributors to learn about WikiProjects on their wikis. Thanks to the Campaign team for this work that is part of [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2024-2025/Product %26 Technology OKRs#WE KRs|the 2024/25 annual plan]]. If you are interested in bringing the CampaignEvents extension to your wiki, you can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Deployment status#How to Request the CampaignEvents Extension for your wiki|follow these steps]] or you can reach out to User:Udehb-WMF for help. * The text color for red links will be slightly changed later this week to improve their contrast in light mode. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T370446] * View all {{formatnum:32}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:32|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, on multilingual wikis, users [[phab:T216368|can now]] hide translations from the WhatLinksHere special page. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * XML [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Data dumps|data dumps]] have been temporarily paused whilst a bug is investigated. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/xmldatadumps-l@lists.wikimedia.org/message/BXWJDPO5QI2QMBCY7HO36ELDCRO6HRM4/] '''In depth''' * Temporary Accounts have been deployed to six wikis; thanks to the Trust and Safety Product team for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|this work]], you can read about [[phab:T340001|the deployment plans]]. Beginning next week, Temporary Accounts will also be enabled on [[phab:T378336|seven other projects]]. If you are active on these wikis and need help migrating your tools, please reach out to [[m:User:Udehb-WMF|User:Udehb-WMF]] for assistance. * The latest quarterly [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2024/October|Language and Internationalization newsletter]] is available. It includes: New languages supported in translatewiki or in MediaWiki; New keyboard input methods for some languages; details about recent and upcoming meetings, and more. '''Meetings and events''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Users and Developers Conference Fall 2024|MediaWiki Users and Developers Conference Fall 2024]] is happening in Vienna, Austria and online from 4 to 6 November 2024. The conference will feature discussions around the usage of MediaWiki software by and within companies in different industries and will inspire and onboard new users. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/45|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W45"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:50, 4 November 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27693917 --> == Tech News: 2024-46 == <section begin="technews-2024-W46"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/46|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * On wikis with the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Translate|Translate extension]] enabled, users will notice that the FuzzyBot will now automatically create translated versions of categories used on translated pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285463] * View all {{formatnum:29}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:29|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the submitted task to use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:SecurePoll|SecurePoll extension]] for English Wikipedia's special [[w:en:Wikipedia:Administrator elections|administrator election]] was resolved on time. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T371454] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] In <code dir="ltr">[[mw:MediaWiki_1.44/wmf.2|1.44.0-wmf-2]]</code>, the logic of Wikibase function <code>getAllStatements</code> changed to behave like <code>getBestStatements</code>. Invoking the function now returns a copy of values which are immutable. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T270851] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ Wikimedia REST API] users, such as bot operators and tool maintainers, may be affected by ongoing upgrades. The API will be rerouting some page content endpoints from RESTbase to the newer [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/API:REST API|MediaWiki REST API]] endpoints. The [[phab:T374683|impacted endpoints]] include getting page/revision metadata and rendered HTML content. These changes will be available on testwiki later this week, with other projects to follow. This change should not affect existing functionality, but active users of the impacted endpoints should verify behavior on testwiki, and raise any concerns on the related [[phab:T374683|Phabricator ticket]]. '''In depth''' * Admins and users of the Wikimedia projects [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Moderator_Tools/Automoderator#Usage|where Automoderator is enabled]] can now monitor and evaluate important metrics related to Automoderator's actions. [https://superset.wmcloud.org/superset/dashboard/unified-automoderator-activity-dashboard/ This Superset dashboard] calculates and aggregates metrics about Automoderator's behaviour on the projects in which it is deployed. Thanks to the Moderator Tools team for this Dashboard; you can visit [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Moderator Tools/Automoderator/Unified Activity Dashboard|the documentation page]] for more information about this work. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T369488] '''Meetings and events''' * 21 November 2024 ([[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Commons community discussion - 21 November 2024 8:00 UTC|8:00 UTC]] & [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Commons community discussion - 21 November 2024 16:00 UTC|16:00 UTC]]) - [[c:Commons:WMF support for Commons/Commons community calls|Community call]] with Wikimedia Commons volunteers and stakeholders to help prioritize support efforts for 2025-2026 Fiscal Year. The theme of this call is how content should be organised on Wikimedia Commons. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/46|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W46"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:07, 12 November 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27732268 --> == Tech News: 2024-47 == <section begin="technews-2024-W47"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/47|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Users of Wikimedia sites will now be warned when they create a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Redirects|redirect]] to a page that doesn't exist. This will reduce the number of broken redirects to red links in our projects. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T326057] * View all {{formatnum:42}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:42|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Pywikibot/Overview|Pywikibot]], which automates work on MediaWiki sites, was upgraded to 9.5.0 on Toolforge. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T378676] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * On wikis that use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevs extension]], pages created or moved by users with the appropriate permissions are marked as flagged automatically. This feature has not been working recently, and changes fixing it should be deployed this week. Thanks to Daniel and Wargo for working on this. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T379218][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T368380] '''In depth''' * There is a new [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2024/11/05/say-hi-to-temporary-accounts-easier-collaboration-with-logged-out-editors-with-better-privacy-protection Diff post] about Temporary Accounts, available in more than 15 languages. Read it to learn about what Temporary Accounts are, their impact on different groups of users, and the plan to introduce the change on all wikis. '''Meetings and events''' * Technical volunteers can now register for the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Hackathon 2025|2025 Wikimedia Hackathon]], which will take place in Istanbul, Turkey. [https://pretix.eu/wikimedia/hackathon2025/ Application for travel and accommodation scholarships] is open from '''November 12 to December 10 2024'''. The registration for the event will close in mid-April 2025. The Wikimedia Hackathon is an annual gathering that unites the global technical community to collaborate on existing projects and explore new ideas. * Join the [[C:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:WMF%20support%20for%20Commons/Commons%20community%20calls|Wikimedia Commons community calls]] this week to help prioritize support for Commons which will be planned for 2025–2026. The theme will be how content should be organised on Wikimedia Commons. This is an opportunity for volunteers who work on different things to come together and talk about what matters for the future of the project. The calls will take place '''November 21, 2024, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Commons community discussion - 21 November 2024 8:00 UTC|8:00 UTC]] and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Commons community discussion - 21 November 2024 16:00 UTC|16:00 UTC]]'''. * A [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization/Community meetings#29 November 2024|Language community meeting]] will take place '''November 29, 16:00 UTC''' to discuss updates and technical problem-solving. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/47|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W47"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 02:00, 19 November 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27806858 --> == Tech News: 2024-48 == <section begin="technews-2024-W48"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/48|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] A new version of the standard wikitext editor-mode [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror|syntax highlighter]] will be available as a [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|beta feature]] later this week. This brings many new features and bug fixes, including right-to-left support, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror#Template folding|template folding]], [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror#Autocompletion|autocompletion]], and an improved search panel. You can learn more on the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|help page]]. * The 2010 wikitext editor now supports common keyboard shortcuts such <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>Ctrl</code>+<code>B</code></bdi> for bold and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>Ctrl</code>+<code>I</code></bdi> for italics. A full [[mw:Help:Extension:WikiEditor#Keyboard shortcuts|list of all six shortcuts]] is available. Thanks to SD0001 for this improvement. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T62928] * Starting November 28, Flow/Structured Discussions pages will be automatically archived and set to read-only at the following wikis: <bdi>bswiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>elwiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>euwiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>fawiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>fiwiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>frwikiquote</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>frwikisource</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>frwikiversity</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>frwikivoyage</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>idwiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>lvwiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>plwiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>ptwiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>urwiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>viwikisource</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>zhwikisource</bdi>. This is done as part of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Structured_Discussions/Deprecation|StructuredDiscussions deprecation work]]. If you need any assistance to archive your page in advance, please contact [[m:User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]]. * View all {{formatnum:25}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:25|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, a user creating a new AbuseFilter can now only set the filter to "protected" [[phab:T377765|if it includes a protected variable]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeEditor|CodeEditor]], which can be used in JavaScript, CSS, JSON, and Lua pages, [[phab:T377663|now offers]] live autocompletion. Thanks to SD0001 for this improvement. The feature can be temporarily disabled on a page by pressing <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>Ctrl</code>+<code>,</code></bdi> and un-selecting "<bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">Live Autocompletion</bdi>". * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Tool-maintainers who use the Graphite system for tracking metrics, need to migrate to the newer Prometheus system. They can check [https://grafana.wikimedia.org/d/K6DEOo5Ik/grafana-graphite-datasource-utilization?orgId=1 this dashboard] and the list in the Description of the [[phab:T350592|task T350592]] to see if their tools are listed, and they should claim metrics and dashboards connected to their tools. They can then disable or migrate all existing metrics by following the instructions in the task. The Graphite service will become read-only in April. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/KLUV4IOLRYXPQFWD6WKKJUHMWE77BMSZ/] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/NewPP parser report|New PreProcessor parser performance report]] has been fixed to give an accurate count for the number of Wikibase entities accessed. It had previously been resetting after 400 entities. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T279069] '''Meetings and events''' * A [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization/Community meetings#29 November 2024|Language community meeting]] will take place November 29 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1732896000 16:00 UTC]. There will be presentations on topics like developing language keyboards, the creation of the Mooré Wikipedia, the language support track at [[m:Wiki Indaba|Wiki Indaba]], and a report from the Wayuunaiki community on their experiences with the Incubator and as a new community over the last 3 years. This meeting will be in English and will also have Spanish interpretation. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/48|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W48"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:42, 25 November 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27847039 --> == Tech News: 2024-49 == <section begin="technews-2024-W49"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/49|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Two new parser functions were added this week. The <code dir="ltr"><nowiki>{{</nowiki>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic words#interwikilink|#interwikilink]]<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code> function adds an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Links#Interwiki links|interwiki link]] and the <code dir="ltr"><nowiki>{{</nowiki>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic words#interlanguagelink|#interlanguagelink]]<nowiki>}}</nowiki></code> function adds an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Links#Interlanguage links|interlanguage link]]. These parser functions are useful on wikis where namespaces conflict with interwiki prefixes. For example, links beginning with <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>MOS:</code></bdi> on English Wikipedia [[phab:T363538|conflict with the <code>mos</code> language code prefix of Mooré Wikipedia]]. * Starting this week, Wikimedia wikis no longer support connections using old RSA-based HTTPS certificates, specifically rsa-2048. This change is to improve security for all users. Some older, unsupported browser or smartphone devices will be unable to connect; Instead, they will display a connectivity error. See the [[wikitech:HTTPS/Browser_Recommendations|HTTPS Browser Recommendations page]] for more-detailed information. All modern operating systems and browsers are always able to reach Wikimedia projects. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/CTYEHVNSXUD3NFAAMG3BLZVTVQWJXJAH/] * Starting December 16, Flow/Structured Discussions pages will be automatically archived and set to read-only at the following wikis: <bdi>arwiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>cawiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>frwiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>mediawikiwiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>orwiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>wawiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>wawiktionary</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>wikidatawiki</bdi>{{int:comma-separator/en}}<bdi>zhwiki</bdi>. This is done as part of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Structured_Discussions/Deprecation|StructuredDiscussions deprecation work]]. If you need any assistance to archive your page in advance, please contact [[m:User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T380910] * This month the Chart extension was deployed to production and is now available on Commons and Testwiki. With the security review complete, pilot wiki deployment is expected to start in the first week of December. You can see a working version [[testwiki:Charts|on Testwiki]] and read [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Project/Updates|the November project update]] for more details. * View all {{formatnum:23}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:23|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, a bug with the "Download as PDF" system was fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T376438] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * In late February, temporary accounts will be rolled out on at least 10 large wikis. This deployment will have a significant effect on the community-maintained code. This is about Toolforge tools, bots, gadgets, and user scripts that use IP address data or that are available for logged-out users. The Trust and Safety Product team wants to identify this code, monitor it, and assist in updating it ahead of the deployment to minimize disruption to workflows. The team asks technical editors and volunteer developers to help identify such tools by adding them to [[mw:Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/For developers/Impacted tools|this list]]. In addition, review the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/For developers|updated documentation]] to learn how to adjust the tools. Join the discussions on the [[mw:Talk:Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|project talk page]] or in the [[discord:channels/221049808784326656/1227616742340034722|dedicated thread]] on the [[w:Wikipedia:Discord|Wikimedia Community Discord server (in English)]] for support and to share feedback. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/49|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W49"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:22, 2 December 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27873992 --> == Tech News: 2024-50 == <section begin="technews-2024-W50"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/50|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Technical documentation contributors can find updated resources, and new ways to connect with each other and the Wikimedia Technical Documentation Team, at the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Documentation|Documentation hub]] on MediaWiki.org. This page links to: resources for writing and improving documentation, a new <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr">#wikimedia-techdocs</bdi> IRC channel on libera.chat, a listing of past and upcoming documentation events, and ways to request a documentation consultation or review. If you have any feedback or ideas for improvements to the documentation ecosystem, please [[mw:Wikimedia Technical Documentation Team#Contact us|contact the Technical Documentation Team]]. '''Updates for editors''' [[File:Edit Check on Desktop.png|thumb|Layout change for the Edit Check feature]] * Later this week, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check|Edit Check]] will be relocated to a sidebar on desktop. Edit check is the feature for new editors to help them follow policies and guidelines. This layout change creates space to present people with [[mw:Edit check#1 November 2024|new Checks]] that appear ''while'' they are typing. The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check#Reference Check A/B Test|initial results]] show newcomers encountering Edit Check are 2.2 times more likely to publish a new content edit that includes a reference and is not reverted. * The Chart extension, which enables editors to create data visualizations, was successfully made available on MediaWiki.org and three pilot wikis (Italian, Swedish, and Hebrew Wikipedias). You can see a working examples [[testwiki:Charts|on Testwiki]] and read [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Project/Updates|the November project update]] for more details. * Translators in wikis where the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation/Section translation#Try the tool|mobile experience of Content Translation is available]], can now discover articles in Wikiproject campaigns of their interest from the "[https://test.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&campaign=specialcx&filter-type=automatic&filter-id=collections&active-list=suggestions&from=es&to=en All collection]" category in the articles suggestion feature. Wikiproject Campaign organizers can use this feature, to help translators to discover articles of interest, by adding the <code dir=ltr><nowiki><page-collection> </page-collection></nowiki></code> tag to their campaign article list page on Meta-wiki. This will make those articles discoverable in the Content Translation tool. For more detailed information on how to use the tool and tag, please refer to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Translation suggestions: Topic-based & Community-defined lists/How to use the features|the step-by-step guide]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T378958] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Nuke|Nuke]] feature, which enables administrators to mass delete pages, now has a [[phab:T376379#10310998|multiselect filter for namespace selection]]. This enables users to select multiple specific namespaces, instead of only one or all, when fetching pages for deletion. * The Nuke feature also now [[phab:T364225#10371365|provides links]] to the userpage of the user whose pages were deleted, and to the pages which were not selected for deletion, after page deletions are queued. This enables easier follow-up admin-actions. Thanks to Chlod and the Moderator Tools team for both of these improvements. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T364225#10371365] * The Editing Team is working on making it easier to populate citations from archive.org using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Citoid/Enabling Citoid on your wiki|Citoid]] tool, the auto-filled citation generator. They are asking communities to add two parameters preemptively, <code dir=ltr>archiveUrl</code> and <code dir=ltr>archiveDate</code>, within the TemplateData for each citation template using Citoid. You can see an [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template%3ACite_web%2Fdoc&diff=1261320172&oldid=1260788022 example of a change in a template], and a [https://global-search.toolforge.org/?namespaces=10&q=%5C%22citoid%5C%22%3A%20%5C%7B&regex=1&title= list of all relevant templates]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T374831] * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikivoyage}} in [[d:Q9240|Indonesian]] ([[voy:id:|<code>voy:id:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T380726] * Last week, all wikis had problems serving pages to logged-in users and some logged-out users for 30–45 minutes. This was caused by a database problem, and investigation is ongoing. [https://www.wikimediastatus.net/incidents/3g2ckc7bp6l9] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:19}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:19|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, a bug in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add Link]] feature has been fixed. Previously, the list of sections which are excluded from Add Link was partially ignored in certain cases. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T380455][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T380329] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Codex|Codex]], the design system for Wikimedia, now has an early-stage [[gitiles:design/codex-php|implementation in PHP]]. It is available for general use in MediaWiki extensions and Toolforge apps through [https://packagist.org/packages/wikimedia/codex Composer], with use in MediaWiki core coming soon. More information is available in [[wmdoc:design-codex-php/main/index.html|the documentation]]. Thanks to Doğu for the inspiration and many contributions to the library. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T379662] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/ Wikimedia REST API] users, such as bot operators and tool maintainers, may be affected by ongoing upgrades. On December 4, the MediaWiki Interfaces team began rerouting page/revision metadata and rendered HTML content endpoints on [[testwiki:|testwiki]] from RESTbase to comparable MediaWiki REST API endpoints. The team encourages active users of these endpoints to verify their tool's behavior on testwiki and raise any concerns on the related [[phab:T374683|Phabricator ticket]] before the end of the year, as they intend to roll out the same change across all Wikimedia projects in early January. These changes are part of the work to replace the outdated [[mw:RESTBase/deprecation|RESTBase]] system. * The [https://wikimediafoundation.limesurvey.net/986172 2024 Developer Satisfaction Survey] is seeking the opinions of the Wikimedia developer community. Please take the survey if you have any role in developing software for the Wikimedia ecosystem. The survey is open until 3 January 2025, and has an associated [[foundation:Legal:Developer Satisfaction Survey 2024 Privacy Statement|privacy statement]]. * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar] '''Meetings and events''' * The next meeting in the series of [[c:Commons:WMF support for Commons/Commons community calls|Wikimedia Foundation discussions with the Wikimedia Commons community]] will take place on [[m:Event:Commons community discussion - 12 December 2024 08:00 UTC|December 12 at 8:00 UTC]] and [[m:Event:Commons community discussion - 12_December 2024 16:00 UTC|at 16:00 UTC]]. The topic of this call is new media and new contributors. Contributors from all wikis are welcome to attend. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/50|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W50"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:16, 9 December 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27919424 --> == Tech News: 2024-51 == <section begin="technews-2024-W51"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/51|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Interested in improving event management on your home wiki? The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents extension]] offers organizers features like event registration management, event/wikiproject promotion, finding potential participants, and more - all directly on-wiki. If you are an organizer or think your community would benefit from this extension, start a discussion to enable it on your wiki today. To learn more about how to enable this extension on your wiki, visit the [[m:CampaignEvents/Deployment status#How to Request the CampaignEvents Extension for your wiki|deployment status page]]. '''Updates for editors''' * Users of the iOS Wikipedia App in Italy and Mexico on the Italian, Spanish, and English Wikipedias, can see a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS/Personalized Wikipedia Year in Review|personalized Year in Review]] with insights based on their reading and editing history. * Users of the Android Wikipedia App in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia can see the new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Rabbit Holes|Rabbit Holes]] feature. This feature shows a suggested search term in the Search bar based on the current article being viewed, and a suggested reading list generated from the user’s last two visited articles. * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global reminder bot|global reminder bot]] is now active and running on nearly 800 wikis. This service reminds most users holding temporary rights when they are about to expire, so that they can renew should they want to. See [[m:Global reminder bot/Technical details|the technical details page]] for more information. * The next issue of Tech News will be sent out on 13 January 2025 because of the end of year holidays. Thank you to all of the translators, and people who submitted content or feedback, this year. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:27}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:27|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, a bug was [[phab:T374988|fixed]] in the Android Wikipedia App which had caused translatable SVG images to show the wrong language when they were tapped. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * There is no new MediaWiki version next week. The next deployments will start on 14 January. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Deployments/Yearly_calendar/2025] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/51|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2024-W51"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:24, 16 December 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=27942374 --> == Tech News: 2025-03 == <section begin="technews-2025-W03"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/03|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Single User Login system is being updated over the next few months. This is the system which allows users to fill out the login form on one Wikimedia site and get logged in on all others at the same time. It needs to be updated because of the ways that browsers are increasingly restricting cross-domain cookies. To accommodate these restrictions, login and account creation pages will move to a central domain, but it will still appear to the user as if they are on the originating wiki. The updated code will be enabled this week for users on test wikis. This change is planned to roll out to all users during February and March. See [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Platform Team/SUL3#Deployment|the SUL3 project page]] for more details and a timeline. '''Updates for editors''' * On wikis with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:PageAssessments|PageAssessments]] installed, you can now [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:PageAssessments#Search|filter search results]] to pages in a given WikiProject by using the <code dir=ltr>inproject:</code> keyword. (These wikis: {{int:project-localized-name-arwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-enwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-enwikivoyage/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-frwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-huwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-newiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-trwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-zhwiki/en}}) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T378868] * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q34129|Tigre]] ([[w:tig:|<code>w:tig:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T381377] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:35}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:35|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, there was a bug with updating a user's edit-count after making a rollback edit, which is now fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T382592] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Wikimedia REST API users, such as bot operators and tool maintainers, may be affected by ongoing upgrades. Starting the week of January 13, we will begin rerouting [[phab:T374683|some page content endpoints]] from RESTbase to the newer MediaWiki REST API endpoints for all wiki projects. This change was previously available on testwiki and should not affect existing functionality, but active users of the impacted endpoints may raise issues directly to the [[phab:project/view/6931/|MediaWiki Interfaces Team]] in Phabricator if they arise. * Toolforge tool maintainers can now share their feedback on Toolforge UI, an initiative to provide a web platform that allows creating and managing Toolforge tools through a graphic interface, in addition to existing command-line workflows. This project aims to streamline active maintainers’ tasks, as well as make registration and deployment processes more accessible for new tool creators. The initiative is still at a very early stage, and the Cloud Services team is in the process of collecting feedback from the Toolforge community to help shape the solution to their needs. [[wikitech:Wikimedia Cloud Services team/EnhancementProposals/Toolforge UI|Read more and share your thoughts about Toolforge UI]]. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] For tool and library developers who use the OAuth system: The identity endpoint used for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/OAuth/For Developers#Identifying the user|OAuth 1]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/OAuth/For Developers#Identifying the user 2|OAuth 2]] returned a JSON object with an integer in its <code>sub</code> field, which was incorrect (the field must always be a string). This has been fixed; the fix will be deployed to Wikimedia wikis on the week of January 13. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T382139] * Many wikis currently use [[:mw:Parsoid/Parser Unification/Cite CSS|Cite CSS]] to render custom footnote markers in Parsoid output. Starting January 20 these rules will be disabled, but the developers ask you to ''not'' clean up your <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[MediaWiki:Common.css]]</bdi> until February 20 to avoid issues during the migration. Your wikis might experience some small changes to footnote markers in Visual Editor and when using experimental Parsoid read mode, but if there are changes these are expected to bring the rendering in line with the legacy parser output. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T370027] '''Meetings and events''' * The next meeting in the series of [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:WMF support for Commons/Commons community calls|Wikimedia Foundation Community Conversations with the Wikimedia Commons community]] will take place on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Commons community discussion - 15 January 2025 08:00 UTC|January 15 at 8:00 UTC]] and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Commons community discussion - 15 January 2025 16:00 UTC|at 16:00 UTC]]. The topic of this call is defining the priorities in tool investment for Commons. Contributors from all wikis, especially users who are maintaining tools for Commons, are welcome to attend. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/03|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W03"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:42, 14 January 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28048614 --> == Tech News: 2025-04 == <section begin="technews-2025-W04"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/04|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Administrators can mass-delete multiple pages created by a user or IP address using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Nuke|Extension:Nuke]]. It previously only allowed deletion of pages created in the last 30 days. It can now delete pages from the last 90 days, provided it is targeting a specific user or IP address. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T380846] * On [[phab:P72148|wikis that use]] the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Patrolled edits|Patrolled edits]] feature, when the rollback feature is used to revert an unpatrolled page revision, that revision will now be marked as "manually patrolled" instead of "autopatrolled", which is more accurate. Some editors that use [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:New filters for edit review/Filtering|filters]] on Recent Changes may need to update their filter settings. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T302140] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:31}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:31|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the Visual Editor's "Insert link" feature did not always suggest existing pages properly when an editor started typing, which has now been [[phab:T383497|fixed]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The Structured Discussion extension (also known as Flow) is being progressively removed from the wikis. This extension is unmaintained and causes issues. It will be replaced by [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]], which is used on any regular talk page. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Structured Discussions/Deprecation#Deprecation timeline|The last group of wikis]] ({{int:project-localized-name-cawikiquote/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-fiwikimedia/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-gomwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kabwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ptwikibooks/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-sewikimedia/en}}) will soon be contacted. If you have questions about this process, please ping [[m:User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] at your wiki. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T380912] * The latest quarterly [[mw:Technical_Community_Newsletter/2025/January|Technical Community Newsletter]] is now available. This edition includes: updates about services from the Data Platform Engineering teams, information about Codex from the Design System team, and more. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/04|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W04"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:36, 21 January 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28129769 --> == Tech News: 2025-05 == <section begin="technews-2025-W05"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/05|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Patrollers and admins - what information or context about edits or users could help you to make patroller or admin decisions more quickly or easily? The Wikimedia Foundation wants to hear from you to help guide its upcoming annual plan. Please consider sharing your thoughts on this and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026/Product & Technology OKRs|13 other questions]] to shape the technical direction for next year. '''Updates for editors''' * iOS Wikipedia App users worldwide can now access a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS/Personalized Wikipedia Year in Review/How your data is used|personalized Year in Review]] feature, which provides insights based on their reading and editing history on Wikipedia. This project is part of a broader effort to help welcome new readers as they discover and interact with encyclopedic content. * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] Edit patrollers now have a new feature available that can highlight potentially problematic new pages. When a page is created with the same title as a page which was previously deleted, a tag ('Recreated') will now be added, which users can filter for in [[{{#special:RecentChanges}}]] and [[{{#special:NewPages}}]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T56145] * Later this week, there will be a new warning for editors if they attempt to create a redirect that links to another redirect (a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Redirects#Double redirects|double redirect]]). The feature will recommend that they link directly to the second redirect's target page. Thanks to the user SomeRandomDeveloper for this improvement. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T326056] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Wikimedia wikis allow [[w:en:WebAuthn|WebAuthn]]-based second factor checks (such as hardware tokens) during login, but the feature is [[m:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Miscellaneous/Fix security key (WebAuthn) support|fragile]] and has very few users. The MediaWiki Platform team is temporarily disabling adding new WebAuthn keys, to avoid interfering with the rollout of [[mw:MediaWiki Platform Team/SUL3|SUL3]] (single user login version 3). Existing keys are unaffected. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T378402] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:30}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:30|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * For developers that use the [[wikitech:Data Platform/Data Lake/Edits/MediaWiki history dumps|MediaWiki History dumps]]: The Data Platform Engineering team has added a couple of new fields to these dumps, to support the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|Temporary Accounts]] initiative. If you maintain software that reads those dumps, please review your code and the updated documentation, since the order of the fields in the row will change. There will also be one field rename: in the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>mediawiki_user_history</code></bdi> dump, the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>anonymous</code></bdi> field will be renamed to <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>is_anonymous</code></bdi>. The changes will take effect with the next release of the dumps in February. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/LKMFDS62TXGDN6L56F4ABXYLN7CSCQDI/] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/05|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W05"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:14, 27 January 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28149374 --> == Tech News: 2025-06 == <section begin="technews-2025-W06"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/06|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Editors who use the "Special characters" editing-toolbar menu can now see the 32 special characters you have used most recently, across editing sessions on that wiki. This change should help make it easier to find the characters you use most often. The feature is in both the 2010 wikitext editor and VisualEditor. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T110722] * Editors using the 2010 wikitext editor can now create sublists with correct indentation by selecting the line(s) you want to indent and then clicking the toolbar buttons.[https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T380438] You can now also insert <code><nowiki><code></nowiki></code> tags using a new toolbar button.[https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T383010] Thanks to user stjn for these improvements. * Help is needed to ensure the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Citoid/Enabling Citoid on your wiki|citation generator]] works properly on each wiki. ** (1) Administrators should update the local versions of the page <code dir=ltr>MediaWiki:Citoid-template-type-map.json</code> to include entries for <code dir=ltr>preprint</code>, <code dir=ltr>standard</code>, and <code dir=ltr>dataset</code>; Here are example diffs to replicate [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki%3ACitoid-template-type-map.json&diff=1189164774&oldid=1165783565 for 'preprint'] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki%3ACitoid-template-type-map.json&diff=1270832208&oldid=1270828390 for 'standard' and 'dataset']. ** (2.1) If the citoid map in the citation template used for these types of references is missing, [[mediawikiwiki:Citoid/Enabling Citoid on your wiki#Step 2.a: Create a 'citoid' maps value for each citation template|one will need to be added]]. (2.2) If the citoid map does exist, the TemplateData will need to be updated to include new field names. Here are example updates [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template%3ACitation%2Fdoc&diff=1270829051&oldid=1262470053 for 'preprint'] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template%3ACitation%2Fdoc&diff=1270831369&oldid=1270829480 for 'standard' and 'dataset']. The new fields that may need to be supported are <code dir=ltr>archiveID</code>, <code dir=ltr>identifier</code>, <code dir=ltr>repository</code>, <code dir=ltr>organization</code>, <code dir=ltr>repositoryLocation</code>, <code dir=ltr>committee</code>, and <code dir=ltr>versionNumber</code>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T383666] * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia/en}} in [[d:Q15637215|Central Kanuri]] ([[w:knc:|<code>w:knc:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T385181] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:27}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:27|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the [[mediawikiwiki:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Wikisource/Wikimedia OCR|OCR (optical character recognition) tool]] used for Wikisource now supports a new language, Church Slavonic. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T384782] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/06|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W06"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:09, 4 February 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28203495 --> == Tech News: 2025-07 == <section begin="technews-2025-W07"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/07|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Product and Technology Advisory Council (PTAC) has published [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council/February 2025 draft PTAC recommendation for feedback|a draft of their recommendations]] for the Wikimedia Foundation's Product and Technology department. They have recommended focusing on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council/February 2025 draft PTAC recommendation for feedback/Mobile experiences|mobile experiences]], particularly contributions. They request community [[m:Talk:Product and Technology Advisory Council/February 2025 draft PTAC recommendation for feedback|feedback at the talk page]] by 21 February. '''Updates for editors''' * The "Special pages" portlet link will be moved from the "Toolbox" into the "Navigation" section of the main menu's sidebar by default. This change is because the Toolbox is intended for tools relating to the current page, not tools relating to the site, so the link will be more logically and consistently located. To modify this behavior and update CSS styling, administrators can follow the instructions at [[phab:T385346|T385346]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T333211] * As part of this year's work around improving the ways readers discover content on the wikis, the Web team will be running an experiment with a small number of readers that displays some suggestions for related or interesting articles within the search bar. Please check out [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Content Discovery Experiments#Experiment 1: Display article recommendations in more prominent locations, search|the project page]] for more information. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Template editors who use TemplateStyles can now customize output for users with specific accessibility needs by using accessibility related media queries (<code dir=ltr>[https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/@media/prefers-reduced-motion prefers-reduced-motion]</code>, <code dir=ltr>[https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/@media/prefers-reduced-transparency prefers-reduced-transparency]</code>, <code dir=ltr>[https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/@media/prefers-contrast prefers-contrast]</code>, and <code dir=ltr>[https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/@media/forced-colors forced-colors]</code>). Thanks to user Bawolff for these improvements. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T384175] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:22}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:22|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the global blocks log will now be shown directly on the {{#special:CentralAuth}} page, similarly to global locks, to simplify the workflows for stewards. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T377024] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Wikidata [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Default values for labels and aliases|now supports a special language as a "default for all languages"]] for labels and aliases. This is to avoid excessive duplication of the same information across many languages. If your Wikidata queries use labels, you may need to update them as some existing labels are getting removed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T312511] * The function <code dir="ltr">getDescription</code> was invoked on every Wiki page read and accounts for ~2.5% of a page's total load time. The calculated value will now be cached, reducing load on Wikimedia servers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T383660] * As part of the RESTBase deprecation [[mw:RESTBase/deprecation|effort]], the <code dir="ltr">/page/related</code> endpoint has been blocked as of February 6, 2025, and will be removed soon. This timeline was chosen to align with the deprecation schedules for older Android and iOS versions. The stable alternative is the "<code dir="ltr">morelike</code>" action API in MediaWiki, and [[gerrit:c/mediawiki/services/mobileapps/+/982154/13/pagelib/src/transform/FooterReadMore.js|a migration example]] is available. The MediaWiki Interfaces team [[phab:T376297|can be contacted]] for any questions. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/GFC2IJO7L4BWO3YTM7C5HF4MCCBE2RJ2/] '''In depth''' * The latest quarterly [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2025/January|Language and Internationalization newsletter]] is available. It includes: Updates about the "Contribute" menu; details on some of the newest language editions of Wikipedia; details on new languages supported by the MediaWiki interface; updates on the Community-defined lists feature; and more. * The latest [[mw:Extension:Chart/Project/Updates#January 2025: Better visibility into charts and tabular data usage|Chart Project newsletter]] is available. It includes updates on the progress towards bringing better visibility into global charts usage and support for categorizing pages in the Data namespace on Commons. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/07|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W07"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:12, 11 February 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28231022 --> == Tech News: 2025-08 == <section begin="technews-2025-W08"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/08|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Communities using growth tools can now showcase one event on the <code>{{#special:Homepage}}</code> for newcomers. This feature will help newcomers to be informed about editing activities they can participate in. Administrators can create a new event to showcase at <code>{{#special:CommunityConfiguration}}</code>. To learn more about this feature, please read [[diffblog:2025/02/12/community-updates-module-connecting-newcomers-to-your-initiatives/|the Diff post]], have a look [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Community updates module|at the documentation]], or contact [[mw:Talk:Growth|the Growth team]]. '''Updates for editors''' [[File:Page Frame Features on desktop.png|thumb|Highlighted talk pages improvements]] * Starting next week, talk pages at these wikis – {{int:project-localized-name-eswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-frwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-itwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-jawiki/en}} – will get [[diffblog:2024/05/02/making-talk-pages-better-for-everyone/|a new design]]. This change was extensively tested as a Beta feature and is the last step of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Feature summary|talk pages improvements]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T379102] * You can now navigate to view a redirect page directly from its action pages, such as the history page. Previously, you were forced to first go to the redirect target. This change should help editors who work with redirects a lot. Thanks to user stjn for this improvement. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T5324] * When a Cite reference is reused many times, wikis currently show either numbers like "1.23" or localized alphabetic markers like "a b c" in the reference list. Previously, if there were so many reuses that the alphabetic markers were all used, [[MediaWiki:Cite error references no backlink label|an error message]] was displayed. As part of the work to [[phab:T383036|modernize Cite customization]], these errors will no longer be shown and instead the backlinks will fall back to showing numeric markers like "1.23" once the alphabetic markers are all used. * The log entries for each change to an editor's user-groups are now clearer by specifying exactly what has changed, instead of the plain before and after listings. Translators can [[phab:T369466|help to update the localized versions]]. Thanks to user Msz2001 for these improvements. * A new filter has been added to the [[{{#special:Nuke}}]] tool, which allows administrators to mass delete pages, to enable users to filter for pages in a range of page sizes (in bytes). This allows, for example, deleting pages only of a certain size or below. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T378488] * Non-administrators can now check which pages are able to be deleted using the [[{{#special:Nuke}}]] tool. Thanks to user MolecularPilot for this and the previous improvements. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T376378] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:25}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:25|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, a bug was fixed in the configuration for the AV1 video file format, which enables these files to play again. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T382193] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Parsoid Read Views is going to be rolling out to most Wiktionaries over the next few weeks, following the successful transition of Wikivoyage to Parsoid Read Views last year. For more information, see the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification|Parsoid/Parser Unification]] project page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T385923][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T371640] * Developers of tools that run on-wiki should note that <code dir=ltr>mw.Uri</code> is deprecated. Tools requiring <code dir=ltr>mw.Uri</code> must explicitly declare <code dir=ltr>mediawiki.Uri</code> as a ResourceLoader dependency, and should migrate to the browser native <code dir=ltr>URL</code> API soon. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T384515] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/08|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W08"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:16, 17 February 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28275610 --> == Tech News: 2025-09 == <section begin="technews-2025-W09"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/09|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Administrators can now customize how the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User language|Babel feature]] creates categories using [[{{#special:CommunityConfiguration/Babel}}]]. They can rename language categories, choose whether they should be auto-created, and adjust other settings. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T374348] * The <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[https://www.wikimedia.org/ wikimedia.org]</bdi> portal has been updated – and is receiving some ongoing improvements – to modernize and improve the accessibility of our portal pages. It now has better support for mobile layouts, updated wording and links, and better language support. Additionally, all of the Wikimedia project portals, such as <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[https://wikibooks.org wikibooks.org]</bdi>, now support dark mode when a reader is using that system setting. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T373204][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T368221][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Project_portals] * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wiktionary/en}} in [[d:Q33965|Santali]] ([[wikt:sat:|<code>wikt:sat:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T386619] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:30}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:30|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, a bug was fixed that prevented clicking on search results in the web-interface for some Firefox for Android phone configurations. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T381289] '''Meetings and events''' * The next Language Community Meeting is happening soon, February 28th at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1740751200 14:00 UTC]. This week's meeting will cover: highlights and technical updates on keyboard and tools for the Sámi languages, Translatewiki.net contributions from the Bahasa Lampung community in Indonesia, and technical Q&A. If you'd like to join, simply [[mw:Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Community meetings#28 February 2025|sign up on the wiki page]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/09|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W09"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:41, 25 February 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28296129 --> == Tech News: 2025-10 == <section begin="technews-2025-W10"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/10|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * All logged-in editors using the mobile view can now edit a full page. The "{{int:Minerva-page-actions-editfull}}" link is accessible from the "{{int:minerva-page-actions-overflow}}" menu in the toolbar. This was previously only available to editors using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Advanced mobile contributions|Advanced mobile contributions]] setting. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T387180] * Interface administrators can now help to remove the deprecated Cite CSS code matching "<code dir="ltr">mw-ref</code>" from their local <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[MediaWiki:Common.css]]</bdi>. The list of wikis in need of cleanup, and the code to remove, [https://global-search.toolforge.org/?q=mw-ref%5B%5E-a-z%5D&regex=1&namespaces=8&title=.*css can be found with this global search] and in [https://ace.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&oldid=145662#L-139--L-144 this example], and you can learn more about how to help on the [[mw:Parsoid/Parser Unification/Cite CSS|CSS migration project page]]. The Cite footnote markers ("<code dir="ltr">[1]</code>") are now rendered by [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid|Parsoid]], and the deprecated CSS is no longer needed. The CSS for backlinks ("<code dir="ltr">mw:referencedBy</code>") should remain in place for now. This cleanup is expected to cause no visible changes for readers. Please help to remove this code before March 20, after which the development team will do it for you. * When editors embed a file (e.g. <code><nowiki>[[File:MediaWiki.png]]</nowiki></code>) on a page that is protected with cascading protection, the software will no longer restrict edits to the file description page, only to new file uploads.[https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T24521] In contrast, transcluding a file description page (e.g. <code><nowiki>{{:File:MediaWiki.png}}</nowiki></code>) will now restrict edits to the page.[https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T62109] * When editors revert a file to an earlier version it will now require the same permissions as ordinarily uploading a new version of the file. The software now checks for 'reupload' or 'reupload-own' rights,[https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T304474] and respects cascading protection.[https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T140010] * When administrators are listing pages for deletion with the Nuke tool, they can now also list associated talk pages and redirects for deletion, alongside pages created by the target, rather than needing to manually delete these pages afterwards. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T95797] * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/03|previously noted]] update to Single User Login, which will accommodate browser restrictions on cross-domain cookies by moving login and account creation to a central domain, will now roll out to all users during March and April. The team plans to enable it for all new account creation on [[wikitech:Deployments/Train#Tuesday|Group0]] wikis this week. See [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Platform Team/SUL3#Deployment|the SUL3 project page]] for more details and an updated timeline. * Since last week there has been a bug that shows some interface icons as black squares until the page has fully loaded. It will be fixed this week. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T387351] * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia/en}} in [[d:Q2044560|Sylheti]] ([[w:syl:|<code>w:syl:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T386441] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:23}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:23|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, a bug was fixed with loading images in very old versions of the Firefox browser on mobile. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T386400] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.44/wmf.19|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/10|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W10"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 02:30, 4 March 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28334563 --> == Tech News: 2025-11 == <section begin="technews-2025-W11"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/11|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Editors who use password managers at multiple wikis may notice changes in the future. The way that our wikis provide information to password managers about reusing passwords across domains has recently been updated, so some password managers might now offer you login credentials that you saved for a different Wikimedia site. Some password managers already did this, and are now doing it for more Wikimedia domains. This is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Platform Team/SUL3|SUL3 project]] which aims to improve how our unified login works, and to keep it compatible with ongoing changes to the web-browsers we use. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T385520][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T384844] * The Wikipedia Apps Team is inviting interested users to help improve Wikipedia’s offline and limited internet use. After discussions in [[m:Afrika Baraza|Afrika Baraza]] and the last [[m:Special:MyLanguage/ESEAP Hub/Meetings|ESEAP call]], key challenges like search, editing, and offline access are being explored, with upcoming focus groups to dive deeper into these topics. All languages are welcome, and interpretation will be available. Want to share your thoughts? [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Improving Wikipedia Mobile Apps for Offline & Limited Internet Use|Join the discussion]] or email <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">aramadan@wikimedia.org</bdi>! * All wikis will be read-only for a few minutes on March 19. This is planned at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1742392800 14:00 UTC]. More information will be published in Tech News and will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:27}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:27|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.44/wmf.20|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The latest quarterly [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Newsletters/33|Growth newsletter]] is available. It includes: the launch of the Community Updates module, the most recent changes in Community Configuration, and the upcoming test of in-article suggestions for first-time editors. * An old API that was previously used in the Android Wikipedia app is being removed at the end of March. There are no current software uses, but users of the app with a version that is older than 6 months by the time of removal (2025-03-31), will no longer have access to the Suggested Edits feature, until they update their app. You can [[diffblog:2025/02/24/sunset-of-wikimedia-recommendation-api/|read more details about this change]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/11|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W11"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:09, 10 March 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28372257 --> == Tech News: 2025-12 == <section begin="technews-2025-W12"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/12|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Twice a year, around the equinoxes, the Wikimedia Foundation's Site Reliability Engineering (SRE) team performs [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|a datacenter server switchover]], redirecting all traffic from one primary server to its backup. This provides reliability in case of a crisis, as we can always fall back on the other datacenter. [http://listen.hatnote.com/ Thanks to the Listen to Wikipedia] tool, you can hear the switchover take place: Before it begins, you'll hear the steady stream of edits; Then, as the system enters a brief read-only phase, the sound stops for a couple of minutes, before resuming after the switchover. You can [[diffblog:2025/03/12/hear-that-the-wikis-go-silent-twice-a-year/|read more about the background and details of this process on the Diff blog]]. If you want to keep an ear out for the next server switchover, listen to the wikis on [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1742392800 March 19 at 14:00 UTC]. '''Updates for editors''' * The [https://test.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&filter-type=automatic&filter-id=previous-edits&active-list=suggestions&from=en&to=es improved Content Translation tool dashboard] is now available in [[phab:T387820|10 Wikipedias]] and will be available for all Wikipedias [[phab:T387821|soon]]. With [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation#Improved translation experience|the unified dashboard]], desktop users can now: Translate new sections of an article; Discover and access topic-based [https://ig.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&active-list=suggestions&from=en&to=ig&filter-type=automatic&filter-id=previous-edits article suggestion filters] (initially available only for mobile device users); Discover and access the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Translation suggestions: Topic-based & Community-defined lists|Community-defined lists]] filter, also known as "Collections", from wiki-projects and campaigns. * On Wikimedia Commons, a [[c:Commons:WMF support for Commons/Upload Wizard Improvements#Improve category selection|new system to select the appropriate file categories]] has been introduced: if a category has one or more subcategories, users will be able to click on an arrow that will open the subcategories directly within the form, and choose the correct one. The parent category name will always be shown on top, and it will always be possible to come back to it. This should decrease the amount of work for volunteers in fixing/creating new categories. The change is also available on mobile. These changes are part of planned improvements to the UploadWizard. * The Community Tech team is seeking wikis to join a pilot for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Multiblocks|Multiblocks]] feature and a refreshed Special:Block page in late March. Multiblocks enables administrators to impose multiple different types of blocks on the same user at the same time. If you are an admin or steward and would like us to discuss joining the pilot with your community, please leave a message on the [[m:Talk:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Multiblocks|project talk page]]. * Starting March 25, the Editing team will test a new feature for Edit Check at [[phab:T384372|12 Wikipedias]]: [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit check#Multi-check|Multi-Check]]. Half of the newcomers on these wikis will see all [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit check#ref|Reference Checks]] during their edit session, while the other half will continue seeing only one. The goal of this test is to see if users are confused or discouraged when shown multiple Reference Checks (when relevant) within a single editing session. At these wikis, the tags used on edits that show References Check will be simplified, as multiple tags could be shown within a single edit. Changes to the tags are documented [[phab:T373949|on Phabricator]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T379131] * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global reminder bot|Global reminder bot]], which is a service for notifying users that their temporary user-rights are about to expire, now supports using the localized name of the user-rights group in the message heading. Translators can see the [[m:Global reminder bot/Translation|listing of existing translations and documentation]] to check if their language needs updating or creation. * The [[Special:GlobalPreferences|GlobalPreferences]] gender setting, which is used for how the software should refer to you in interface messages, now works as expected by overriding the local defaults. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T386584] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:26}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:26|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the Wikipedia App for Android had a bug fixed for when a user is browsing and searching in multiple languages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T379777] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Later this week, the way that Codex styles are loaded will be changing. There is a small risk that this may result in unstyled interface message boxes on certain pages. User generated content (e.g. templates) is not impacted. Gadgets may be impacted. If you see any issues [[phab:T388847|please report them]]. See the linked task for details, screenshots, and documentation on how to fix any affected gadgets. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.44/wmf.21|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/12|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W12"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:48, 17 March 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28412594 --> == Tech News: 2025-13 == <section begin="technews-2025-W13"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/13|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Wikimedia Foundation is seeking your feedback on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026/Product & Technology OKRs|drafts of the objectives and key results that will shape the Foundation's Product and Technology priorities]] for the next fiscal year (starting in July). The objectives are broad high-level areas, and the key-results are measurable ways to track the success of their objectives. Please share your feedback on the talkpage, in any language, ideally before the end of April. '''Updates for editors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents extension]] will be released to multiple wikis (see [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Deployment status#Global Deployment Plan|deployment plan]] for details) in April 2025, and the team has begun the process of engaging communities on the identified wikis. The extension provides tools to organize, manage, and promote collaborative activities (like events, edit-a-thons, and WikiProjects) on the wikis. The extension has three tools: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event Center/Registration|Event Registration]], [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Collaboration list|Collaboration List]], and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Campaigns/Foundation Product Team/Invitation list|Invitation Lists]]. It is currently on 13 Wikipedias, including English Wikipedia, French Wikipedia, and Spanish Wikipedia, as well as Wikidata. Questions or requests can be directed to the [[mw:Help talk:Extension:CampaignEvents|extension talk page]] or in Phabricator (with <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr" style="white-space: nowrap;">#campaigns-product-team</bdi> tag). * Starting the week of March 31st, wikis will be able to set which user groups can view private registrants in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event Center/Registration|Event Registration]], as part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents]] extension. By default, event organizers and the local wiki admins will be able to see private registrants. This is a change from the current behavior, in which only event organizers can see private registrants. Wikis can change the default setup by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Requesting wiki configuration changes|requesting a configuration change]] in Phabricator (and adding the <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr" style="white-space: nowrap;">#campaigns-product-team</bdi> tag). Participants of past events can cancel their registration at any time. * Administrators at wikis that have a customized <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[MediaWiki:Sidebar]]</bdi> should check that it contains an entry for the {{int:specialpages}} listing. If it does not, they should add it using <code dir=ltr style="white-space: nowrap;">* specialpages-url|specialpages</code>. Wikis with a default sidebar will see the link moved from the page toolbox into the sidebar menu in April. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T388927] * The Minerva skin (mobile web) combines both Notice and Alert notifications within the bell icon ([[File:OOjs UI icon bell.svg|16px|link=|class=skin-invert]]). There was a long-standing bug where an indication for new notifications was only shown if you had unseen Alerts. This bug is now fixed. In the future, Minerva users will notice a counter atop the bell icon when you have 1 or more unseen Notices and/or Alerts. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T344029] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:23}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:23|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * VisualEditor has introduced a [[mw:VisualEditor/Hooks|new client-side hook]] for developers to use when integrating with the VisualEditor target lifecycle. This hook should replace the existing lifecycle-related hooks, and be more consistent between different platforms. In addition, the new hook will apply to uses of VisualEditor outside of just full article editing, allowing gadgets to interact with the editor in DiscussionTools as well. The Editing Team intends to deprecate and eventually remove the old lifecycle hooks, so any use cases that this new hook does not cover would be of interest to them and can be [[phab:T355555|shared in the task]]. * Developers who use the <code dir=ltr>mw.Api</code> JavaScript library, can now identify the tool using it with the <code dir=ltr>userAgent</code> parameter: <code dir=ltr>var api = new mw.Api( { userAgent: 'GadgetNameHere/1.0.1' } );</code>. If you maintain a gadget or user script, please set a user agent, because it helps with library and server maintenance and with differentiating between legitimate and illegitimate traffic. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T373874][https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Policy:Wikimedia_Foundation_User-Agent_Policy] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.44/wmf.22|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/13|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W13"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:42, 24 March 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28443127 --> == Tech News: 2025-14 == <section begin="technews-2025-W14"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/14|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The Editing team is working on a new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit Check|Edit check]]: [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check#26 March 2025|Peacock check]]. This check's goal is to identify non-neutral terms while a user is editing a wikipage, so that they can be informed that their edit should perhaps be changed before they publish it. This project is at the early stages, and the team is looking for communities' input: [[phab:T389445|in this Phabricator task]], they are gathering on-wiki policies, templates used to tag non-neutral articles, and the terms (jargon and keywords) used in edit summaries for the languages they are currently researching. You can participate by editing the table on Phabricator, commenting on the task, or directly messaging [[m:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]]. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Platform Team/SUL3|Single User Login]] has now been updated on all wikis to move login and account creation to a central domain. This makes user login compatible with browser restrictions on cross-domain cookies, which have prevented users of some browsers from staying logged in. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:35}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:35|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Starting on March 31st, the MediaWiki Interfaces team will begin a limited release of generated OpenAPI specs and a SwaggerUI-based sandbox experience for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/API:REST API|MediaWiki REST APIs]]. They invite developers from a limited group of non-English Wikipedia communities (Arabic, German, French, Hebrew, Interlingua, Dutch, Chinese) to review the documentation and experiment with the sandbox in their preferred language. In addition to these specific Wikipedia projects, the sandbox and OpenAPI spec will be available on the [[testwiki:Special:RestSandbox|on the test wiki REST Sandbox special page]] for developers with English as their preferred language. During the preview period, the MediaWiki Interfaces Team also invites developers to [[mw:MediaWiki Interfaces Team/Feature Feedback/REST Sandbox|share feedback about your experience]]. The preview will last for approximately 2 weeks, after which the sandbox and OpenAPI specs will be made available across all wiki projects. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.44/wmf.23|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * Sometimes a small, [[gerrit:c/operations/cookbooks/+/1129184|one line code change]] can have great significance: in this case, it means that for the first time in years we're able to run all of the stack serving <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[http://maps.wikimedia.org/ maps.wikimedia.org]</bdi> - a host dedicated to serving our wikis and their multi-lingual maps needs - from a single core datacenter, something we test every time we perform a [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|datacenter switchover]]. This is important because it means that in case one of our datacenters is affected by a catastrophe, we'll still be able to serve the site. This change is the result of [[phab:T216826|extensive work]] by two developers on porting the last component of the maps stack over to [[w:en:Kubernetes|kubernetes]], where we can allocate resources more efficiently than before, thus we're able to withstand more traffic in a single datacenter. This work involved a lot of complicated steps because this software, and the software libraries it uses, required many long overdue upgrades. This type of work makes the Wikimedia infrastructure more sustainable. '''Meetings and events''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Users and Developers Workshop Spring 2025|MediaWiki Users and Developers Workshop Spring 2025]] is happening in Sandusky, USA, and online, from 14–16 May 2025. The workshop will feature discussions around the usage of MediaWiki software by and within companies in different industries and will inspire and onboard new users. Registration and presentation signup is now available at the workshop's website. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/14|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W14"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:05, 1 April 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28473566 --> == Tech News: 2025-15 == <section begin="technews-2025-W15"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/15|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * From now on, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Interface administrators|interface admins]] and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Central notice administrators|centralnotice admins]] are technically required to enable [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Two-factor authentication|two-factor authentication]] before they can use their privileges. In the future this might be expanded to more groups with advanced user-rights. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T150898] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:20}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:20|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The Design System Team is preparing to release the next major version of Codex (v2.0.0) on April 29. Editors and developers who use CSS from Codex should see the [[mw:Codex/Release Timeline/2.0|2.0 overview documentation]], which includes guidance related to a few of the breaking changes such as <code dir=ltr style="white-space: nowrap;">font-size</code>, <code dir=ltr style="white-space: nowrap;">line-height</code>, and <code dir=ltr style="white-space: nowrap;">size-icon</code>. * The results of the [[mw:Developer Satisfaction Survey/2025|Developer Satisfaction Survey (2025)]]  are now available. Thank you to all participants. These results help the Foundation decide what to work on next and to review what they recently worked on. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.44/wmf.24|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Hackathon 2025|2025 Wikimedia Hackathon]] will take place in Istanbul, Turkey, between 2–4 May. Registration for attending the in-person event will close on 13 April. Before registering, please note the potential need for a [https://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkish-representations.en.mfa visa] or [https://www.mfa.gov.tr/visa-information-for-foreigners.en.mfa e-visa] to enter the country. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/15|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W15"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:52, 7 April 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28507470 --> == Tech News: 2025-16 == <section begin="technews-2025-W16"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/16|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Later this week, the default thumbnail size will be increased from 220px to 250px. This changes how pages are shown in all wikis and has been requested by some communities for many years, but wasn't previously possible due to technical limitations. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T355914] * File thumbnails are now stored in discrete sizes. If a page specifies a thumbnail size that's not among the standard sizes (20, 40, 60, 120, 250, 330, 500, 960), then MediaWiki will pick the closest larger thumbnail size but will tell the browser to downscale it to the requested size. In these cases, nothing will change visually but users might load slightly larger images. If it doesn't matter which thumbnail size is used in a page, please pick one of the standard sizes to avoid the extra in-browser down-scaling step. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Images#Thumbnail_sizes][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T355914] '''Updates for editors''' * The Wikimedia Foundation are working on a system called [[m:Edge Uniques|Edge Uniques]] which will enable [[:w:en:A/B testing|A/B testing]], help protect against [[:w:en:Denial-of-service attack|Distributed denial-of-service attacks]] (DDoS attacks), and make it easier to understand how many visitors the Wikimedia sites have. This is so that they can more efficiently build tools which help readers, and make it easier for readers to find what they are looking for. * To improve security for users, a small percentage of logins will now require that the account owner input a one-time password [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:EmailAuth|emailed to their account]]. It is recommended that you [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-personal-email|check]] that the email address on your account is set correctly, and that it has been confirmed, and that you have an email set for this purpose. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T390662] * "Are you interested in taking a short survey to improve tools used for reviewing or reverting edits on your Wiki?" This question will be [[phab:T389401|asked at 7 wikis starting next week]], on Recent Changes and Watchlist pages. The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Moderator Tools|Moderator Tools team]] wants to know more about activities that involve looking at new edits made to your Wikimedia project, and determining whether they adhere to your project's policies. * On April 15, the full Wikidata graph will no longer be supported on <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr">[https://query.wikidata.org/ query.wikidata.org]</bdi>. After this date, scholarly articles will be available through <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr" style="white-space:nowrap;">[https://query-scholarly.wikidata.org/ query-scholarly.wikidata.org]</bdi>, while the rest of the data hosted on Wikidata will be available through the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr">[https://query.wikidata.org/ query.wikidata.org]</bdi> endpoint. This is part of the scheduled split of the Wikidata Graph, which was [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:SPARQL query service/WDQS backend update/September 2024 scaling update|announced in September 2024]]. More information is [[d:Wikidata:SPARQL query service/WDQS graph split|available on Wikidata]]. * The latest quarterly [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Newsletter/First quarter of 2025|Wikimedia Apps Newsletter]] is now available. It covers updates, experiments, and improvements made to the Wikipedia mobile apps. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:30}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:30|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The latest quarterly [[mw:Technical Community Newsletter/2025/April|Technical Community Newsletter]] is now available. This edition includes: an invitation for tool maintainers to attend the Toolforge UI Community Feedback Session on April 15th; recent community metrics; and recent technical blog posts. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.44/wmf.25|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/16|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W16"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:24, 15 April 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28540654 --> == Tech News: 2025-17 == <section begin="technews-2025-W17"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/17|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Main Page|Wikifunctions]] is now integrated with [[w:dag:Solɔɣu|Dagbani Wikipedia]] since April 15. It is the first project that will be able to call [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Introduction|functions from Wikifunctions]] and integrate them in articles. A function is something that takes one or more inputs and transforms them into a desired output, such as adding up two numbers, converting miles into metres, calculating how much time has passed since an event, or declining a word into a case. Wikifunctions will allow users to do that through a simple call of [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Catalogue|a stable and global function]], rather than via a local template. [https://www.wikifunctions.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Status_updates/2025-04-16] * A new type of lint error has been created: [[Special:LintErrors/empty-heading|{{int:linter-category-empty-heading}}]] ([[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Lint errors/empty-heading|documentation]]). The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Linter|Linter extension]]'s purpose is to identify wikitext patterns that must or can be fixed in pages and provide some guidance about what the problems are with those patterns and how to fix them. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T368722] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:37}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:37|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Following its publication on HuggingFace, the "Structured Contents" dataset, developed by Wikimedia Enterprise, is [https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/blog/kaggle-dataset/ now also available on Kaggle]. This Beta initiative is focused on making Wikimedia data more machine-readable for high-volume reusers. They are releasing this beta version in a location that open dataset communities already use, in order to seek feedback, to help improve the product for a future wider release. You can read more about the overall [https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/blog/structured-contents-snapshot-api/#open-datasets Structured Contents project], and about the [https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/blog/structured-contents-wikipedia-infobox/ first release that's freely usable]. * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. '''Meetings and events''' * The Editing and Machine Learning Teams invite interested volunteers to a video meeting to discuss [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/Peacock check|Peacock check]], which is the latest [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check|Edit check]] that will detect "peacock" or "overly-promotional" or "non-neutral" language whilst an editor is typing. Editors who work with newcomers, or help to fix this kind of writing, or are interested in how we use artificial intelligence in our projects are encouraged to attend. The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Editing team/Community Conversations#Next Conversation|meeting will be on April 28, 2025]] at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1745863200 18:00–19:00 UTC] and hosted on Zoom. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/17|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W17"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:00, 21 April 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28578245 --> == Tech News: 2025-18 == <section begin="technews-2025-W18"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/18|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Event organizers who host collaborative activities on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Deployment status#Global Deployment Plan|multiple wikis]], including Bengali, Japanese, and Korean Wikipedias, will have access to the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents extension]] this week. Also, admins in the Wikipedia where the extension is enabled will automatically be granted the event organizer right soon. They won't have to manually grant themselves the right before they can manage events as [[phab:T386861|requested by a community]]. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:19}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:19|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The release of the next major version of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Codex|Codex]], the design system for Wikimedia, is scheduled for 29 April 2025. Technical editors will have access to the release by the week of 5 May 2025. This update will include a number of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Codex/Release_Timeline/2.0#Breaking_changes|breaking changes]] and minor [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Codex/Release_Timeline/2.0#Visual_changes|visual changes]]. Instructions on handling the breaking and visual changes are documented on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Codex/Release Timeline/2.0#|this page]]. Pre-release testing is reported in [[phab:T386298|T386298]], with post-release issues tracked in [[phab:T392379|T392379]] and [[phab:T392390|T392390]]. * Users of [[wikitech:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Wiki_Replicas|Wiki Replicas]] will notice that the database views of <code dir="ltr">ipblocks</code>, <code dir="ltr">ipblocks_ipindex</code>, and <code dir="ltr">ipblocks_compat</code> are [[phab:T390767|now deprecated]]. Users can query the <code dir="ltr">[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Block_table|block]]</code> and <code dir="ltr">[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Block_target_table|block_target]]</code> new views that mirror the new tables in the production database instead. The deprecated views will be removed entirely from Wiki Replicas in June, 2025. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.44/wmf.27|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The latest quarterly [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2025/April|Language and Internationalization Newsletter]] is now available. This edition includes an overview of the improved [https://test.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&campaign=contributionsmenu&to=es&filter-type=automatic&filter-id=previous-edits&active-list=suggestions&from=en#/ Content Translation Dashboard Tool], [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2025/April#Language Support for New and Existing Languages|support for new languages]], [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2025/April#Wiki Loves Ramadan Articles Made In Content Translation Mobile Workflow|highlights from the Wiki Loves Ramadan campaign]], [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Research:Languages Onboarding Experiment 2024 - Executive Summary|results from the Language Onboarding Experiment]], an analysis of topic diversity in articles, and information on upcoming community meetings and events. '''Meetings and events''' * The [[Special:MyLanguage/Grants:Knowledge_Sharing/Connect/Calendar|Let's Connect Learning Clinic]] will take place on [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1745937000 April 29 at 14:30 UTC]. This edition will focus on "Understanding and Navigating Conflict in Wikimedia Projects". You can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Learning Clinic %E2%80%93 Understanding and Navigating Conflict in Wikimedia Projects (Part_1)|register now]] to attend. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Hackathon 2025|2025 Wikimedia Hackathon]], which brings the global technical community together to connect, brainstorm, and hack existing projects, will take place from May 2 to 4th, 2025, at Istanbul, Turkey. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/18|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W18"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:31, 28 April 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28585685 --> == Tech News: 2025-19 == <section begin="technews-2025-W19"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/19|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Wikimedia Foundation has shared the latest draft update to their [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026|annual plan]] for next year (July 2025–June 2026). This includes an [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026|executive summary]] (also on [[diffblog:2025/04/25/sharing-the-wikimedia-foundations-2025-2026-draft-annual-plan/|Diff]]), details about the three main [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026/Goals|goals]] ([[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026/Product & Technology OKRs|Infrastructure]], [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026/Goals/Volunteer Support|Volunteer Support]], and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026/Goals/Effectiveness|Effectiveness]]), [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026/Global Trends|global trends]], and the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026/Budget Overview|budget]] and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026/Financial Model|financial model]]. Feedback and questions are welcome on the [[m:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026|talk page]] until the end of May. '''Updates for editors''' * For wikis that have the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Deployment status|CampaignEvents extension enabled]], two new feature improvements have been released: ** Admins can now choose which namespaces are permitted for [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event Center/Registration|Event Registration]] via [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Community Configuration|Community Configuration]] ([[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents/Registration/Permitted namespaces|documentation]]). The default setup is for event registration to be permitted in the Event namespace, but other namespaces (such as the project namespace or WikiProject namespace) can now be added. With this change, communities like WikiProjects can now more easily use Event Registration for their collaborative activities. ** Editors can now [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Transclusion|transclude]] the Collaboration List on a wiki page ([[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents/Collaboration list/Transclusion|documentation]]). The Collaboration List is an automated list of events and WikiProjects on the wikis, accessed via {{#special:AllEvents}} ([[w:en:Special:AllEvents|example]]). Now, the Collaboration List can be added to all sorts of wiki pages, such as: a wiki mainpage, a WikiProject page, an affiliate page, an event page, or even a user page. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:27}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:27|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Developers who use the <code dir=ltr>moment</code> library in gadgets and user scripts should revise their code to use alternatives like the <code dir=ltr>Intl</code> library or the new <code dir=ltr>mediawiki.DateFormatter</code> library. The <code dir=ltr>moment</code> library has been deprecated and will begin to log messages in the developer console. You can see a global search for current uses, and [[phab:T392532|ask related questions in this Phabricator task]]. * Developers who maintain a tool that queries the Wikidata term store tables (<code dir=ltr style="white-space: nowrap;">wbt_*</code>) need to update their code to connect to a separate database cluster. These tables are being split into a separate database cluster. Tools that query those tables via the wiki replicas must be adapted to connect to the new cluster instead. [[wikitech:News/2025 Wikidata term store database split|Documentation and related links are available]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T390954] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.44/wmf.28|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The latest [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Project/Updates|Chart Project newsletter]] is available. It includes updates on preparing to expand the deployment to additional wikis as soon as this week (starting May 6) and scaling up over the following weeks, plus exploring filtering and transforming source data. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/19|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W19"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:14, 6 May 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28665011 --> == Tech News: 2025-20 == <section begin="technews-2025-W20"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/20|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia URL Shortener|"Get shortened URL"]] link on the sidebar now includes a [[phab:T393309|QR code]]. Wikimedia site users can now use it by scanning or downloading it to quickly share and access shared content from Wikimedia sites, conveniently. '''Updates for editors''' * The Wikimedia Foundation is working on a system called [[m:Edge Uniques|Edge Uniques]], which will enable [[w:en:A/B testing|A/B testing]], help protect against [[w:en:Denial-of-service attack|distributed denial-of-service attacks]] (DDoS attacks), and make it easier to understand how many visitors the Wikimedia sites have. This is to help more efficiently build tools which help readers, and make it easier for readers to find what they are looking for. Tech News has [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/16|previously written about this]]. The deployment will be gradual. Some might see the Edge Uniques cookie the week of 19 May. You can discuss this on the [[m:Talk:Edge Uniques|talk page]]. * Starting May 19, 2025, Event organisers in wikis with the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents extension]] enabled can use [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event Center/Registration|Event Registration]] in the project namespace (e.g., Wikipedia namespace, Wikidata namespace). With this change, communities don't need admins to use the feature. However, wikis that don't want this change can remove and add the permitted namespaces at [[Special:CommunityConfiguration/CampaignEvents]]. * The Wikipedia project now has a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia/en}} in [[d:Q36720|Nupe]] ([[w:nup:|<code>w:nup:</code>]]). This is a language primarily spoken in the North Central region of Nigeria. Speakers of this language are invited to contribute to [[w:nup:Tatacin feregi|new Wikipedia]]. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:27}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:27|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Developers can now access pre-parsed Dutch Wikipedia, amongst others (English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese) through the [https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/docs/snapshot/#structured-contents-snapshot-bundle-info-beta Structured Contents snapshots (beta)]. The content includes parsed Wikipedia abstracts, descriptions, main images, infoboxes, article sections, and references. * The <code dir="ltr">/page/data-parsoid</code> REST API endpoint is no longer in use and will be deprecated. It is [[phab:T393557|scheduled to be turned off]] on June 7, 2025. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.1|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/News/2025_Cloud_VPS_VXLAN_IPv6_migration IPv6 support] is a newly introduced Cloud virtual network that significantly boosts Wikimedia platforms' scalability, security, and readiness for the future. If you are a technical contributor eager to learn more, check out [https://techblog.wikimedia.org/2025/05/06/wikimedia-cloud-vps-ipv6-support/ this blog post] for an in-depth look at the journey to IPv6. '''Meetings and events''' * The 2nd edition of 2025 of [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Afrika Baraza|Afrika Baraza]], a virtual platform for African Wikimedians to connect, will take place on [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1747328400 May 15 at 17:00 UTC]. This edition will focus on discussions regarding [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2025-2026|Wikimedia Annual planning and progress]]. * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/MENA Connect Community Call|MENA Connect Community Call]], a virtual meeting for [[w:en:Middle East and North Africa|MENA]] Wikimedians to connect, will take place on [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1747501200 May 17 at 17:00 UTC]. You can [[m:Event:MENA Connect (Wiki_Diwan) APP Call|register now]] to attend. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/20|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W20"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:37, 12 May 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28714188 --> == Tech News: 2025-21 == <section begin="technews-2025-W21"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/21|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Editing Team and the Machine Learning Team are working on a new check for newcomers: [[mw:Edit check/Peacock check|Peacock check]]. Using a prediction model, this check will encourage editors to improve the tone of their edits, using artificial intelligence. We invite volunteers to review the first version of the Peacock language model for the following languages: Arabic, Spanish, Portuguese, English, and Japanese. Users from these wikis interested in reviewing this model are [[mw:Edit check/Peacock check/model test|invited to sign up at MediaWiki.org]]. The deadline to sign up is on May 23, which will be the start date of the test. '''Updates for editors''' * From May 20, 2025, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Oversight policy|oversighters]] and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Meta:CheckUsers|checkusers]] will need to have their accounts secured with two-factor authentication (2FA) to be able to use their advanced rights. All users who belong to these two groups and do not have 2FA enabled have been informed. In the future, this requirement may be extended to other users with advanced rights. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Mandatory two-factor authentication for users with some extended rights|Learn more]]. * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Multiblocks|Multiblocks]] will begin mass deployment by the end of the month: all non-Wikipedia projects plus Catalan Wikipedia will adopt Multiblocks in the week of May 26, while all other Wikipedias will adopt it in the week of June 2. Please [[m:Talk:Community Wishlist Survey 2023/Multiblocks|contact the team]] if you have concerns. Administrators can test the new user interface now on your own wiki by browsing to [{{fullurl:Special:Block|usecodex=1}} {{#special:Block}}?usecodex=1], and can test the full multiblocks functionality [[testwiki:Special:Block|on testwiki]]. Multiblocks is the feature that makes it possible for administrators to impose different types of blocks on the same user at the same time. See the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Manage blocks|help page]] for more information. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T377121] * Later this week, the [[{{#special:SpecialPages}}]] listing of almost all special pages will be updated with a new design. This page has been [[phab:T219543|redesigned]] to improve the user experience in a few ways, including: The ability to search for names and aliases of the special pages, sorting, more visible marking of restricted special pages, and a more mobile-friendly look. The new version can be [https://meta.wikimedia.beta.wmflabs.org/wiki/Special:SpecialPages previewed] at Beta Cluster now, and feedback shared in the task. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T219543] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart|Chart extension]] is being enabled on more wikis. For a detailed list of when the extension will be enabled on your wiki, please read the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Project#Deployment Timeline|deployment timeline]]. * [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Main Page|Wikifunctions]] will be deployed on May 27 on five Wiktionaries: [[wikt:ha:|Hausa]], [[wikt:ig:|Igbo]], [[wikt:bn:|Bengali]], [[wikt:ml:|Malayalam]], and [[wikt:dv:|Dhivehi/Maldivian]]. This is the second batch of deployment planned for the project. After deployment, the projects will be able to call [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Introduction|functions from Wikifunctions]] and integrate them in their pages. A function is something that takes one or more inputs and transforms them into a desired output, such as adding up two numbers, converting miles into metres, calculating how much time has passed since an event, or declining a word into a case. Wikifunctions will allow users to do that through a simple call of [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Catalogue|a stable and global function]], rather than via a local template. * Later this week, the Wikimedia Foundation will publish a hub for [[diffblog:2024/07/09/on-the-value-of-experimentation/|experiments]]. This is to showcase and get user feedback on product experiments. The experiments help the Wikimedia movement [[diffblog:2023/07/13/exploring-paths-for-the-future-of-free-knowledge-new-wikipedia-chatgpt-plugin-leveraging-rich-media-social-apps-and-other-experiments/|understand new users]], how they interact with the internet and how it could affect the Wikimedia movement. Some examples are [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Future Audiences/Generated Video|generated video]], the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Future Audiences/Roblox game|Wikipedia Roblox speedrun game]] and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Future Audiences/Discord bot|the Discord bot]]. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:29}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:29|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, there was a bug with creating an account using the API, which has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T390751] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Gadgets and user scripts that interact with [[{{#special:Block}}]] may need to be updated to work with the new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Manage blocks|manage blocks interface]]. Please review the [[mw:Help:Manage blocks/Developers|developer guide]] for more information. If you need help or are unable to adapt your script to the new interface, please let the team know on the [[mw:Help talk:Manage blocks/Developers|talk page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T377121] * The <code dir=ltr>mw.title</code> object allows you to get information about a specific wiki page in the [[w:en:Wikipedia:Lua|Lua]] programming language. Starting this week, a new property will be added to the object, named <code dir=ltr>isDisambiguationPage</code>. This property allows you to check if a page is a disambiguation page, without the need to write a custom function. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T71441] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|15px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] User script developers can use a [[toolforge:gitlab-content|new reverse proxy tool]] to load javascript and css from [[gitlab:|gitlab.wikimedia.org]] with <code dir=ltr>mw.loader.load</code>. The tool's author hopes this will enable collaborative development workflows for user scripts including linting, unit tests, code generation, and code review on <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr">gitlab.wikimedia.org</bdi> without a separate copy-and-paste step to publish scripts to a Wikimedia wiki for integration and acceptance testing. See [[wikitech:Tool:Gitlab-content|Tool:Gitlab-content on Wikitech]] for more information. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.2|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * The 12th edition of [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wiki Workshop 2025|Wiki Workshop 2025]], a forum that brings together researchers that explore all aspects of Wikimedia projects, will be held virtually on 21-22 May. Researchers can [https://pretix.eu/wikimedia/wikiworkshop2025/ register now]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/21|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W21"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:12, 19 May 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28724712 --> == Tech News: 2025-22 == <section begin="technews-2025-W22"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/22|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * A community-wide discussion about a very delicate issue for the development of [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Abstract Wikipedia|Abstract Wikipedia]] is now open on Meta: where to store the abstract content that will be developed through functions from Wikifunctions and data from Wikidata. The discussion is open until June 12 at [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Abstract Wikipedia/Location of Abstract Content|Abstract Wikipedia/Location of Abstract Content]], and every opinion is welcomed. The decision will be made and communicated after the consultation period by the Foundation. '''Updates for editors''' * Since last week, on all wikis except [[phab:T388604|the largest 20]], people using the mobile visual editor will have [[phab:T385851|additional tools in the menu bar]], accessed using the new <code>+</code> toolbar button. To start, the new menu will include options to add: citations, hieroglyphs, and code blocks. Deployment to the remaining wikis is [[phab:T388605|scheduled]] to happen in June. * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] The <code dir=ltr>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:ParserFunctions##ifexist|#ifexist]]</code> parser function will no longer register a link to its target page. This will improve the usefulness of [[{{#special:WantedPages}}]], which will eventually only list pages that are the target of an actual red link. This change will happen gradually as the source pages are updated. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T14019] * This week, the Moderator Tools team will launch [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/2025 RecentChanges Language Agnostic Revert Risk Filtering|a new filter to Recent Changes]], starting at Indonesian Wikipedia. This new filter highlights edits that are likely to be reverted. The goal is to help Recent Changes patrollers identify potentially problematic edits. Other wikis will benefit from this filter in the future. * Upon clicking an empty search bar, logged-out users will see suggestions of articles for further reading. The feature will be available on both desktop and mobile. Readers of Catalan, Hebrew, and Italian Wikipedias and some sister projects will receive the change between May 21 and mid-June. Readers of other wikis will receive the change later. The goal is to encourage users to read the wikis more. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Content Discovery Experiments/Search Suggestions|Learn more]]. * Some users of the Wikipedia Android app can use a new feature for readers, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/TrivaGame|WikiGames]], a daily trivia game based on real historical events. The release has started as an A/B test, available to 50% of users in the following languages: English, French, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, Arabic, Chinese, and Turkish. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Newsletter|Newsletter extension]] that is available on MediaWiki.org allows the creation of [[mw:Special:Newsletters|various newsletters]] for global users. The extension can now publish new issues as section links on an existing page, instead of requiring a new page for each issue. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T393844] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:32}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:32|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The previously deprecated <code dir=ltr>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Ipblocks table|ipblocks]]</code> views in [[wikitech:Help:Wiki Replicas|Wiki Replicas]] will be removed in the beginning of June. Users are encouraged to query the new <code dir=ltr>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Block table|block]]</code> and <code dir=ltr>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Block target table|block_target]]</code> views instead. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.3|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Wikidata and Sister Projects|Wikidata and Sister Projects]] is a multi-day online event that will focus on how Wikidata is integrated to Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia projects. The event runs from May 29 – June 1. You can [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Wikidata and Sister Projects#Sessions|read the Program schedule]] and [[d:Special:RegisterForEvent/1291|register]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/22|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W22"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:04, 26 May 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28788673 --> == Tech News: 2025-23 == <section begin="technews-2025-W23"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/23|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart|Chart extension]] is now available on all Wikimedia wikis. Editors can use this new extension to create interactive data visualizations like bar, line, area, and pie charts. Charts are designed to replace many of the uses of the legacy [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Graph|Graph extension]]. '''Updates for editors''' * It is now easier to configure automatic citations for your wiki within the visual editor's [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Citoid/Enabling Citoid on your wiki|citation generator]]. Administrators can now set a default template by using the <code dir=ltr>_default</code> key in the local <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[MediaWiki:Citoid-template-type-map.json]]</bdi> page ([[mw:Special:Diff/6969653/7646386|example diff]]). Setting this default will also help to future-proof your existing configurations when [[phab:T347823|new item types]] are added in the future. You can still set templates for individual item types as they will be preferred to the default template. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T384709] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:20}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:20|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Starting the week of June 2, bots logging in using <code dir=ltr>action=login</code> or <code dir=ltr>action=clientlogin</code> will fail more often. This is because of stronger protections against suspicious logins. Bots using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Bot passwords|bot passwords]] or using a loginless authentication method such as [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/OAuth/Owner-only consumers|OAuth]] are not affected. If your bot is not using one of those, you should update it; using <code dir=ltr>action=login</code> without a bot password was deprecated [[listarchive:list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/message/3EEMN7VQX5G7WMQI5K2GP5JC2336DPTD/|in 2016]]. For most bots, this only requires changing what password the bot uses. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T395205] * From this week, Wikimedia wikis will allow ES2017 features in JavaScript code for official code, gadgets, and user scripts. The most visible feature of ES2017 is <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code>async</code>/<code>await</code></bdi> syntax, allowing for easier-to-read code. Until this week, the platform only allowed up to ES2016, and a few months before that, up to ES2015. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T381537] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.4|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * Scholarship applications to participate in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/GLAM Wiki 2025|GLAM Wiki Conference 2025]] are now open. The conference will take place from 30 October to 1 November, in Lisbon, Portugal. GLAM contributors who lack the means to support their participation can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/GLAM Wiki 2025/Scholarships|apply here]]. Scholarship applications close on June 7th. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/23|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W23"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:55, 2 June 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28819186 --> == Tech News: 2025-24 == <section begin="technews-2025-W24"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/24|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product|Trust and Safety Product team]] is finalizing work needed to roll out [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|temporary accounts]] on large Wikipedias later this month. The team has worked with stewards and other users with extended rights to predict and address many use cases that may arise on larger wikis, so that community members can continue to effectively moderate and patrol temporary accounts. This will be the second of three phases of deployment – the last one will take place in September at the earliest. For more information about the recent developments on the project, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/Updates|see this update]]. If you have any comments or questions, write on the [[mw:Talk:Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|talk page]], and [[m:Event:CEE Catch up Nr. 10 (June 2025)|join a CEE Catch Up]] this Tuesday. '''Updates for editors''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Watchlist expiry|watchlist expiry]] feature allows editors to watch pages for a limited period of time. After that period, the page is automatically removed from your watchlist. Starting this week, you can set a preference for the default period of time to watch pages. The [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-watchlist-pageswatchlist|preferences]] also allow you to set different default watch periods for editing existing pages, pages you create, and when using rollback. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T265716] [[File:Talk pages default look (April 2023).jpg|thumb|alt=Screenshot of the visual improvements made on talk pages|Example of a talk page with the new design, in French.]] * The appearance of talk pages will change at almost all Wikipedias ([[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2024/19|some]] have already received this design change, [[phab:T379264|a few]] will get these changes later). You can read details about the changes [[diffblog:2024/05/02/making-talk-pages-better-for-everyone/|on ''Diff'']]. It is possible to opt out of these changes [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing-discussion|in user preferences]] ("{{int:discussiontools-preference-visualenhancements}}"). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T319146][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T392121] * Users with specific extended rights (including administrators, bureaucrats, checkusers, oversighters, and stewards) can now have IP addresses of all temporary accounts [[phab:T358853|revealed automatically]] during time-limited periods where they need to combat high-speed account-hopping vandalism. This feature was requested by stewards. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T386492] * This week, the Moderator Tools and Machine Learning teams will continue the rollout of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/2025 RecentChanges Language Agnostic Revert Risk Filtering|a new filter to Recent Changes]], releasing it to several more Wikipedias. This filter utilizes the Revert Risk model, which was created by the Research team, to highlight edits that are likely to be reverted and help Recent Changes patrollers identify potentially problematic contributions. The feature will be rolled out to the following Wikipedias: {{int:project-localized-name-afwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-bnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-cywiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hawwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-iswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kkwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-simplewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-trwiki/en}}. The rollout will continue in the coming weeks to include [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/2025 RecentChanges Language Agnostic Revert Risk Filtering|the rest of the Wikipedias in this project]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T391964] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:27}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:27|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * AbuseFilter editors active on Meta-Wiki and large Wikipedias are kindly asked to update AbuseFilter to make it compatible with temporary accounts. A link to the instructions and the private lists of filters needing verification are [[phab:T369611|available on Phabricator]]. * Lua modules now have access to the name of a page's associated thumbnail image, and on [https://gerrit.wikimedia.org/g/operations/mediawiki-config/+/2e4ab14aa15bb95568f9c07dd777065901eb2126/wmf-config/InitialiseSettings.php#10849 some wikis] to the WikiProject assessment information. This is possible using two new properties on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#added-by-extensions|mw.title objects]], named <code dir=ltr>pageImage</code> and <code dir=ltr>pageAssessments</code>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T131911][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T380122] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.5|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/24|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W24"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:16, 10 June 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28846858 --> == Tech News: 2025-25 == <section begin="technews-2025-W25"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/25|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * You can [https://wikimediafoundation.limesurvey.net/359761?lang=en nominate your favorite tools] for the sixth edition of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Coolest Tool Award|Coolest Tool Award]]. Nominations are anonymous and will be open until June 25. You can re-use the survey to nominate multiple tools. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:33}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:33|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.6|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * Foundation staff and technical volunteers use Wikimedia APIs to build the tools, applications, features, and integrations that enhance user experiences. Over the coming years, the MediaWiki Interfaces team will be investing in Wikimedia web (HTTP) APIs to better serve technical volunteer needs and protect Wikimedia infrastructure from potential abuse. You can [https://techblog.wikimedia.org/2025/06/12/apis-as-a-product-investing-in-the-current-and-next-generation-of-technical-contributors/ read more about their plans to evolve the APIs in this Techblog post]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/25|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W25"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:38, 16 June 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28870688 --> == Tech News: 2025-26 == <section begin="technews-2025-W26"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/26|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * This week, the Moderator Tools and Machine Learning teams will continue the rollout of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/2025 RecentChanges Language Agnostic Revert Risk Filtering|a new filter to Recent Changes]], releasing it to the third and last batch of Wikipedias. This filter utilizes the Revert Risk model, which was created by the Research team, to highlight edits that are likely to be reverted and help Recent Changes patrollers identify potentially problematic contributions. The feature will be rolled out to the following Wikipedias: {{int:project-localized-name-azwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-lawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mkwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mlwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-mrwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nnwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-pawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-swwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-tlwiki/en}}. The rollout will continue in the coming weeks to include [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/2025 RecentChanges Language Agnostic Revert Risk Filtering|the rest of the Wikipedias in this project]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T391964] '''Updates for editors''' * Last week, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|temporary accounts]] were rolled out on Czech, Korean, and Turkish Wikipedias. This and next week, deployments on larger Wikipedias will follow. [[mw:Talk:Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|Share your thoughts]] about the project. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T340001] * Later this week, the Editing team will release [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit check#Multi check|Multi Check]] to all Wikipedias (except English Wikipedia). This feature shows multiple [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit check#Reference check|Reference checks]] within the editing experience. This encourages users to add citations when they add multiple new paragraphs to a Wikipedia article. This feature was previously available as an A/B test. [https://analytics.wikimedia.org/published/reports/editing/multi_check_ab_test_report_final.html#summary-of-results The test shows] that users who are shown multiple checks are 1.3 times more likely to add a reference to their edit, and their edit is less likely to be reverted (-34.7%). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T395519] * A few pages need to be renamed due to software updates and to match more recent Unicode standards. All of these changes are related to title-casing changes. Approximately 71 pages and 3 files will be renamed, across 15 wikis; the complete list is in [[phab:T396903|the task]]. The developers will rename these pages next week, and they will fix redirects and embedded file links a few minutes later via a system settings update. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:24}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:24|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, a bug was fixed that had caused pages to scroll upwards when text near the top was selected. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T364023] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Editors can now use Lua modules to filter and transform tabular data for use with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart|Extension:Chart]]. This can be used for things like selecting a subset of rows or columns from the source data, converting between units, statistical processing, and many other useful transformations. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Transforms|Information on how to use transforms is available]]. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Project/Updates] * The <code dir=ltr>all_links</code> variable in [[Special:AbuseFilter|AbuseFilter]] is now renamed to <code dir=ltr>new_links</code> for consistency with other variables. Old usages will still continue to work. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T391811] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.7|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The latest quarterly [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Newsletters/34|Growth newsletter]] is available. It includes: the recent updates for the "Add a Link" Task, two new Newcomer Engagement Features, and updates to Community Configuration. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/26|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W26"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:21, 23 June 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28870688 --> == Tech News: 2025-27 == <section begin="technews-2025-W27"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/27|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents extension]] has been enabled on all Wikipedias. The extension makes it easier to organize and participate in collaborative activities, like edit-a-thons and WikiProjects, on the wikis. The extension has three features: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event Center/Registration|Event Registration]], [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Collaboration list|Collaboration List]], and [[m:Campaigns/Foundation Product Team/Invitation list|Invitation List]]. To request the extension for your wiki, visit the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Deployment status#How to Request the CampaignEvents Extension for your wiki|Deployment information page]]. '''Updates for editors''' * AbuseFilter maintainers can now [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:IPReputation/AbuseFilter variables|match against IP reputation data]] in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter|AbuseFilters]]. IP reputation data is information about the proxies and VPNs associated with the user's IP address. This data is not shown publicly and is not generated for actions performed by registered accounts. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T354599] * Hidden content that is within [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Collapsible elements|collapsible parts of wikipages]] will now be revealed when someone searches the page using the web browser's "Find in page" function (Ctrl+F or ⌘F) in supporting browsers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T327893][https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Global_attributes/hidden#browser_compatibility] * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] A new feature, called [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:TemplateData/Template discovery|Favourite Templates]], will be deployed later this week on all projects (except English Wikipedia, which will receive the feature next week), following a piloting phase on Polish and Arabic Wikipedia, and Italian and English Wikisource. The feature will provide a better way for new and experienced contributors to recall and discover templates via the template dialog, by allowing users to put templates on a special "favourite list". The feature works with both the visual editor and the wikitext editor. The feature is a [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Focus areas/Template recall and discovery|community wishlist focus area]]. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:31}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:31|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, a bug was fixed that had caused some Notifications to be sent multiple times. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T397103] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.8|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/27|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W27"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:40, 30 June 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28917415 --> == Tech News: 2025-28 == <section begin="technews-2025-W28"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/28|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Temporary accounts|Temporary accounts]] have been rolled out on 18 large and medium-sized Wikipedias, including German, Japanese, French, and Chinese. Now, about 1/3 of all logged-out activity across wikis is coming from temporary accounts. Users involved in patrolling may be interested in two new documentation pages: [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/Access to IP|Access to IP]], explaining everything related to access to temporary account IP addresses, and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts/Repository|Repository]] with a list of new gadgets and user scripts. '''Updates for editors''' * Anyone can play an experimental new game, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/New Engagement Experiments/WikiRun|WikiRun]], that lets you race through Wikipedia by clicking from one article to another, aiming to reach a target page in as few steps and in as little time as possible. The project's goal is to explore new ways of engaging readers. [https://wikirun-game.toolforge.org/ Try playing the game] and let the team know what you think [[mw:Talk:New Engagement Experiments/WikiRun|on the talk page]]. * Users of the Wikipedia Android app in some languages can now play the new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/TrivaGame|trivia game]]. ''Which came first?'' is a simple history game where you guess which of two events happened earlier on today's date. It was previously available as an A/B test. It is now available to all users in English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Turkish, and Chinese. The goal of the feature is to help engage with new generations of readers. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/22] * Users of the iOS Wikipedia App in some languages may see a new tabbed browsing feature that enables you to open multiple tabs while reading. This feature makes it easier to explore related topics and switch between articles. The A/B test is currently running in Arabic, English, and Japanese in selected regions. More details are available on the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS/Tabbed Browsing (Tabs)|Tabbed Browsing project page]]. * Bureaucrats on Wikimedia wikis can now use [[{{#special:VerifyOATHForUser}}]] to check if users have enabled [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Two-factor authentication|two-factor authentication]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T265726] * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] A new feature related to [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Focus areas/Template recall and discovery|Template Recall and Discovery]] will be deployed later this week to all Wikimedia projects: a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:TemplateData/Template discovery#Template categories|template category browser]] will be introduced to assist users in finding templates to put in their “favourite” list. The browser will allow users to browse a list of templates which have been organised into a given category tree. The feature has been requested by the community [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Wishes/Select templates by categories|through the Community Wishlist]]. * It is now possible to access watchlist preferences from the watchlist page. Also the redundant button to edit the watchlist has been removed. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Moderator_Tools/Watchlist] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:27}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:27|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * As part of [[mw:MediaWiki_1.44|MediaWiki 1.44]] there is now a unified built-in Notifications system that makes it easier for developers to send, manage, and customize notifications. Check out the updated documentation at [[mw:Manual:Notifications|Manual:Notifications]], information about migration in [[phab:T388663|T388663]] and details on deprecated hooks in [[phab:T389624|T389624]]. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.9|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Event:WikidataCon 2025|WikidataCon 2025]], the conference dedicated to Wikidata is now open for [https://pretalx.com/wikidatacon-2025/cfp session proposals] and for [[d:Special:RegisterForEvent/1340|registration]]. This year's event will be held online from October 31 – November 02 and will explore on the theme of "Connecting People through Linked Open Data". '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/28|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W28"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:05, 8 July 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28930584 --> == Tech News: 2025-29 == <section begin="technews-2025-W29"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/29|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:TemplateData/Template discovery#Featured templates|Featured templates]], a new feature related to [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Focus areas/Template recall and discovery|Template Recall and Discovery]] will be deployed this week to all Wikimedia projects: With this feature, editors will be able to quickly access a list of templates that are likely to be useful. These templates will be displayed in a list, under the "featured" tab of the template discovery interface. Administrators can define the list via the Community Configuration interface. The feature fulfills a request by the community [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Wishes/Easy access Templates|through the Community Wishlist]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T367428][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T392896] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:31}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:31|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the request to add Malayalam fonts in the [[oldWikisource:Special:MyLanguage/Wikisource:WS Export|Wikisource Book Export Tool]] was resolved and now, the rendering of Malayalam letters in exported Wikisource books are accurate. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T374457] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.10|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * Developers, designers, and all Wikimedians are invited to [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/project/board/7953/ submit a project idea] for the Wikimania Hackathon 2025. Read [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2025/06/30/call-for-projects-wikimania-hackathon-2025-is-coming-to-nairobi/ this Diff blog post] for more details. '''Meetings and events''' * [[m:WikiIndaba conference 2025|WikiIndaba 2025]] scholarship application and program submission is open until 23:59 GMT on July 20. WikiIndaba is a regional conference for African Wikimedians both on the continent and in the diaspora to unite and grow together. Submit [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdJTv68R1OPASXXDfpIl8EWiMLTM-TDwh6_5gNVvFuWccFZ2Q/viewform your scholarship application] and [https://ee.kobotoolbox.org/x/BI3omIfH program proposal] now! * [https://br.wikimedia.org/wiki/WikiCon_Brasil_2025 WikiCon Brasil 2025] will take place on July 19-20 in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. The Brazilian community members are encouraged to register and attend! '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/29|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W29"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:09, 14 July 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=28980963 --> == Tech News: 2025-30 == <section begin="technews-2025-W30"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/30|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The Translation Suggestions feature in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation|Content Translation tool]] now has another level of article filters added to the "[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&filter-type=automatic&filter-id=previous-edits&active-list=suggestions&from=en&to=fi#/ ... More]" category. Translators who use the Suggestions feature can now select and receive article suggestions that are customized to geographical locations of their interest using the new "{{int:Cx-sx-suggestions-filters-tab-regions}}" filter. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T113257] * Administrators can now limit "Add a Link" to newcomers. The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|"Add a Link"]] Structured Task [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Constructive activation experimentation#Enwiki A/B test & "Add a Link" Improvements (Wiki Experiences 1.2.11 & 1.2.16)|helps new account holders start editing]], but some communities have requested the ability to restrict it to its intended audience: newcomers. Administrators can configure this setting within the [[Special:CommunityConfiguration/GrowthSuggestedEdits|Community Configuration]] feature. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:29}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:29|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * For AbuseFilter editors on [[phab:T392144|some wikis]], it is now possible to filter edits based on the RevertRisk score of the edit being attempted. It is only populated if the action being evaluated is an edit. For more information, please see the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:ORES/AbuseFilter variables#What variables are available for use|ORES/AbuseFilter variables]] documentation. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Beta Cluster|Beta Cluster]] wikis have [[listarchive:list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/YDABPV75LADRQCXMJAFWUP256N4EQ25B/|been moved]] from <code dir=ltr>beta.wmflabs.org</code> to <code dir=ltr>beta.wmcloud.org</code>. Users may need to update URLs in any tools, or in their password managers. Any related issues can be [[phab:T289318|reported in the task]]. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.11|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WikiCite 2025|WikiCite 2025]] will take place from 29–31 August, both online and in-person in Bern, Switzerland. The event's goals are to reconnect communities, institutions, and individuals working with open citations, bibliographic data, and the Wikidata/Wikibase ecosystem. Registration is open and the call for proposals will be announced soon. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikidata@lists.wikimedia.org/message/KQZUG3ETKLBWPBYSB2YAWZIRPWHS24TG/] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/30|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W30"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:42, 21 July 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29005283 --> == Tech News: 2025-31 == <section begin="technews-2025-W31"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/31|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Community Tech team will be focusing on wishes related to Watchlists and Recent Changes pages, over the next few months. They are looking for feedback. Please [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Updates#July 24, 2025: Watchlists and Recent Changes pages|read the latest update]], and if you have ideas, please [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist|submit a wish]] on the topic. '''Updates for editors''' * The Wikimedia Commons community has decided to block [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Upload dialog|cross-wiki uploads]] to Wikimedia Commons, for all users without autoconfirmed rights on that wiki, starting on August 16. This is because of [[:c:Commons:Cross-wiki media upload tool/History|widespread problems]] related to files that are uploaded by newcomers. Users who are affected by this will get an error message with a link to the less restrictive UploadWizard on Commons. Please help translating the [[:c:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki:Abusefilter-disallowed-cross-wiki-upload|message]] or give feedback on the message text. Please also update your local help pages to explain this restriction. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T370598] * On wikis with temporary accounts enabled and Meta-Wiki, administrators may now set up a footer for the Special:Contributions pages of temporary accounts, similar to those which can be shown on IP and user-account pages. They may do it by creating the page named <code dir=ltr>MediaWiki:Sp-contributions-footer-temp</code>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T398347] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:21}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:21|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.12|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * [[wmania:Special:MyLanguage/2025:Wikimania|Wikimania 2025]] will run from August 6–9. The [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/schedule/ program is available] for you to plan which sessions you want to attend. Most sessions will be live-streamed, with exceptions for those that show the "no camera" icon. If you are joining online to watch live-streams and use the interactive features, please [[wmania:Special:MyLanguage/2025:Registration|register]] for a free virtual ticket. For example, you may be interested in technical sessions such as: ** [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/talk/KFEFVG/ Temporary Accounts: Enhancing privacy for our unregistered editors] ** [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/talk/TVCVAB/ Building a Sustainable Future for Wikimedia Contributors] ** [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/talk/WTRQCJ/ A dozen visions for wikitext!] ** [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/talk/8YKKP9/ Coordinate Across Stakeholders with the Product and Technology Advisory Council] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Users and Developers Conference Fall 2025|MediaWiki Users and Developers Conference, Fall 2025]] will be held 28–30 October 2025 in Hanover, Germany. This event is organized by and for the third-party MediaWiki community. You can propose sessions and register to attend. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/31|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W31"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:26, 29 July 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29051727 --> == Tech News: 2025-32 == <section begin="technews-2025-W32"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/32|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Editors can now enable the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity/Anti-abuse signals/User Info|User Info card]]. This feature adds an icon next to usernames on history pages and similar user-contribution log pages. When you tap or click on the icon, it displays data related to that user account such as the number of edits, reverted edits, blocks, and more. It's part of a broader project to make it easier for moderators to evaluate account trustworthiness. The feature can be enabled in [[testwiki:Special:GlobalPreferences#mw-prefsection-rendering|your global preferences]], and later this week it will be available in local preferences. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T386439] * Everybody is invited to share comments on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Collaborative contributions|Collaborative Contributions]], a project recently launched by the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Connection Team|Connection team]]. The project aims to create a new way to display the impact of collaborative editing activities (such as edit-a-thons, backlog drives, and WikiProjects) on the wikis. Post your comments on the [[m:Talk:CampaignEvents/Collaborative contributions|project talk page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T378035] * Administrators can now define the default block duration for temporary accounts. To do that, they need to create a page named <code dir=ltr>MediaWiki:Ipb-default-expiry-temporary-account</code> and use a value defined in <code dir=ltr>MediaWiki:Ipboptions</code>. This allows administrators to easily block temporary accounts for 90 days, which is functionally equivalent to an indefinite block. The advantage of this solution is that it does not clutter Special:BlockList. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Block and unblock#Default block duration options|More documentation]] is available. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T398626] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:27}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:27|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Gadgets can now include <code dir=ltr>.vue</code> files. This makes it easier to develop modern user interfaces using [[mw:Vue.js|Vue.js]], in particular using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Codex|Codex]], the official design system of Wikimedia. [[wmdoc:codex/latest/icons/overview.html|Codex icons]] can be loaded through the gadget definition. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Gadgets#Pages|The documentation]] has examples. For user scripts that use Vue.js, an [[mw:API:CodexIcons|API module]] now exists to load Codex icons. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T340460][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T311099] * Module developers can now use a [[mw:Help:Extension:Translate/Message Bundles/Lua reference|Lua interface]] to simplify the preparation of Lua modules for translation on Meta-Wiki. This improvement makes it easier for translators to find and edit module strings without dealing with raw Lua code. It helps prevent mistakes that could break the module during translation. Module developers and translators are invited to [[commons:File:Translatable modules video demo July 2025.webm|watch the demo video]], read more about [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Translatable modules|translatable modules]] to understand how it works, refer to Meta-Wiki's [[m:Module:User Wikimedia project|Module:User Wikimedia project]] for example usage, and [[mw:Talk:Translatable modules|share their feedback]] on how well it addresses the challenges in their workflow. The interface still has some performance issues, so it should not be used in widely used modules yet. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T359918] * Developers of external tools that connect to Wikimedia pages must set a user-agent that complies with [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Wikimedia Foundation User-Agent Policy|the user-agent policy]]. This policy will start to be more strongly enforced in August because of external crawlers that are [[diffblog:2025/04/01/how-crawlers-impact-the-operations-of-the-wikimedia-projects/|overusing]] Wikimedia's resources. Tools that are hosted on Wikimedia's Toolforge or Cloud VPS will not be affected by this for now, but should still set a user-agent. [[phab:T400119|More technical details are available]], and related questions are welcome in that task. * Parsoid Read Views is going to be rolling out to some smaller Wikipedias over the next few weeks, following the successful transition of Wikivoyages and Wiktionaries to Parsoid Read Views. For more information, see the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification|Parsoid/Parser Unification]] project page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/project/profile/7694/] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.13|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * [[wmania:Special:MyLanguage/2025:Wikimania|Wikimania 2025]] will run from August 6–9. The [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/schedule/ program is available] for you to plan which sessions you want to attend. Most sessions will be live-streamed, with exceptions for those that show the "no camera" icon. If you are joining online to watch live-streams and use the interactive features, please [[wmania:Special:MyLanguage/2025:Registration|register]] for a free virtual ticket. For example, you may be interested in technical sessions such as: ** [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/talk/GEH9DH/ Wikimedia’s knowledge infrastructure in a changing internet: Establishing sustainable pathways for content reuse] ** [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/talk/7ELN9Q/ Wikifunctions is coming soon to a wiki near you!] ** [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/talk/ZMGVJV/ Shaping the Future of Wikipedia’s Reader Experience] ** [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/talk/KCKTFZ/ Making Wikipedia More Readable: What Comes Next] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/32|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W32"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 03:40, 5 August 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29083927 --> == Tech News: 2025-33 == <section begin="technews-2025-W33"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/33|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The WikiEditor toolbar now includes [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:WikiEditor#Keyboard shortcuts|its keyboard shortcuts]] in the tooltips for its buttons. This will help to improve the discoverability of this feature. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T400583] * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council|Product and Technology Advisory Council]] published a set of [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council/August 2025 draft PTAC proposals for feedback|proposed experiments]] the Wikimedia Foundation can try to improve communication with community. Feedback on the proposals are welcomed until August 22 on [[m:Talk:Product and Technology Advisory Council/August 2025 draft PTAC proposals for feedback|this talk page]]. * The search bar on the Minerva skin (mobile) has been updated to use the same type-ahead search component that is used on the Vector 2022 skin. There are no changes in search functionality but there are minor visual changes. Specifically, the close-search button has been changed from an "X" to a back arrow. This helps to distinguish it from the other "X" button that is used to clear any text. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T393944] * Editors on some wikis will see a new toggle for "Group results by page" on watchlist, related changes, and recent changes pages. This is [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Moderator Tools/Watchlist/Experiment|an A/B experiment]] that is planned to start on August 11, and will run for 3–6 weeks on the Bengali, Chinese, Czech, French, Greek, Portuguese, and Urdu Wikipedias. The experiment will examine how making this feature more discoverable might affect editors' ability to find the edits they are looking for. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T396789] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:31}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:31|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The multiwiki datasets of [[:wikt:en:Module:Unicode data|Unicode data]] have been moved to [[c:Category:Unicode Module Datasets|Category:Unicode Module Datasets]] on Wikimedia Commons, to follow the idea of "One common data source, multiple local wikis". Most wikis have been updated to use the Commons version. You can ask questions at [[c:Category talk:Unicode Module Datasets|the talkpage]]. [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Module_talk:Unicode_data#Data_from_commons] * Lua code can add warnings when something is wrong, by using the <code dir=ltr>mw.addWarning()</code> function. It is now possible to add more than one warning, instead of new warnings replacing old ones. If you maintain a Lua module that used warnings, you should check it still works as expected. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T398390] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.14|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/33|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W33"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:29, 11 August 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29106516 --> == Tech News: 2025-34 == <section begin="technews-2025-W34"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/34|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Later this week, people who are logged-in and have the "[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Feature summary|Discussion tools]]" [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta Feature]] enabled will gain the ability to "Thank" individual comments directly from talk pages, rather than needing to navigate to page history. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Feature summary#Comment actions|Learn more about this feature]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T400849] * An A/B test comparing two versions of the desktop donate link launched on testwiki on 12 August and on English Wikipedia 14 August for 0.1% of logged out users on the desktop site. The experiment will run for three weeks, ending on 12 September. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T395716] * An A/A test to measure the baseline for reader retention was launched 12 August using [[wikitech:Experimentation Lab|Experimentation Lab]]. This measures the percentage of users who revisit a wiki after their initial visit over a 14-day period. No visual changes are expected. The experiment will run through 31 August. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T399227] * Five new wikis have been created: ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikisource/en}} in [[d:Q34057|Tagalog]] ([[s:tl:|<code>s:tl:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T388639] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikisource/en}} in [[d:Q36213|Madurese]] ([[s:mad:|<code>s:mad:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T391747] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia/en}} in [[d:Q3450749|Rakhine]] ([[w:rki:|<code>w:rki:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T392490] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikibooks/en}} in [[d:Q13324|Minangkabau]] ([[b:min:|<code>b:min:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T395452] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wiktionary/en}} in [[d:Q7598268|Standard Moroccan Amazigh]] ([[wikt:zgh:|<code>wikt:zgh:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T399684] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:46}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:46|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.15|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/34|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W34"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:38, 19 August 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29127690 --> == Tech News: 2025-35 == <section begin="technews-2025-W35"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/35|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[File:Octicons-gift.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Template authors can now use additional CSS properties, since the CSS sanitizer used by [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:TemplateStyles|TemplateStyles]] was updated. For example: <code>width: fit-content</code>; <code>ruby-align</code>; relative units such as <code>lh</code>; and custom strings in <code>list-style-type</code>. These improvements are a [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Wishes/Allow use of modern CSS in templates by updating the TemplateStyles CSS sanitizer|Community Wishlist wish]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T271958][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T277755][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T293633][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T295088][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T326906][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T340057][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T360725][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T371809][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T375344][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T394619] * On large wikis, the default time period to display edits from, within the Special:RecentChanges page, has been changed from 7 days to 1 day. This is part of a performance improvement project. This should have no user-facing impact due to the quantity of edits on these wikis. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T399455] * Administrators can now access the [[{{#special:BlockedExternalDomains}}]] page from the [[{{#special:CommunityConfiguration}}]] list page. This makes it easier to find. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T393240] * Wikimedia Commons videos were not shown in the Videos tab in Google Search. The problem was investigated and reported to Google who have now fixed the issue. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T396168][https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Community_Wishlist/Wishes/Do_something_about_Google_%26_DuckDuckGo_search_not_indexing_media_files_and_categories_on_Commons] * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wiktionary/en}} in [[d:Q33014|Betawi]] ([[wikt:bew:|<code>wikt:bew:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T402130] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:39}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:39|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Two fields of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Recentchanges table|recentchanges database table]] are being removed. <code>rc_new</code> and <code>rc_type</code> are being removed in favor of <code>rc_source</code>. Queries to these older fields will start to fail starting this week and developers should use <code>rc_source</code> instead. These older fields were deprecated over 10 years ago and should not be in use. This is part of work to improve the performance and stability of queries to the recentchanges table. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T400696] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.16|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The latest quarterly [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2025/July|Language and Internationalization Newsletter]] is now available. This edition includes: support for new languages in MediaWiki and translatewiki; the start of the Language Onboarding and Development project to help support the growth of new and small wikis; updates on research projects; and more. '''Meetings and events''' * The next [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Community meetings#29 August 2025|Language Community Meeting]] is happening soon, August 29th at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1756479600 15:00 UTC]. This week's meeting will cover: the Avro keyboard developers from Wikimedia Bangladesh, who were recently awarded a national award for their contributions to this keyboard; and other topics. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/35|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W35"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 00:12, 26 August 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29175124 --> == Tech News: 2025-36 == <section begin="technews-2025-W36"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/36|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Editing team wants to compile a list of templates, jargon terms, and policies used in edit summaries when a copyright violation is removed. This will help them identify the number of edits reverted due to copyright issues. We invite community members from the following Wikis to list these terms in [[Phab:T402601|T402601]], or to share their list with [[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek_(WMF)]]: {{int:project-localized-name-arwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-cswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-dewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-enwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-eswiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-fawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-frwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-hewiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-idwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-itwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-jawiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-kowiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-nlwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-plwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ptwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-trwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-ukwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-viwiki/en}}{{int:comma-separator/en}}{{int:project-localized-name-zhwiki/en}}. This project is open until September 9th 2025. '''Updates for editors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents extension]] has been enabled for all Wikisources. The extension makes it easier to organize and participate in collaborative activities, like edit-a-thons and WikiProjects, on the wikis. The extension has three features: [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event Center/Registration|Event Registration]], [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Collaboration list|Collaboration List]], and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Connection Team/Invitation list|Invitation List]]. To request the extension for your wiki, visit the Deployment information page. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/CampaignEvents/Deployment_status#How_to_Request_the_CampaignEvents_Extension_for_your_wiki] * The lists in the footer of the editing interface, such as "Templates used on this page," will now be organized into columns when there is enough space. This enhancement minimizes scrolling when editing lengthy articles on Wikipedia. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T401066] * On September 3rd, 2025 we will increase the sampling percentages of our [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Moderator Tools/Watchlist/Experiment#Scope of the experiment|group by toggle experiment]] of the <code>Special:RecentChanges</code>, <code>Special:Watchlist</code>, and <code>Special:RelatedChanges</code> pages on the Chinese, French, and Portuguese Wikipedias to 100 percent, allowing more editors to be part of this experiment. This adjustment is intended to ensure we have sufficient data to make informed decisions when evaluating the experiment results. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T402958][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T396789] * Upon clicking an empty search bar, logged-out users will see suggestions of articles for further reading on English Wikipedia beginning the week of September 22. The feature will be available on both desktop and mobile. All non-English wikis received this change in June and July. The goal is to make it easier for users to find articles. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Content Discovery Experiments/Search Suggestions|Learn more]]. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:37}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:37|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.17|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * Wikifunctions now has a new capability called "lightweight enumeration types", an enumeration type is simply a fixed set of values that's in the type's definition. This capability makes it quick and easy to define such a type, and allows for the reuse of values that are already present in Wikidata. Here is [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Status updates/2025-07-19|a newsletter]] to learn more. * The latest [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Newsletter updates#August 2025: Newsletter #1|Readers Newsletter]] is now available. This edition includes: the formation of two new teams — Reader Growth and Reader Experience; insights into declining pageviews and account creations; highlights from the Wikimania Nairobi panel on improving the reading experience; upcoming experiments to engage new and existing readers; and more. '''Meetings and events''' * Spotlight on some Wikimania 2025 Sessions: ** Identifying AI-generated text by searching for ISBNs whose checksums fail: Mathias Schindler of WMDE [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dw9o8Lsl974&t=15910s shared tools to help communities search for these]. ** [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/talk/wikimania2025/talk/TCHZKH/ La durabilité du mouvement Wikimedia face aux défis actuels et futurs]: This session explored how Wikimedia can stay a trusted source of knowledge in the age of generative AI, information overload, and disinformation. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/36|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W36"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:50, 1 September 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29196010 --> == Tech News: 2025-37 == <section begin="technews-2025-W37"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/37|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Editing team is working on a new check: [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Paste check|Paste check]]. This check informs newcomers who paste text into Wikipedia that the content might not be accepted. This check is an effort to increase the likelihood that the new content people are adding to Wikipedia is aligned with the Movement's commitment to offering information under a free content license. This check will soon be tested at a few wikis. If your community is interested in this test, please [[phab:T403680|tell us in this task]], or [[mw:Talk:Edit check|contact the team]]. '''Updates for editors''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Later this week, users of the "{{int:codemirror-beta-feature-title}}" [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|beta feature]] will be able to use a [[w:en:Lint (software)|linting tool]] to see errors or other potential problems in wikitext in real time. See the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror#Linting|help page for more information]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T381577] * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] When browsing a wiki (like <code dir=ltr>en.wikipedia.org</code>), the software responds in one of two ways: a desktop page, or a redirect to a mobile version on an "m" domain (like <code dir=ltr>en.m.wikipedia.org</code>). Over the next three weeks, MediaWiki will start displaying the mobile version to mobile devices directly on the standard domain, without this redirect. This change does not affect existing m-dot URLs, or the "Desktop view" opt-out. [[mw:Requests for comment/Mobile domain sunsetting/2025 Announcement|Learn more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T214998] * When an edit changes the categories of a page, the changes to the category membership counts are now happening asynchronously. This improves the speed of saving edits, especially when moving many pages to or from the same category, and reduces the risk of site outages, but it means that the counts can show outdated information for a few minutes. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T365303] * Edits on Wikidata to qualifiers (properties and values) and references (properties and values) in a Wikidata item statement will now not add entries to the RecentChanges or Watchlist pages on all other Wikis. This is a temporary change to improve performance while other solutions are created. Wikidata's own pages remain unchanged. [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Reduce change propagation noise#Phase 1: Turn off (temporarily) Qualifiers and References Wikidata edits to the Recent Changes tables|Learn more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T401286][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T400698] * Japanese-language wikis have had a major upgrade to the way that search works. The new search should generally give more accurate and more relevant search results. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T318269] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:31}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:31|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.18|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/37|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W37"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 01:14, 9 September 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29238161 --> == Tech News: 2025-38 == <section begin="technews-2025-W38"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/38|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * References lists that are made using the <code dir=ltr><nowiki><references/></nowiki></code> [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Cite#references-tag|tag]] will now automatically display with columns in Vector 2022 when readers are using its 'standard' settings for text-size and page-width. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T334941] * Starting in the week of October 6, on [[gitiles:operations/mediawiki-config/+/a2d2aaab9ace84280dd2f4c70a33bb69cd73850f/dblists/small.dblist|small wikis]] and [[gitiles:operations/mediawiki-config/+/a2d2aaab9ace84280dd2f4c70a33bb69cd73850f/dblists/medium.dblist|medium wikis]] that have the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents extension]] enabled, all autoconfirmed users will be able to use [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event Center/Registration|Event Registration]] as an organizer. No changes will be made for [[gitiles:operations/mediawiki-config/+/a2d2aaab9ace84280dd2f4c70a33bb69cd73850f/dblists/large.dblist|large wikis]] unless requested in Phabricator. This change is being made to make it easier for more people to use Event Registration, especially on wikis that are less likely to have policies related to the Event Organizer right. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Proposal to grant autoconfirmed users on small and medium wikis the organizer access to the event registration tool|Learn more]]. * Users that search using regular expressions (regex) can now use additional features including: ** for the <code dir=ltr>intitle:</code> keyword: [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:CirrusSearch#Metacharacters|metacharacters]] for start-of-line (<code dir=ltr>^</code>) and end-of-line (<code dir=ltr>$</code>) anchors [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T317599] ** for both <code dir=ltr>intitle:</code> and <code dir=ltr>insource:</code> keywords: shorthand [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:CirrusSearch#Character_Classes|character classes]] for digits (<code dir=ltr>\d</code>), whitespace (<code dir=ltr>\s</code>), and word characters (<code dir=ltr>\w</code>); and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:CirrusSearch#Escape codes|escape codes]] for line feed (<code dir=ltr>\r</code>), newline (<code dir=ltr>\n</code>), tab (<code dir=ltr>\t</code>), and unicode (e.g. <code dir=ltr>\uHHHH</code>). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T403212] * When you search for text that looks like an IP, the system will now show search results. It used to take you to the contributions for that IP instead of showing search results. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T306325] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|All wikis will be read-only]] for a few minutes on September 24. This is planned at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1758726000 15:00 UTC]. This is for the datacenter server switchover backup tests which happen twice a year. You can [[diffblog:2025/03/12/hear-that-the-wikis-go-silent-twice-a-year/|read more about the background and details of this process on the Diff blog]]. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:24}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:24|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, a bug was fixed that affected users who used the page-tabs to switch from wikitext editing of a section into the visualeditor. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T401043] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The MediaWiki Interfaces team is redesigning the Wikimedia REST API Sandbox with Codex. If you have feedback on improvements for the API documentation or what makes developer experiences smooth (or frustrating), you’re invited to [https://calendar.google.com/calendar/u/0/appointments/schedules/AcZssZ2aZzbXeQvjOF7gB1fJXiwAYemQjKf4sXNaRODPA7_obFyNBwkzNkoVCoTF-aeov89kIjXHbCQm join an upcoming discovery interview], or [[mw:MediaWiki Interfaces Team/Developer Feedback/Wikimedia Web APIs|leave feedback onwiki]]. [[listarchive:list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/C4FBAOA57PH6G5ORVMAUF5TGYBLZDU5Q/|Learn more]]. * Edits to Wikidata aliases (an alternative name for an item or a property) will now be shown in RecentChanges and Watchlist entries on other wikis less often, reducing unnecessary notifications. This will reduce the overall quantity of 'noisy' entries. Wikidata's own pages remain unchanged. [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Reduce change propagation noise#Phase 1: More granular Alias tracking|Learn more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T401288] * The new [https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode17.0.0/ Unicode 17.0] version has been released. The [[:c:Category:Unicode Module Datasets|datasets on Commons]] for the [[:d:Q39301585|Module:Unicode data]] have been updated. Wikipedias that do not use the Commons datasets should either update their own data or switch to the Commons datasets. * Users of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise|Wikimedia Enterprise]] Structured Contents endpoints can now access [https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/blog/parsed-wikipedia-tables/ Parsed Tables]. The new Parsed Tables feature extracts and represents Wikipedia tables in structured JSON. This improves machine accessibility as part of the [https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/api/structured-contents/ Structured Contents initiative]. Structured Contents output is freely available through the [https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/docs/on-demand/#article-structured-contents-beta On-demand API], or through Wikimedia Cloud Services. * A [https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/wikimedia-foundation/english-wikipedia-people-dataset dataset of English Wikipedia biographical information] from [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise|Wikimedia Enterprise]] has been published on Kaggle, for evaluation and research. This provides structured data from more than 1.5 million biographies, including birth and death dates, education, affiliations, careers, awards, and more (from a June 2024 snapshot). * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.19|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * [[wmania:Special:MyLanguage/2026:Scholarships|Scholarship applications]] for Wikimania 2026 in Paris, France, are open until October 31. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/38|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W38"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 17:07, 15 September 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29263921 --> == Tech News: 2025-39 == <section begin="technews-2025-W39"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/39|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1758726000 On September 24th at 15:00 UTC], all Wikimedia sites users will experience a brief read-only period due to a scheduled [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|datacenter server switchover]]. The Wikimedia Foundation's Site Reliability Engineering (SRE) team will redirect all traffic from one primary server to its backup. You can listen to the switchover using the [http://listen.hatnote.com/ "Listen to Wikipedia"] tool, where you will hear edits stop for a few minutes during the read-only phase, then resume. This twice-yearly datacenter server switchover ensures reliability by testing the backup datacenter, so that our sites can stay online even if the primary datacenter fails. You can [[diffblog:2025/03/12/hear-that-the-wikis-go-silent-twice-a-year/|read more about the process on the Diff blog]]. '''Updates for editors''' * Editors of [[f:Special:Mylanguage/Wikifunctions:Status updates/2025-09-12#Next round of Wiktionaries to receive embedded Wikifunctions calls|60 more Wiktionaries]] will soon be able to call [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Introduction|functions from Wikifunctions]] and integrate them into their pages. A function takes one or more inputs and transforms them into a desired output, like adding numbers, converting miles to meters, calculating elapsed time, or declining a word into a case. They will join the other [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Status updates/2025-08-29#Wikifunctions available on 65 Wiktionaries|65 Wiktionary language editions]], which already have access to embedded Wikifunctions calls. Later this year, plans are in place to expand to more Wiktionaries and the Incubator. * A new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic words#Technical metadata of another page|parser function]] has been added: <code><nowiki>{{#contentmodel}}</nowiki></code>. Template editors and admins can use it to get the localized or canonical name of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:ChangeContentModel|content model]] of a specific page. The function makes it easier to create and edit system messages, such as ''MediaWiki:editinginterface'', even when you switch types of pages, like wiki, JavaScript, CSS or JSON page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T328254] * Adding or editing a <code>DISPLAYTITLE</code> for an article using VisualEditor will no longer be broken. Editors who use VisualEditor mode to modify the <code><nowiki>{{DISPLAYTITLE}}</nowiki></code> would no longer have the literal text "DISPLAYTITLE" or its localized variant added to their articles. A list of pages that may have been affected and might need cleanup is documented in [[phab:P83438|this ticket]]. * Beta users of the Wikipedia Android app can now try the redesigned [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Android/Activity Tab Experiment|Activity tab]], which replaces the Edits tab. The new tab offers personalized insights into reading, editing, and donation activity, while simplifying navigation and making app use more engaging. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:12}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:12|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.20|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * Wikifunctions users can now import many essential facts involving [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Z6011|geo-coordinates]], [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Z6010|quantities]] and [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Z6064|time]] values from Wikidata. This is made possible by the creation of Wikifunctions types for these values, which makes them available for use by functions in Wikifunctions. Learn more about how this works in [[c:File:ImportingWikidataDatatypesIntoWikifunctions.webm|this video]] and Wikifunctions' [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Status updates/2025-08-01#News in Types I: Wikidata quantity|August 1 newsletter]] (for quantities) and [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Status updates/2025-08-22#News in Types: Wikidata geo-coordinate|August 22 newsletter]] (for geo-coordinates). '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/39|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W39"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 22:55, 22 September 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29305556 --> == Tech News: 2025-40 == <section begin="technews-2025-W40"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/40|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * A major software upgrade has been made to [[phab:|Phabricator]]. The update introduces performance improvements, a refreshed search interface, enhancements to Maniphest task search, updates to user profile pages and project workboards, new Herald automation features, as well as general text input, mobile experience improvements and more. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/phame/post/view/321/iterative_improvements_september_2025/] '''Updates for editors''' * The Community Tech team will release the new Community Wishlist extension on October 1, that will improve the way wishes will be submitted. The new extension will allow users to add tags to their wishes to better categorise them, and (in a future iteration) to filter them by status, tags and focus areas. It will also be possible to support individual wishes again, as requested by the community in many instances. The old system will be retired. There will be a brief period of downtime while the extension is deployed and wishes are migrated to the new system. You can read more about this [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Updates|in the latest update]] or you can consult the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CommunityRequests|current documentation on MediaWiki]]. * As announced [[diffblog:2025/09/02/better-detecting-bots-and-replacing-our-captcha/|on Diff blog]], the production trial of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity/Anti-abuse signals/hCaptcha|hCaptcha]] service for bot detection has begun. The trial is currently using hCaptcha to protect account creation on Chinese, Persian, Portuguese, Indonesian, Japanese, and Turkish Wikipedias, where it will replace our existing [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:ConfirmEdit#FancyCaptcha|CAPTCHA]] (FancyCaptcha). The goal with the trial is to better block bots while also improving usability and accessibility for users who encounter CAPTCHA challenges. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents]] extension has been [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Deployment status|deployed]] to Wikimedia Commons. The extension makes it easier to organize and participate in collaborative activities, like edit-a-thons and WikiProjects, on the wikis. On Commons, anyone who is a registered user can use it as an event participant. To use it as an organizer, someone needs to have the [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Event organizers|event organizer right]]. * [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|Sub-referencing]], a new feature to re-use references with different details has been released to German Wikipedia. You can [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#test|test the feature]] on testwiki or [https://en.wikipedia.beta.wmcloud.org/wiki/Sub-referencing on betawiki] as well. Please share your thoughts on [[:m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#Templates used in sub-references|using templates in sub-references]] or [[:m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#Pilot wikis|volunteer to become a pilot wiki]]. * On wikis using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Mentorship|Mentorship]] system, communities can now opt experienced editors out of Mentorship through [[{{#special:CommunityConfiguration/Mentorship}}]]. Within this setting, communities may define thresholds, based on edit count and account age, to decide when an editor is considered experienced enough to no longer receive Mentorship. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T403563] * The Editing Team and the Machine Learning Team are working on a new check for newcomers: [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/Tone Check|Tone check]]. Using a prediction model, this check will encourage editors to improve the tone of their edits, using artificial intelligence. We invite volunteers to review the first version of the Tone language model for the following languages: Arabic, Czech, German, Hebrew, Indonesian, Dutch, Polish, Russian, Turkish, Chinese, Farsi, Italian, Norwegian, Romanian and Latvian. Users from these wikis interested in reviewing this model are [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit_check/Tone_Check/Model_evaluation|invited to sign up at MediaWiki.org]]. The deadline to sign up is on October 3, which will be the start date of the test. * The rollout of [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Manage blocks|multiblocks]] had the side effect that non-active block logs may have been shown on {{#special:Contributions}} and on blocked users' user and user_talk pages. This issue will be fully resolved in a few days. As part of the fix, [{{fullurl:Special:Allmessages|prefix=sp-contributions-blocked-notice}} messages prefixed with <code>sp-contributions-blocked-notice</code>] will be removed and replaced with [{{fullurl:Special:Allmessages|prefix=blocked-notice-logextract}} those prefixed with <code>blocked-notice-logextract</code>] in a few weeks. Please help translate the new messages and update any local overrides if needed. * There was a bug with links added using visual editor if they included characters such as <code dir=ltr><nowiki>[ ] |</nowiki></code> after the fragment identifier (<code><nowiki>#</nowiki></code>). They were not encoded properly creating an incorrect link. This has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T404823] * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikiquote/en}} in [[d:Q9237|Malay]] ([[q:ms:|<code>q:ms:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T404698] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:21}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:21|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity/Anti-abuse signals/User Info|User Info Card]] now displays currently active global lock/blocks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T401128] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Later this week, editors using Lua modules will be able to use the <code>[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#mw.title.newBatch|mw.title.newBatch]]</code> function to look up the existence of up to 25 pages at once, in a way that only increases the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Parser functions#Expensive parser functions|expensive function]] count once. * A new [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council/Unsupported Tools Working Group|Unsupported Tools Working Group]] has been formed as part of ongoing efforts to collectively determine technical work priorities, similar to the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council|Product & Technology Advisory Council]] (PTAC). The working group will help prioritize and review requests for support of unmaintained extensions, gadgets, bots, and tools. For the first cycle, the group will be prioritizing an unsupported Wikimedia Commons tool. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.21|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/40|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W40"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:52, 29 September 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29355230 --> == Tech News: 2025-41 == <section begin="technews-2025-W41"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/41|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit check#paste|Paste Check]] is a new Edit Check feature to help avoid and fight copyright violations. When editors paste text into an article, Paste Check prompts them to confirm the origin and licensing of the content. Starting Wednesday, 8 October, [[phab:T403680|22 wikis will test Paste Check]]. Paste Check will help new volunteers understand and follow the policies and guidelines necessary to make constructive contributions to Wikipedia projects. '''Updates for editors''' * Mobile devices will receive mobile articles directly on the standard domain (like <code>en.wikipedia.org</code>), instead of via a redirect to an "m" domain (like <code>en.m.wikipedia.org</code>). This change improves performance. This week it will be enabled on Wikipedias. The existing mobile URLs and the "Desktop view" opt-out remain available. [[mw:Requests for comment/Mobile domain sunsetting/2025 Announcement|Learn more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T214998] * New [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:CirrusSearch#creationdate and lasteditdate|date filters]], <code dir=ltr>creationdate:</code> and <code dir=ltr>lasteditdate:</code>, are now available in the wiki search engine. This allows users to filter search results by a page's first or last revision date. The filters support comparison operators (e.g. <code dir=ltr>>2024</code>) and relative dates (e.g. <code dir=ltr>today-1d</code>), making it easier to find recently updated content or pages within specific age ranges. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T403593] * [[f:|Wikifunctions]] now supports rich text in embedded calls across the 150 wikis where it's enabled. To showcase this, the team created a [[f:Z26333|Latin declination table]] that Wiktionary editors can use to automatically generate noun forms, producing clear, formatted results — see an [[f:Wikifunctions:Embedded function calls/Wiktionary tables demonstration|example output]]. If you need any help or have any feedback, please [[f:Wikifunctions:Project chat|contact the Wikifunctions Team]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T397402] * An edit link will now appear inside the categories box on article pages for logged in users, which will directly launch the VisualEditor category dialog. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T291691] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:34}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:34|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, there was a problem downloading pdf files last week and that has been resolved. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T405957] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The field <code dir=ltr>rev_sha1</code> in the revision database table is being removed in favor of <code dir=ltr>content_sha1</code> in the content database table. See [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/cloud@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/2D2M3SP4WHR6BXXKTZ2PBLZQYR3EGQVR/ the announcement] for more information. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web|Reader Experience team]] will roll out [[w:en:Light-on-dark color scheme|Dark Mode]] user interface on all Wikimedia sites on October 29, 2025. All anonymous users of Wikimedia sites will have the option to activate a color scheme that features light-colored text on a dark background. This is designed to provide a more comfortable reading experience, especially in low-light situations. Template authors and technical contributors are encouraged to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reading/Web/Accessibility for reading/Updates/2024-04|learn how to make pages ready for Dark mode]] and address any compatibility issues found in templates in their wiki before the enablement. Please contact the Web team for questions or any support on [[mw:Talk:Reading/Web/Accessibility for reading#|this talk page]] before the enablement. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T395628] * Starting on Monday, October 6, API endpoints under the <code>rest.php</code> path will be rerouted through a new internal API Gateway. Individual wikis will be updated based on the standard release groups, with total traffic increased over time. This change is expected to be non-breaking and non-disruptive. If any issues are observed, please file a Phabricator ticket to the [[phab:tag/serviceops/|Service Ops team board]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T400130] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.22|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/41|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W41"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 17:23, 6 October 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29400897 --> == Tech News: 2025-42 == <section begin="technews-2025-W42"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/42|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Last week, improvements to account security and two-factor authentication (2FA) features were enabled across all wikis. These changes include user interface improvements for [https://auth.wikimedia.org/metawiki/wiki/Special:AccountSecurity Special:AccountSecurity], the support of multiple 2FA methods via authenticator apps and portable security keys (previously users could only enable one method), and a new Recovery Codes module which facilitates fewer account lockouts due to lost two-factor apps and devices. As part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity/Account Security|Account Security]] project, work is continuing through the rest of 2025 on further user experience improvements, and support for passkeys as an alternate second factor. '''Updates for editors''' * Another part of the Account security project is making 2FA generally available to all users. Along with editors with advanced privileges, such as administrators and bureaucrats, 40% of editors now have access to 2FA. You can check if you have access at [https://auth.wikimedia.org/metawiki/wiki/Special:AccountSecurity Special:AccountSecurity]. Instructions for activation are on the linked page. The plan is to continue increasing availability if it is determined that the user support capabilities are able to support global usage. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T400579] * This week, users at wikis where talk page [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Usability|Usability Improvements]] are already available by default (everywhere ''except'' the 12 wikis listed in [[phab:T379264|T379264]]) will gain the ability to Thank a comment directly from the talk page it appears on. Before this change, Thanking could only be done by visiting the revision history of the talk page. You can [[diffblog:2025/10/13/revolutionizing-gratitude-a-new-era-of-thanking-comments/|learn more about this change]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T366095] * Users who have not [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-personal-email|verified their email address]] will soon be receiving monthly Notification reminders to do so. This is because users who have verified their email can more easily recover their account. These reminders will not be sent if the user is inactive or removes the unverified email from their account. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Email_confirmation][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T58074] * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:21}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:21|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, a fix was made for an occasional error with saving translated paragraphs in the Content Translation tool, and the related error messages are now easier to see. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T376531] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The Unsupported Tools Working Group has chosen [[c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Video2commons|Video2Commons]] as the first tool for its pilot cycle. The group will explore ways to improve and sustain the tool over the coming months. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council/Unsupported Tools Working Group|Learn more on Meta]]. * [[File:Octicons-sync.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.23|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/42|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W42"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:59, 13 October 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29434481 --> == Tech News: 2025-43 == <section begin="technews-2025-W43"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/43|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * To optimize how user data is stored in our databases, the saved preferences of users who haven't logged in for over five years and have fewer than 100 edits will be cleared. When those users return, default settings will apply. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T406724] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:20}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:20|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, there was a broken link from the GlobalContributions interface message to the XTools GlobalContributions page which has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T406415] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The work to reroute all traffic to API endpoints under the <code dir=ltr><nowiki>rest.php</nowiki></code> route through a common API gateway is now complete. If any issues are observed, please file a phabricator ticket to the [[phab:tag/serviceops/|Service Ops team board]]. * Edits to Wikidata references or qualifiers will now be shown in RecentChanges and Watchlist entries on other wikis less often, reducing unnecessary notifications. This will reduce the overall quantity of 'noisy' entries. Wikidata's own pages remain unchanged. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T401290] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.24|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/43|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W43"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:36, 20 October 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29478670 --> == Tech News: 2025-44 == <section begin="technews-2025-W44"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/44|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The Wikipedia iOS app has launched an A/B/C test of improvements made to the tabbed browsing feature for select regions and languages. The test, named “More dynamic tabs”, explores new tab experiences and includes “Did you know” and “Because you read” article recommendations. You can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS/Tabbed Browsing (Tabs)/New Tab Experience and Recommendations Experiment|read more on the project page]]. * Autoconfirmed users on [[gitiles:operations/mediawiki-config/+/a2d2aaab9ace84280dd2f4c70a33bb69cd73850f/dblists/small.dblist|small]] and [[gitiles:operations/mediawiki-config/+/a2d2aaab9ace84280dd2f4c70a33bb69cd73850f/dblists/medium.dblist|medium wikis]] with the CampaignEvents extension can now use [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event Center/Registration|Event Registration]] without the Event Organizer right. This feature lets organizers enable registration, manage participants, and lets users register with one click instead of signing event pages. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:31}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:31|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the issue of flashing colors when holding or pressing the arrow keys under the dark mode settings in Vector 2022 has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T402285] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The CampaignEvents extension will be deployed to all remaining wikis during the week of 17 November 2025. The extension currently includes three features: Event Registration, Collaboration List, and Invitation List. For this rollout, Invitation List will not be enabled on Wikifunctions and MediaWiki unless requested by those communities. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Deployment status|Visit the deployment page to learn more]]. * The SwaggerUI-based REST sandbox experience is now live on all wiki projects. The sandbox can be accessed through the [[{{#special:RestSandbox}}]] page. Please report any issues to the MediaWiki Interfaces team board, or join the discussion on the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Interfaces Team/Feature Feedback/REST Sandbox|project launch]] page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/project/board/6931/] * Transform endpoints with a trailing slash path in the MediaWiki REST API are now marked as deprecated. They will remain functional during this time, but removal is expected by the end of January 2026. All API users currently calling them are encouraged to transition to the non-trailing slash versions. Both endpoint variations can be found and tested using the [https://test.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?api=mw-extra&title=Special%3ARestSandbox REST Sandbox]. See the [[mw:API/Deprecation|MediaWiki REST API Deprecation]] page for more detailed information about the API deprecation policies and procedures. * A dedicated [[mw:API:REST API/Changelog|changelog now exists for the MediaWiki REST API]]. The changelog provides an overview of these changes, making it easier for developers to keep track of improvements and iterations. Announcements will also continue to flow through the standard communication channels, including Tech News and email distribution lists, but can now be more easily referenced from a central location. If you have feedback about the style, structure, or content of this changelog, please [[mw:API talk:REST API/Changelog|join the discussion]]. * Administrators can delete the tracking category which was previously added by the JsonConfig extension, as it is no longer used. See the categories linked from [[d:Q130635582#sitelinks-wikipedia|Q130635582]]. It is OK if there are still pages listed in the category as that is just a caching issue, and they will be automatically cleared out the next time each page is edited. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T378352] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.25|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/44|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W44"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:31, 27 October 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29513638 --> == Tech News: 2025-45 == <section begin="technews-2025-W45"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/45|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Administrators will now find that [[{{#special:MergeHistory}}]] is now significantly more flexible about what it can merge. It can now merge sections taken from the middle of the history of the source (rather than only the start) and insert revisions anywhere in the history of the destination page (rather than only the start). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T382958] * For users with "{{int:discussiontools-preference-autotopicsub}}" [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|enabled in their preferences]], starting a new topic or adding a reply to an existing topic will now subscribe them to replies to that topic. Previously, this would only happen if the DiscussionTools "{{int:Skin-action-addsection}}" or "{{int:Discussiontools-replybutton}}" widgets were used. When DiscussionTools was originally launched existing accounts were not opted in to automatic topic subscriptions, so this change should primarily affect newer accounts and users who have deliberately changed their preferences since that time. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T290778] * Scribunto modules can now be used to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#SVG library|generate SVG images]]. This can be used to build charts, graphics and other visualizations dynamically through Lua, reducing the need to compose them externally and upload them as files. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T405861] * Wikimedia sites now provide all anonymous users with the option to enable a dark mode color scheme, featuring light-colored text on a dark background. This enhancement aims to deliver a more enjoyable reading experience, especially in dimly lit environments. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T395628] * Users with large watchlists have long faced timeouts when editing [[Special:EditWatchlist|Special:EditWatchlist]]. The page now loads entries in smaller sections instead of all at once due to a paging update, allowing everyone to edit their watchlists smoothly. As part of the database update, sorting by expiry has been removed because it was over 100× slower than sorting by title. A [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Community_Wishlist/W454 community wish] has been created to explore alternative ways to restore sort-by-expiry. If this feature is important to you, please support the wish! [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T41510] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:31}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:31|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the fixing of the persisting highlighting when using VisualEditor find and replace during a query. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T407318] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Since 2019 the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia URL Shortener|Wikimedia URL Shortener]] at https://w.wiki is available for all Wikimedia wikis to create short links to articles, permalinks, diffs, etc. It is available in the sidebar as "Get shortened URL". There are 30 wikis that also install an older "ShortUrl" extension. The old extension will soon be removed. This means <code>/s/</code> URLs will not be advertised under article titles via HTML <code dir=ltr>class="title-shortlink"</code>. The <code>/s/</code> URLs will keep working. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T107188] * On Thursday, October 30, the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Interfaces Team|MediaWiki Interfaces]] and [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Site Reliability Engineering|SRE Service Operations]] teams began rerouting Action API traffic through a common API gateway. Individual wikis will be updated based on the standard release groups, with total traffic increased over time. This change is expected to be non-breaking and non-disruptive. If any issues are observed, please file a Phabricator ticket to the [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/tag/serviceops/ Service Ops team] board. * MediaWiki Train deployments will pause for the final two weeks of 2025: 22 December and 29 December. Backport windows will also pause between Monday, 22 December 2025 and Thursday, 2 January 2026. A backport window is a scheduled time to add things like bug fixes and configuration changes. There are seven deployment trains remaining for 2025. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/SMWTEAES4SDLDUSK4HMWNBSKNCXZAWYN/] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.45/wmf.26|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * In 2025, the Wikimedia Foundation reported that AI systems and search engines increasingly use Wikipedia content without driving users to the site, contributing to an 8% drop in human pageviews compared to 2024. After detecting bots disguised as humans, Wikimedia updated its traffic data to reflect this shift. Read more about current user trends on Wikipedia in [[diffblog:2025/10/17/new-user-trends-on-wikipedia/|a Diff blog post]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/45|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W45"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:34, 3 November 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29552512 --> == Tech News: 2025-46 == <section begin="technews-2025-W46"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/46|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' [[File:Talk pages default look (April 2023).jpg|thumb|alt=Screenshot of the visual improvements made on talk pages|Example of a talk page with the new design, in French.]] * Starting November 12, users will see a change in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk pages project/Feature summary#Usability improvements|appearance of talk pages]] on [[Phab:T379264|some Wikipedias]]. Almost [[phab:T392121|all wikis]] have received this design change; [[phab:T409297|English Wikipedia]] will get these changes later. You can read more [[diffblog:2024/05/02/making-talk-pages-better-for-everyone/|on ''Diff'']]. Users can opt out of these changes [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing|in their user preferences]] in "{{int:discussiontools-preference-visualenhancements}}". [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T379264] * MediaWiki can now display a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Protection indicators|page indicator]] automatically while a page is protected. This feature is disabled by default. It can be enabled by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Requesting wiki configuration changes|community request]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T12347] * Using the "{{int:showpreview}}" or "{{int:showdiff}}" buttons in the wikitext editor will now carry over certain URL parameters like '[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Parameters to index.php#useskin|useskin]]', '[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Parameters to index.php#uselang|uselang]]' and '[[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Section#Editing sections|section]]'. This update also fixes an issue where, if the browser crashed while previewing an edit to a single section, saving this edit could overwrite the entire page with just that section’s content. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T62744][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T24029][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T155097] * Wikivoyage wikis can use [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Kartographer#Markers and counters|colored map markers in the article text]]. The text of these markers will now be shown in contrasting black or white color, instead of always being white. Local workarounds for the problem can be removed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T369454] * The Activity tab in the Wikipedia Android app is now available for all users. The new tab offers personalized insights into reading, editing, and donation activity, while simplifying navigation and making app use more engaging. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Apps/Team/Android/Activity_Tab_Experiment] * The Reader Growth team is launching an experiment called "Image browsing" to test how to make it easier for readers to browse and discover images on Wikipedia articles. This experiment, a mobile-only A/B test, will go live on English Wikipedia in the week of November 17 and will run for four weeks, affecting 0.05% of users on English wiki. The test launched on November 3 on Arabic, Chinese, French, Indonesian, and Vietnamese wikis, affecting up to 10% of users on those wikis. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Readers/Reader_Growth/WE3.1.3_Image_Browsing] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:27}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:27|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example the inability to lock accounts on mobile sites has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T256185] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[wikitech:Help talk:Toolforge/Toolforge standards committee#November 2025 committee nominations|Nominations are open on Wikitech]] for new [[wikitech:Help:Toolforge/Toolforge standards committee|Toolforge standards committee]] members. The committee oversees the Toolforge [[wikitech:Help:Toolforge/Right to fork policy|Right to fork policy]] and [[wikitech:Help:Toolforge/Abandoned tool policy|Abandoned tool policy]] among other duties. Nominations will remain open through 2025-11-28. * The [[w:JSON Web Token#Standard fields|JWT issuer field]] in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/OAuth/For Developers#OAuth 2|OAuth 2 access tokens]] for [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Unified login|SUL wikis]] has been changed to <code><nowiki>https://meta.wikimedia.org</nowiki></code>. Old access tokens will still work. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T399199] * The [[w:JSON Web Token#Standard fields|JWT subject field]] in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/OAuth/For Developers#OAuth 2|OAuth 2 access tokens]] will soon change from <code><user id></code> to <code dir=ltr style="white-space:nowrap">mw:<identity type>:<user id></code>, where <code><identity type></code> is typically <code dir=ltr>CentralAuth:</code><!-- not a typo --> (for [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Unified login|SUL wikis]]) or <code dir=ltr style="white-space:nowrap">local:<wiki id></code> (for other wikis). This is to avoid conflicts between different user ID types, and to make OAuth 2 access tokens and the <code>sessionJwt</code> cookie more similar. Old access tokens will still work. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T399199] * MediaWiki's block messages ([[MediaWiki:Blockedtext|blockedtext]], [[MediaWiki:Blockedtext-partial|blockedtext-partial]], [[MediaWiki:Autoblockedtext|autoblockedtext]], [[MediaWiki:Systemblockedtext|systemblockedtext]], [[MediaWiki:Blockedtext-tempuser|blockedtext-tempuser]], [[MediaWiki:Autoblockedtext-tempuser|autoblockedtext-tempuser]]) now support additional parameters indicating whether the user is blocked from editing their own user talk page <code><nowiki>$9</nowiki></code> or emailing other users <code><nowiki>$</nowiki><nowiki>10</nowiki></code>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T285612] * A <code>REL1_45</code> branch for MediaWiki core and each of the extensions and skins in Wikimedia git has been created. This is the first step in the release process for MediaWiki 1.45.0, scheduled for late November 2025. If you are working on a critical bug fix or working on a new feature, you may need to take note of this change. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/ZUY7TY3Z6XPZWZVAZV63OPO5OW52Q6GE/] * The process for generating CirrusSearch dumps has been updated due to slowing performance. If you encounter any issues migrating to the replacement dumps, please contact the Search Platform Team for support. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T366248][https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/3KQPOR6ACVN6OVLMLZPIBXQSWQKW4E3K/] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.2|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/46|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W46"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:38, 10 November 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29606150 --> == Tech News: 2025-47 == <section begin="technews-2025-W47"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/47|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience|Reader Experience team]] is experimenting with [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/WE3.3.4_Reading lists|reading lists on mobile web]], allowing logged-in readers with no edits to save private lists of articles for later. The experiment is running on Arabic, Chinese, French, Indonesian, and Vietnamese Wikipedias since the week of 10 November, and will begin on English Wikipedia the week of 17 November. * Users who can’t receive their email verification code during login can now get help by submitting a form on a new special page. This update is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity/Account Security|Account Security]] initiative. If your account has an email address, please make sure you still have access to it. When logging in from a new device or location without 2FA, you may be asked to enter a 6-digit code sent by email to finish logging in. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity/Account Security#Why are you requiring me to enter a code from my email to log in? Can I opt out of this?|Learn more]]. * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikisource}} in [[d:Q13324|Minangkabau]] ([[s:min:|<code>s:min:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T408317] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:23}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:23|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * As part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification|Parser Unification]] project, the Content Transform Team rolled out Parsoid as the default parser to many low-traffic Wikipedias and is preparing the next step to high traffic ones. This message is an invitation for you to opt-in to Parsoid, as described in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:ParserMigration|Extension:ParserMigration]] documentation, and identify any issues you might encounter with your own workflow using bots, gadgets, or user scripts. Please, let us know through the ''"Report Visual Bug"'' link in the Tools sidebar or create a phab ticket and tag the [[phab:project/view/5846|Content Transform Team in Phabricator]]. * Unsupported Tools: Several issues with [[:c:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Video2commons|Video2Commons]] have been fixed, including filename-related upload failures, black-video imports, and retry handling. AV1 support has also been added. Ongoing work focuses on backend stability, ffmpeg errors, subtitle imports, metadata handling, and playlist uploads. To track specific tasks, check the [[phab:tag/video2commons/|Phabricator board]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.3|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * Save the date for the next Wikimedia Hackathon happening in Milan, Italy from May 1–3, 2026. Registration will open in January 2026. [https://pretix.eu/wikimedia/Hackathon-2026/ Scholarship applications are currently open], and will close on November 28, 2025. If you have any questions, please email <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">hackathon@wikimedia.org</bdi>. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/47|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W47"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 17:26, 17 November 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29627455 --> == Tech News: 2025-48 == <section begin="technews-2025-W48"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/48|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Last week, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Search Platform|Wikimedia Search Team]] recreated the "DWIM" (Do What I Mean) gadget functionality server-side, for Russian and Hebrew Wikipedias. This feature adds cross-keyboard suggestions to the standard search-box suggestions. For example, searching for ''<span lang="und" dir="ltr">cxfcnmt</span>'' on Russian Wikipedia will now add suggestions for ''<span lang="ru" dir="ltr">счастье</span>'' ("happiness") that the user probably intended. They plan to enable this feature for other Russian and Hebrew wikis this week. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T408734] * Later this week, users of the "{{int:codemirror-beta-feature-title}}" [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|beta feature]] will have syntax highlighting available in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]]. This requires that the "{{int:discussiontools-preference-sourcemodetoolbar}}" preference be set. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T407918] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents|Campaign events extension]] – the set of tools for coordinating events and other on-wiki collaborations has now been deployed to all Wikimedia wikis. A new feature known as [[m:Special:MyLanguage/CampaignEvents/Collaborative contributions|Collaborative contribution]] to help organizers and participants see the impact of activities has also been added. Join the upcoming [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Connection learning session 3|learning session]] to see the new feature in action and share your feedback. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:24}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:24|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the bug which stopped CodeReviewBot from working, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T410417] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Users of Wikimedia API can join a usability study to help validate the new design of Wikimedia REST API sandboxes. Interested participants should fill the [https://wikimediafoundation.limesurvey.net/487662 recruitment survey]. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/IREJRRWTZTGCYWQHDMSNJFTQAEPOOAE3/] * The MediaWiki Interfaces team is deprecating XSLT stylesheets within the Action API. Support for <code dir=ltr>format=xml'''&xlst={stylesheet}'''</code> will be removed from Wikimedia projects by the end of November, 2025. In addition, it will soon be disabled by default in MediaWiki release versions: v1.43 (LTS), v1.44, and v1.45. Support for XSLT stylesheets will be fully removed from MediaWiki v1.46 (expected to release between April and May 2026). [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/5AX7UWAVVUNUSBOIRHMNOKWOZ5EZI3JX/] * The WDQS legacy endpoint ([https://query-legacy-full.wikidata.org/ query-legacy-full.wikidata.org]) will be decommissioned at the end of December 2025, and finally closed down on 7th January 2026. After this date, users should expect requests to query.wikidata.org that require the full graph to fail or return invalid results if they are not rewritten to use SPARQL federation. The team encourages users to ensure that tools and workflows use the supported WDQS endpoints (<span dir=ltr><nowiki>https://query.wikidata.org/</nowiki></span> - Main graph or <span dir=ltr><nowiki>https://query-scholarly.wikidata.org/</nowiki></span> - Scholarly graph). For support with migrating use cases, please review the [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:Data_access|Data Access]] and [[d:Wikidata:Request_a_query|Request a Query]] pages for details and assistance on alternative access methods. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.4|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/48|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W48"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 15:56, 24 November 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29702226 --> == Tech News: 2025-49 == <section begin="technews-2025-W49"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/49|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The Wikipedia Year in Review 2025 will be available on December 2 for users of iOS and Android Wikipedia apps, featuring new personalized insights, updated reading highlights, and refreshed designs. Learn more on the review's [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Wikipedia Year in Review/Updates|project page]]. * The Growth team is working on improving the text and presentation of the Verification Email sent to new users to make them more welcoming, useful and informative. Some new text have been drafted for A/B testing and you can help by translating them. See [[phab:T396155|Phabricator]]. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]] will now be deployed at Japanese, Urdu and Chinese Wikipedias on December 2. Add a link is based on a prediction model that suggests links to be added to articles. While this feature has already been available on most Wikipedias, the prediction model could not support certain languages. A new model has now been developed to handle these languages, and it will be gradually rolled out to other Wikipedias over time. If you would like to know more, please contact [[mw:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:34}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:34|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the issue where search boxes on some Commons pages showed no results due to switch from SpecialSearch to MediaSearch, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T399476] * Two new wikis have been created: ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q36846|Toki Pona]] ([[w:tok:|<code>w:tok:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T404457] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikiquote}} in [[d:Q33655|Nigerian Pidgin]] ([[q:pcm:|<code>q:pcm:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T408318] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.5|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The Wikimedia Foundation is in the early stages of exploring approaches to '''Article guidance'''. The initiative aims to identify interventions that could help new editors easily understand and apply existing Wikipedia practices and policies when creating an article. The project is in the exploration and early experimental design phase. All community members are encouraged to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article guidance|learn more]] about the project, and share their thoughts on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Article guidance|the talk page]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/49|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W49"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:57, 1 December 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29732328 --> == Tech News: 2025-50 == <section begin="technews-2025-W50"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/50|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Anybody who wishes to secure their user account can now use [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Two-factor authentication|two-factor authentication]] (2FA). This is available to all registered users of all Wikimedia projects. This is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity/Account Security|Account Security]] initiative. Later, 2FA will be required for all users who can take security- or privacy-sensitive actions. '''Updates for editors''' * Following last week's deployments, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add a link|Add a link]] feature, which allows editors to add suggested links during editing, will be available to an additional [[Phab:T410469|33 Wikipedias]] starting on 9 December. This expansion is possible thanks to the new prediction model that now supports all languages, including those that were previously not covered. While the feature has been available on most Wikipedias for some time, this rollout brings us closer to using the improved model everywhere. If you have any questions or would like more details please contact [[mw:user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]]. * Last week, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Search Platform|Search Platform team]] added [[w:en:Transliteration|transliterated]] as-you-type search suggestions to Georgian wikis. If there are only a few regular search suggestions, then queries in Latin or Cyrillic script [[phab:T127003|are now rewritten into Georgian script]] to look for more matches. For example, searching for either <bdi lang="ka-Latn" dir="ltr">''bedniereba''</bdi> or <bdi lang="ka-Cyrl" dir="ltr">''бедниереба''</bdi> will now suggest the existing article about <bdi lang="ka" dir="ltr">ბედნიერება</bdi> ("happiness"). You can recommend other languages where transliterated suggestions would be useful [[phab:T375215|on Phabricator]] for future development. * Later this week, a controlled experiment will begin for editors on the 100 largest Wikipedias who are editing a section in the mobile web visual editor. 50% of these editors will notice a new "Edit full page" button that will enable them to expand their editing session to the whole page. This feature is intended to make it easier for people on mobile web to edit any article section, regardless of which section-edit icon they tapped to begin. The experiment will last ~4 weeks. You can find [[phab:T409112|more details]] about the project. * Later this week, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth|Reader Growth team]] will launch a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth/WE3.1.14 Expanded Mobile Sections|mobile web experiment]] to expand all article sections by default (currently they are collapsed by default) and pin the section header the user is currently reading to the top of the page. The experiment will affect 10% of users on Arabic, Chinese, French, Indonesian, and Vietnamese Wikipedias. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T409485] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Wikipedia Year in Review/2025 Year in Review|Wikipedia Year in Review 2025]], a feature in the Wikipedia mobile apps (iOS and Android) that provides users with a personalised summary of their engagement with Wikipedia over the year, is now available on the iOS and Android apps. This edition includes expanded personalised insights, improved reading highlights, new donor messaging, and updated designs. Open the app to view your Year in Review and explore your reading journey from 2025. * A recent software bug caused edits made with VisualEditor to make unintended changes to wikitext, including removing whitespace and replacing spaces with underscores in wikilinks inside citations. This was partially fixed last week, and further fixes are in progress. Editors who used VisualEditor between November 28 and December 2 should review their edits for unexpected modifications. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T411238] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:23}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:23|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the incorrect handling of URLs copied from the address bar of Microsoft Edge users, has been resolved. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T341281] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Starting this week, users of the "{{int:codemirror-beta-feature-title}}" [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|beta feature]] will have [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror]] as the editor for Lua, JavaScript, CSS, JSON and Vue content models, instead of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeEditor|CodeEditor]]. With this, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror#Linting|linters]] will be upgraded. This is part of a larger effort to eventually replace CodeEditor and provide a consistent code editing experience. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T373711] * Developers are encouraged to take the [https://wikimediafoundation.limesurvey.net/552643 2025 Developer Satisfaction Survey], which remains open until 5 January 2026. If you build software for the Wikimedia ecosystem and would like to share your experiences or feedback, your participation is greatly appreciated. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/W4WBKO6Q55UWWCCSFWQATKEXBEHP3QNR/] * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/50|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W50"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 17:45, 8 December 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29738112 --> == Tech News: 2025-51 == <section begin="technews-2025-W51"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/51|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:18}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:18|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, one of the fixes addressed an issue for temporary accounts adding an external URL, which triggered an hCaptcha request in more cases than intended, and did not display the required popup on the first attempt to publish the edit. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T411927] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * To improve database and site performance, external links to Wikimedia projects will no longer be stored in the database. This means they will not be searchable in [[{{#special:LinkSearch}}]], will not be checked by the Spam Blacklist or AbuseFilter as new links, and will not be in the <code dir=ltr>externallinks</code> table on database replicas. In the future this may be extended to other highly-linked trusted websites on a per-wiki basis, such as Creative Commons links on Wikimedia Commons. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T405005] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.7|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/51|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W51"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:03, 15 December 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29796010 --> == Tech News: 2025-52 == <section begin="technews-2025-W52"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/52|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * From January, edit filters [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:AbuseFilter/Access flags|can be set]] to automatically suppress their details such as rules and list of attempted edits and actions. This will help oversighters use edit filters to prevent doxxing or other suppressible material. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T290324] * The next issue of Tech News will be sent out on 12 January 2026 because of the end of year holidays. Thank you to all of the translators, and people who submitted content or feedback, this year. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:16}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:16|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the crash that occurred when tapping "First Steps" in the Wikipedia Android Year in Review has now been fixed, and the feature opens as expected. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T411546] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Interface elements such as diffs and categories generated by MediaWiki used to have the attribute <code dir=ltr>data-mw="interface"</code> to distinguish from wiki content. The attribute has been replaced with <code dir=ltr>data-mw-interface=""</code>, to avoid potential conflicts with other <code dir=ltr>data-mw</code> attributes, which are generated by Parsoid. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T409187] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] There is no new MediaWiki version this week or next week. '''Meetings and events''' * The [[mw:Wikimedia Hackathon Northwestern Europe 2026|Wikimedia Hackathon Northwestern Europe 2026]] will take place on 13-14 March 2026 in Arnhem, the Netherlands. Applications just opened mid-December and will close in mid-January or earlier if capacity is reached. With space for approximately 100 participants, early application is encouraged. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/52|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2025-W52"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:45, 22 December 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29831856 --> == Tech News: 2026-03 == <section begin="technews-2026-W03"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/03|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Wikimedia Foundation has shared some guiding questions for the July 2026–June 2027 Annual Plan on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2026-2027/Product & Technology OKRs|Meta]] and ''[[diffblog:2025/12/10/shaping-wikimedia-foundations-2026-2027-annual-goals-key-questions-for-the-wikimedia-movement/|Diff]]''. These focus on global trends, faster and healthier experimentation, better support for newcomers, strengthening editors and advanced users, improving collaboration across projects, and growing and retaining readership. Feedback and ideas are welcome on the [[m:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2026-2027|talk page]]. '''Updates for editors''' * As part of the current work of Community Tech team on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/W372|Multiple watchlists]] project, the display of [[Special:EditWatchlist|EditWatchlist]] will be updated as a first step towards multiple watchlists. Additionally, the pagination on [[Special:Search|Search]] will be updated too, as a part of the work on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/W186|Revamp pagination / page navigation]] wish. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T411596] * [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlist|The Global Watchlist]] is a MediaWiki [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:GlobalWatchlist|extension]] that lets you see your watchlists from different wikis on the same page. It was recently updated to look more like the regular [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]], such as preparing it for temporary accounts in IP masking (including rerouting user links to contributions pages), making page titles bold, and opening links in edit summaries and tags in new browser tabs. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T398361][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298919][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T273526][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T286309] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:28}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:28|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the issue where global blocks did not have the option to disable sending emails, has now been fixed, and will be available for use in the week of January 13. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T401293] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/VisualEditor/Citation tool|VisualEditor citation tool]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Reference Previews|Reference Previews]] now support "map" as a reference type. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T411083] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.10|MediaWiki]]/[[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.11|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/03|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W03"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:33, 12 January 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29907192 --> == Tech News: 2026-04 == <section begin="technews-2026-W04"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/04|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The tray shown on [[Special:Diff|Special:Diff]] in mobile view has been redesigned. It is now collapsed by default, and incorporates a link to undo the edit being viewed, making it easier for mobile editors and reviewers to take action while keeping the interface uncluttered. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T402297] * [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlist|The Global Watchlist]] lets you view your watchlists from multiple wikis on one page. The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:GlobalWatchlist|extension]] continues to improve — it now automatically determines the text direction (ensuring correct display of sites with unusual domain names) and shows detailed descriptions for log actions. Later this week, a new permanent link for page creations and CSS classes for each entry element will be added. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T412505][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T287929][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T262768][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T414135] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:32}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:32|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the previously observed issue in Vector 2022, where anchor link targets were obscured by the sticky header, has now been addressed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T406114] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * As mentioned in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2025/44|October 2025 deprecation announcement]], MediaWiki Interfaces team will begin sunsetting all transform endpoints containing a trailing slash from the MediaWiki REST API the week of January 26. Changes are expected to roll out to all wikis on or before January 30th. All API users currently calling them are encouraged to transition to the non-trailing slash versions. Both endpoint variations can be found, compared, and tested using the [https://test.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RestSandbox REST Sandbox]. If you have questions or encounter any problems, please file a ticket in Phabricator to the [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/project/view/6931/ #MW-Interfaces-Team board]. * Interactive reference documentation for the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia REST API|Wikimedia REST API]] has moved. Requests to API docs previously hosted through [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/RESTBase|RESTBase]] (e.g.: <code dir=ltr>https://en.wikipedia.org/api/rest_v1/</code>) are now redirected to the [[w:en:Special:RestSandbox|REST Sandbox]]. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata Platform|WMF Wikidata Platform team]] (WDP) has published its [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:Wikidata Platform team/Newsletter|January 2026 newsletter]]. It includes updates on the legacy full-graph endpoint decommissioning, the User-Agent policy change, the monthly Blazegraph migration office hours, and efforts to reduce regressions caused by the legacy endpoint shutdown. As a reminder, you can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global message delivery/Targets/WDP team updates|subscribe to the WDP newsletter]]! * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.12|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * The [[mw:Wikimedia Hackathon Northwestern Europe 2026|Wikimedia Hackathon Northwestern Europe 2026]] will take place on 13-14 March 2026 in Arnhem, the Netherlands. Applications opened mid-December and will close soon or when capacity is reached. It's a two-day, technically oriented hackathon bringing together Wikimedians from the region. Hope to see you there! '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/04|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W04"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:29, 19 January 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29943403 --> == Tech News: 2026-05 == <section begin="technews-2026-W05"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/05|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Wikimedia Foundation invites comments on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council/Year1 Reflections and Proposed Way Forward 2026 Update|proposed future]] of the [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council|Product and Technology Advisory Council]] until 28 February. * All users with registered accounts can now use passkeys for [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Two-factor authentication|two-factor authentication]] (2FA). Passkeys are a simple way to log in without using a second device. They verify the user's identity using a fingerprint, face scan, or a PIN code. To set up a passkey, first set up a regular 2FA method. Currently, to log in with a passkey, users must also use a password. Later this quarter, passwordless login will allow users to log in with a single click and a passkey. Users with advanced rights will also be required to have 2FA enabled. This is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity/Account Security|Account Security]] project. * Unregistered contributors on blocked IPs or blocked IP ranges can now interact on-wiki to appeal a block by creating a temporary account to appeal a block on the user talk page, unless the "prevent this user from editing their own talk page" is enabled. This solves the problem of logged-out users unable to use the default unblock process via user talk page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T398673] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:20}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:20|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the Two-Factor Authentication (2FA) methods description on the management page has been updated. It is now clearer and easier for users to understand and make use of. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T332385] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * A new AbuseFilter variable, <code>account_type</code>, has been added to provide a reliable way to determine the account type being created in the <code>createaccount</code> and <code>autocreateaccount</code> actions. As part of this change, the variable <code>accountname</code> has been renamed to <code>account_name</code>, and <code>accountname</code> is now deprecated. Edit filter managers should update any filters that use hardcoded account type checks or the deprecated variable. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T414049] * Image thumbnails that are requested in non-standard sizes, and using non-standard methods such as direct requests to <code dir=ltr><nowiki>upload.wikimedia.org/…</nowiki></code> will stop working in the near future. This change is to prevent ongoing external abuse by web-scrapers and bots. Some users with custom CSS/JS, Interface Admins who can fix gadgets and local skins, and Tool-authors, will need to update their code to use standard thumbnail sizes. [[phab:T414805|Details, search-links, and examples of how to fix them, are available in the task]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.13|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/05|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W05"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:17, 26 January 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=29969530 --> == Tech News: 2026-06 == <section begin="technews-2026-W06"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/06|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The "{{int:pageinfo-toolboxlink}}" feature, which gives validating information about a page ([{{fullurl:{{FULLPAGENAME}}|action=info}} example]), now automatically includes a table of contents. If there is a local [[{{ns:8}}:Pageinfo-header]] page created by individual users, it can now be removed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T363726] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:21}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:21|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, VisualEditor previously added bold or italic formatting inside link descriptions, making the wikicode complex. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T409669] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * There was no XML dump on 20 January. Additionally, from now on, dumps will be generated once per month only. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T414389] * The MediaWiki Interfaces team removed support for all transform endpoints containing a trailing slash from the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/API:REST%20API MediaWiki REST API]. All API users currently calling those endpoints are encouraged to transition to the non-trailing slash versions. If you have questions or encounter any problems, please file a ticket in phabricator to the [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/project/view/6931/ #MW-Interfaces-Team board]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.14|MediaWiki]] '''Weekly highlight''' * Users are reminded that the Wikimedia Foundation has shared some guiding questions for the July 2026–June 2027 Annual Plan on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2026-2027/Product & Technology OKRs|Meta]] and ''[[diffblog:2025/12/10/shaping-wikimedia-foundations-2026-2027-annual-goals-key-questions-for-the-wikimedia-movement/|Diff]]''. These focus on global trends, faster and healthier experimentation, better support for newcomers, strengthening editors and advanced users, improving collaboration across projects, and growing and retaining readership. Feedback and ideas are welcome on the [[m:Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan/2026-2027|talk page]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/06|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W06"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 17:43, 2 February 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30000986 --> == Tech News: 2026-07 == <section begin="technews-2026-W07"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/07|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[File:Maki-gift-15.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] Logged-in contributors who manage large or complex watchlists can now organise and filter watched pages in ways that improve their workflows with the new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Watchlist labels|Watchlist labels]] feature. By adding custom labels (for example: pages you created, pages being monitored for vandalism, or discussion pages) users can more quickly identify what needs attention, reduce cognitive load, and respond more efficiently. This improves watchlist usability, especially for highly active editors. * A new feature available on [[Special:Contributions|Special:Contributions]] shows [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts|temporary accounts]] that are likely operated by the same person, and so makes patrolling less time-consuming. Upon checking contributions of a temporary account, users with access to temporary account IP addresses can now see a view of contributions from the related temporary accounts. The feature looks up all the IPs associated with a given temporary account within the data retention period and shows all the contributions of all temporary accounts that have used these IPs. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Trust and Safety Product/Temporary Accounts#February 2026: Improvements to the patroller tooling|Learn more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T415674] * When editors preview a wikitext edit, the reminder box that they are only seeing a preview (which is shown at the top), now has a grey/neutral background instead of a yellow/warning background. This makes it easier to distinguish preview notes from actual warnings (for example, edit conflicts or problematic redirect targets), which will now be shown in separate warning or error boxes. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T414742] * The [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlist|Global Watchlist]] lets you view your watchlists from multiple wikis on one page. The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:GlobalWatchlist|extension]] continues to improve — it now properly supports more than one Wikibase site, for example both [[d:|Wikidata]] and [[testwikidata:|testwikidata]]. In addition, issues regarding text direction have been fixed for users who prefer Wikidata or other Wikibase sites in right-to-left (RTL) languages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T415440][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T415458] * The automatic "magic links" for ISBN, RFC, and PMID numbers have been [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic links|deprecated in wikitext since 2021]] due to inflexibility and difficulties with localization. Several wikis have successfully replaced RFC and PMID magic links with equivalent external links, but a template was often required to replace the functionality of the ISBN magic link. There is now a new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Magic words#isbn|built-in parser function]] <code dir=ltr><nowiki>{{#isbn}}</nowiki></code> available to replace the basic functionality of the ISBN magic link. This makes it easier for wikis who wish to migrate off of the deprecated magic link functionality to do so. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T145604] * Two new wikis have been created: ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q35401|Jju]] ([[w:kaj:|<code>w:kaj:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T413283] ** a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia}} in [[d:Q1186896|Nawat]] ([[w:ppl:|<code>w:ppl:</code>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T413273] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:23}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:23|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * A new global user group has been created: [[{{int:grouppage-local-bot}}|{{int:group-local-bot}}]]. It will be used internally by the software to allow community bots to bypass rate limits that are applied to abusive [[w:en:Web scraping|web scrapers]]. Accounts that are approved as bots on at least one Wikimedia wiki will be automatically added to this group. It will not change what user permissions the bot has. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T415588] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.15|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Users and Developers Conference Spring 2026|MediaWiki Users and Developers Conference, Spring 2026]] will be held March 25–27 in Salt Lake City, USA. This event is organized by and for the third-party MediaWiki community. You can propose sessions and register to attend. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/AZBWVI46SDEB65PGR5J6E4TYOQQEZXM7/] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/07|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W07"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:30, 9 February 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30026671 --> == Tech News: 2026-08 == <section begin="technews-2026-W08"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/08|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Site Reliability Engineering|SRE Team]] will be performing a cleanup of Wikimedia's [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Etherpad|Etherpad]] instance, the web-based editor for real-time collaborative document editing. All pads will be permanently deleted after 30 April, 2026 – if there are still migration projects in progress at that point the team can revisit the date on a case by case basis. Please create local backups of any content you wish to keep, as deleted data cannot be recovered. This cleanup helps reduce database size and minimize infrastructure footprint. Etherpad will continue to support real-time collaboration, but long-term storage should not be expected. Additional cleanups may occur in the future without prior notice. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T415237] '''Updates for editors''' * The Information Retrieval team will be launching an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Information Retrieval/Phase 1|Android mobile app experiment]] that tests hybrid search capabilities which can handle both semantic and keyword queries. The improvement of on-platform search will enable readers to find what they’re looking for directly on Wikipedia more easily. The experiment will first be launched on Greek Wikipedia in late February, followed by English, French, and Portuguese in March. [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2026/01/08/semantic-search-making-it-easier-to-find-the-information-readers-want/ Read more] on Diff blog. [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Readers/Information_Retrieval] * The Reader Growth team will run [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth/WE3.10.2 Mobile Table of Contents|an experiment]] for mobile web users, that adds a table of contents and automatically expands all article sections, to learn more about navigation issues they face. The test will be available on Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Indonesian, and Vietnamese Wikipedias. * Previously, site notices ([[{{ns:8}}:Sitenotice]] and [[{{ns:8}}:Anonnotice]]) would only render on the desktop site. Now, they will render on all platforms. Users on mobile web will now see these notices and be informed. Site administrators should be prepared to test and fix notices on mobile devices to avoid interference with articles. To opt out, interface admins can add <code dir="ltr">#siteNotice { display: none; }</code> to [[{{ns:8}}:Minerva.css]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T138572][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T416644] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:19}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:19|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue on [[Special:RecentChanges|Special:RecentChanges]] has been fixed. Previously, clicking hide in the active filters caused the "view new changes since…" button to disappear, though it should have remained visible. The button now behaves as expected. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T406339] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * New documentation is now available to help editors debug on-site search features. It supports troubleshooting when pages do not appear in results, when ranking seems unexpected, and when you need to inspect what content is being indexed, helping make search behavior easier to understand and analyze. [[mw:Help:CirrusSearch/Debug|Learn more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T411169] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.16|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/08|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W08"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:17, 16 February 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30086330 --> == Tech News: 2026-09 == <section begin="technews-2026-W09"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/09|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/Reference Check|Reference Check]] has been deployed to English Wikipedia, completing its rollout across all Wikipedias. The feature prompts newcomers to add a citation before publishing new content, helping reduce common citation-related reverts and improve verifiability. In A/B testing, the impact was substantial: newcomers shown Reference Check were approximately 2.2 times more likely to include a reference on desktop and about 17.5 times more likely on mobile web. [https://analytics.wikimedia.org/published/reports/editing/reference_check_ab_test_report_final_2025.html] '''Updates for editors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:InterwikiSorting|InterwikiSorting extension]], which allowed for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Interwiki sorting order|sorting of interwiki links]], has been undeployed from Wikipedia. As a result, editors who had enabled interwiki link sorting in non-compact mode (full list format) will now see links reordered. The links moving forward will be listed in the alphabetical order of language code. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T253764] * Later this week, people who are editing a page-section using the mobile visual editor, will notice a new "Edit full page" button. When tapped, you will be able to edit the entire article. This helps when the change you want to make is outside the section you initially opened. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T387175][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T409112] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience|The Reader Experience team]] is inviting editors to assess whether dark mode should still be considered "beta" on their wiki, based on their experience of how well it functions on desktop and mobile. If the feature is deemed mature, editors can update the interface messages in <code dir=ltr>MediaWiki:skin-theme-description</code> and <code dir=ltr>MediaWiki:Vector-night-mode-beta-tag</code> to indicate that dark mode is ready and no longer considered beta. * The improved [[mw:Wikimedia_Apps/Team/iOS/Activity_Tab|Activity tab]] which displays user-insights is now available to all users of the Wikipedia iOS app (version 7.9.0 and later). Following earlier A/B testing that showed higher account creation among users with access to the feature, it has been rolled out to 100% of users along with some updates. The Activity tab now shows your edited articles in the timeline, offers editing impact insights like contribution counts and article view trends, and customization options to improve in-app experience for users. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:21}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:21|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, a bug that prevented [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:DiscussionTools|DiscussionTools]] from working on mobile has now been fixed, restoring full functionality. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T415303] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlist|Global Watchlist]] lets you view your watchlists from multiple wikis on one page. The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:GlobalWatchlist|extension]] that makes this possible continues to improve. The latest upgrade is the inclusion of a [[mw:Extension:GlobalWatchlist#hook|new hook]], <code dir=ltr>ext.globalwatchlist.rebuild</code>, which fires after each watchlist rebuild. This allows you to run gadgets and user scripts for the Special page. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T275159] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.17|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/09|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W09"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:03, 23 February 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30119102 --> == Tech News: 2026-10 == <section begin="technews-2026-W10"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/10|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Wikipedia 25 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikipedia 25/Easter egg experiments|Birthday mode]] is now live on Betawi, Breton, Chinese, Czech, Dutch, English, French, Gorontalo, Indonesian, Italian, Luxembourgish, Madurese, Sicilian, Spanish, Thai, and Vietnamese Wikipedias! This limited-time campaign feature celebrates 25 years of Wikipedia with a birthday mascot, Baby Globe. When turned on, Baby Globe is shown on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikipedia 25/Easter egg experiments/article configuration|~2,500 articles]], waiting to be discovered by readers. Communities can choose to turn Birthday mode on by getting consensus from their community and asking an admin to enable the feature and customize it via [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikipedia 25/Easter egg experiments#Community Configuration Demo|community configuration]] on the local wiki. '''Updates for editors''' * [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|Sub-referencing]], a new feature to re-use references with different details has been released to Swedish Wikipedia, Polish Wikipedia and [[:phab:T418209|a couple of other wikis]]. You can [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#test|try the feature]] on these projects or on testwiki and [https://en.wikipedia.beta.wmcloud.org/wiki/Sub-referencing betawiki]. Learnings from the first pilot wiki German Wikipedia have been [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing/Learnings|published in a report]]. Reach out to the Wikimedia Deutschland team if you are [[:m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#Pilot wikis|interested in becoming a pilot wiki]]. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit check#Paste check|Paste Check]] will become available at all Wikipedias this week. The feature prompts newcomers who are pasting text they are not likely to have written into VisualEditor to consider whether doing so risks a copyright violation. Paste Check [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/Tags|tags]] all edits where it is shown for potential review. Local administrators can configure various aspects of the feature via [[{{#special:EditChecks}}]]. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/Paste Check#A/B Experiment|Research]] across 22 wikis found that Paste Check resulted in an 18% decrease in relative reverted-edits compared to the control group. Translators can [https://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=ext-visualeditor-ve-mw-editcheck&filter=&optional=1&action=translate help to localize] this and related features. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience|Reader Experience team]] will be standardizing the user menu in the top right for all mobile users so that it is closer to the desktop experience. Currently this user menu is only visible to users with Advanced Mobile Controls (AMC) turned on. The only change is that a couple buttons previously in the left-side menu will move to the top right for users who do not have AMC turned on. This change is expected to go out March 9 and seeks to improve the user interface. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T413912] * Starting in the week of March 2, the emails sent out when an email address was added, removed, or changed for an account will switch to a substantially nicer and clearer HTML email from the prior plaintext one. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T410807] * Notifications are currently limited to 2,000 historic entries per user, and extend back to 2013 when the feature was released. This is going to be changed to only store Notifications from the last 5 years, but up to 10,000 of them. This will help with long-term infrastructure health and help to prevent more recent notifications from disappearing too soon. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T383948] * The [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlist|Global Watchlist]] which lets you view your watchlists from multiple wikis on a single page continues to see improvements. The latest update improves label usage experience. The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:GlobalWatchlist|extension]] now allows activating the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Language#Fallback languages|language fallback system]] for Wikidata items without labels in the viewed language, and showing those labels in the user’s preferred Wikidata language if no <code dir=ltr>uselang=</code> URL parameter is provided. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T373686][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T416111] * The Wikipedia Android team has started a beta test of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Information Retrieval/Phase 1|hybrid search]] on Greek Wikipedia. Hybrid search capabilities can handle both semantic and keyword queries enabling readers to find what they’re looking for directly on Wikipedia more easily. * For security reasons, members of certain user groups are [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Mandatory two-factor authentication for users with some extended rights|required to have two-factor authentication]] (2FA) enabled. Currently, 2FA is required to use the group, but not to be a member of it. Given that this model still has some vulnerabilities, the situation will [[phab:T418580|gradually change in March]]. Members of these groups will be unable to disable last 2FA method on their account, and it will be impossible to add users without 2FA to these groups. Users will still be able to add new authentication methods or remove them, as long as at least one method is continuously enabled. In the second half of March, users without 2FA will be removed from these groups. This applies to: CentralNotice administrators, checkusers, interface administrators, suppressors, Wikidata staff, Wikifunctions staff, WMF Office IT and WMF Trust & Safety. Nothing will change for other users. See the linked task for deployment schedule. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T418580] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:27}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:27|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the issue preventing users from creating an instance in [https://www.wikibase.cloud/ Wikibase.cloud] has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T416807] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * To help ensure [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Product Insights/Responsible Reuse|fair use of infrastructure]], over the next month the Wikimedia Foundation will implement global API rate limits across our APIs. In early March, stricter limits will be applied to unidentified requests from outside Toolforge/WMCS and API requests that are made from web browsers. In April, higher limits will be applied to identified traffic. These limits are intentionally set as high as possible to minimise impact on the community. Bots running in Toolforge/WMCS or with the bot user right on any wiki should not be affected for now. However, all developers are advised to follow updated best practices. For more information, see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits|Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits]]. * The Wikidata Query Service Linked Data Fragment (LDF) endpoint will be decommissioned in February. This endpoint served limited traffic, which was successfully migrated to other data access methods that were better suited to support existing use cases. The hardware used to support the LDF endpoint will be reallocated to support the ongoing backend migration efforts. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T415696] * The new Parsoid parser [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification/Updates|continues to be deployed to additional wikis]], improving platform sustainability and making it easier to introduce new reading and editing features. Parsoid is now the default parser on 488 WMF wikis (268 Wikipedias), now covering more than 10% of all Wikipedia page views. * The process and criteria for [[Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Enterprise#Access|requesting exceptional access]] to the high volume feed of the ''Wikimedia Enterprise'' APIs (at no cost for mission-aligned usecases), [[m:Talk:Wikimedia Enterprise#Exceptional access criteria|have now been published]]. This is to provide more thorough and clearer documentation for users. * [https://techblog.wikimedia.org/ Tech Blog], the blog dedicated to the Wikimedia technical community [https://techblog.wikimedia.org/2026/02/24/a-tech-blog-diff/ will be migrating] to [[diffblog:|Diff]], the community news and event blog. The migration should be complete in April 2026, after which new posts will be accepted for publishing. Readers will be able to access posts – old and new – on the landing page at https://diff.wikimedia.org/techblog. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.18|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/10|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W10"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 17:51, 2 March 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30137798 --> == Tech News: 2026-11 == <section begin="technews-2026-W11"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/11|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|All wikis will be read-only]] for a few minutes on Wednesday, 25 March 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1774450800 15:00 UTC]. This is for the datacenter server switchover backup tests, [[wikitech:Deployments/Yearly calendar|which happen twice a year]]. During the switchover, all Wikimedia website traffic is shifted from one primary data center to the backup data center to test availability and prevent service disruption even in emergencies. * Last week, all wikis had 2 hours of read-only time, and extended unavailability for user-scripts and gadgets. This was due to a security incident which has since been resolved. Work is ongoing to prevent re-occurrences. For current information please see the [[m:Steward's noticeboard#Statement on Meta about today's user script security incident|post on the Stewards' noticeboard]] ([[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation/Product and Technology/Product Safety and Integrity/March 2026 User Script Incident|translations]]). '''Updates for editors''' * Users facing multiple blocks on mobile will now see the reasons for each block separately, instead of a generic message. This helps them understand why they are blocked and what steps they can take to resolve the issue. For example, users affected for using common VPNs (such as [[Special:MyLanguage/Apple iCloud Private Relay|iCloud Private Relay]]) will receive clearer guidance on what they need to do to start editing again. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T357118] * Later this week, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/VisualEditor/Suggestion Mode|Suggestion Mode]] will become available as a beta feature within the visual editor at all Wikipedias. This feature proactively suggests various types of actions that people can consider taking to improve Wikipedia articles, and learn about related guidelines. The feature is locally configurable, and can also be locally expanded with custom Suggestions. Current settings can be seen at [[Special:EditChecks]] and there are [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Suggestion mode#For administrators %E2%80%93 local customization|instructions for how administrators can customize]] the links to point to local guidelines. The feature is connected to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit check|Edit check]] which suggests improvements while someone is writing new content. In the future, the Editing team plans to evaluate the feature's impact with newcomers through a controlled experiment. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T404600] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:23}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:23|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the issue where the cursor became misaligned during the use of CodeMirror’s syntax highlighting, which makes wikitext and code easier to read, has now been fixed. This problem specifically affected users who defined a font rule in a custom stylesheet while creating a new topic with DiscussionTools. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T418793] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * API rate limiting update: To help ensure [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Product Insights/Responsible Reuse|fair use of infrastructure]], global API rate limits will be applied this week to requests without a compliant User-Agent that originate from outside Toolforge/WMCS and to unauthenticated requests made from web browsers. Higher limits will be applied to identified traffic in April. Bots running in Toolforge/WMCS or with the bot user right on any wiki should not be affected for now. However, all developers are advised to follow updated best practices. For more information, see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits|Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits]]. * The new GraphQL API has been released. The API was developed as a flexible alternative to select features of the Wikidata Query Service (WDQS), to improve developer experience and foster adaptability, and efficient data access. Try it out and [[d:Wikidata:Wikibase GraphQL#Feedback and development|give feedback]]. You can also [https://greatquestion.co/wikimediadeutschland/GraphQLAPI/apply sign up for usability tests]. * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council/Unsupported Tools Working Group|PTAC Unsupported Tools Working Group]] continued improvements to [[commons:Special:MyLanguage/Commons:Video2commons#|Video2Commons]] in February, with fixes addressing authentication errors, large-file handling, task queue visibility, and clearer upload behavior. Work is still ongoing in some areas, including changes related to deprecated server-side uploads. Read [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council/Unsupported Tools Working Group#February 2026|this update]] to learn more. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.19|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The Article Guidance team invites experienced Wikipedia editors from selected [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article guidance/Pilot wikis and collaborators#Collaborators|pilot wikis]] and interested contributors from other Wikipedias to fill out this questionnaire which is available in [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfmLeVWnxmsCbPoI_UF2jyRcn73WRGWCVPHzerXb4Cz97X_Ag/viewform English], [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSd6rzr4XXQw8r4024fE3geTPFe13M_6w7Mitj-YJi0sOlWTAw/viewform?usp=header Arabic], [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdok3-RfB18lcugYTUMGkpwmqG_8p760Wv4dCXitOXOszjUDw/viewform?usp=header Bengali], [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfjTfYp4jEo0akA4B1e-Nfg3QZPCudUjhJzHzzDi6AHyAaMGA/viewform?usp=header Japanese], [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLScteVoI29Aue4xc72dekk-6RYtvmMgQxzMI900UOawrFrSTWg/viewform?usp=header Portuguese], [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSetdxnYwL3ub2vqA7awCg5hJZPMIYcDPaiTe12rY9h0GYnVlw/viewform?usp=header Persian], and [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLScNvfJF-Ot-4pzA4qAN771_0QDJ4Li19YcUsaTgSKW8Nc7U_Q/viewform?usp=header Turkish]. Your answers will help the team customize guidance for less experienced editors and help them learn community policies and practices while creating an article. Learn more [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article guidance|on the project page]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/11|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W11"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:53, 9 March 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30213008 --> == Tech News: 2026-12 == <section begin="technews-2026-W12"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/12|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|{{int:codemirror-beta-feature-title}}]] beta feature, also known as [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror 6]], has been used for wikitext syntax highlighting since November 2024. It will be promoted out of beta by May 2026 in order to bring improvements and new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror#Features|features]] to all editors who use the standard syntax highlighter. If you have any questions or concerns about promoting the feature out of beta, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help talk:Extension:CodeMirror|please share]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T259059] * Some changes to local user groups are performed by stewards on Meta-Wiki and logged there only. Now, interwiki rights changes will be logged both on Meta-Wiki and the wiki of the target user to make it easier to access a full record of user's rights changes on a local wiki. Past log entries for such changes will be backfilled in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T6055] * On wikis using [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Flagged Revisions|Flagged Revisions]], the number of pending changes shown on [[{{#Special:PendingChanges}}]] previously counted pages which were no longer pending review, because they have been removed from the system without being reviewed, e.g. due to being deleted, moved to a different namespace, or due to wiki configuration changes. The count will be correct now. On some wikis the number shown will be much smaller than before. There should be no change to the list of pages itself. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T413016] * Wikifunctions composition language has been rewritten, resulting in a new version of the language. This change aims to increase service stability by reducing the orchestrator's memory consumption. This rewrite also enables substantial latency reduction, code simplification, and better abstractions, which will open the door to later feature additions. Read more about [[f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Status updates/2026-03-11|the changes]]. * Users can now sort search results alphabetically by page title. The update gives an additional option to finding pages more easily and quickly. Previously, results could be sorted by Edit date, Creation date, or Relevance. To use the new option, open 'Advanced Search' on the search results page and select 'Alphabetically' under 'Sorting Order'. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T403775] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:28}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:28|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the bug that prevented UploadWizard on Wikimedia Commons from importing files from Flickr has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T419263] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * A new special page, [[{{#special:LintTemplateErrors}}]], has been created to list transcluded pages that are flagged as containing lint errors to help users discover them easily. The list is sorted by the number of transclusions with errors. For example: [[{{#special:LintTemplateErrors}}/night-mode-unaware-background-color]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T170874] * Users of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|{{int:codemirror-beta-feature-title}}]] beta feature have been using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror]] instead of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeEditor|CodeEditor]] for syntax highlighting when editing JavaScript, CSS, JSON, Vue and Lua content pages, for some time now. Along with promoting CodeMirror 6 out of beta, the plan is to replace CodeEditor as the standard editor for these content models by May 2026. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help talk:Extension:CodeMirror|Feedback or concerns are welcome]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T419332] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror]] JavaScript modules will soon be upgraded to CodeMirror 6. Leading up to the upgrade, loading the <code dir=ltr>ext.CodeMirror</code> or <code dir=ltr>ext.CodeMirror.lib</code> modules from gadgets and user scripts was deprecated in July 2025. The use of the <code dir=ltr>ext.CodeMirror.switch</code> hook was also deprecated in March 2025. Contributors can now make their scripts or gadgets compatible with CodeMirror 6. See the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror#Gadgets and user scripts|migration guide]] for more information. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T373720] * The MediaWiki Interfaces team is expanding coverage of REST API module definitions to include [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/API:REST API/Extensions|extension APIs]]. REST API modules are groups of related endpoints that can be independently managed and versioned. Modules now exist for [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T414470 GrowthExperiments] and [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T419053 Wikifunctions] APIs. As we migrate extension APIs to this structure, documentation will move out of the main MediaWiki OpenAPI spec and REST Sandbox view, and will instead be accessible via module-specific options in the dropdown on the [https://test.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RestSandbox REST Sandbox] (i.e., [[{{#Special:RestSandbox}}]], available on all wiki projects). * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Scribunto|Scribunto]] extension provides different pieces of information about the wiki where the module is being used via the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual|mw.site]] library. Starting last week, the library also provides a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Scribunto/Lua reference manual#mw.site.wikiId|way]] of accessing the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:Wiki ID|wiki ID]] that can be used to facilitate cross-wiki module maintenance. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T146616] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.20|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Coolest Tool Award|2026 Coolest Tool Award]] celebrating outstanding community tools, is now open for nominations! Nominate your favorite tool using the [https://wikimediafoundation.limesurvey.net/435684?lang=en nomination survey] form by 23 March 2026. For more information on privacy and data handling, please see the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Legal:Coolest_Tool_Award_2026_Survey_Privacy_Statement|survey privacy statement]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/12|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W12"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:35, 16 March 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30260505 --> == Tech News: 2026-13 == <section begin="technews-2026-W13"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/13|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Wikimedia site users can now log in without a password using passkeys. This is a secure method supported by fingerprint, facial recognition, or PIN. With this change, all users who opt for passwordless login will find it easier, faster, and more secure to log in to their accounts using any device. The new passkey login option currently appears as an autofill suggestion in the username field. An additional [[phab:T417120|"Log in with passkey" button]] will soon be available for users who have already registered a passkey. This update will improve security and user experience. The [[c:File:Passwordless_login_screencast.webm|screen recording]] demonstrates the passwordless login process step by step. * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|All wikis will be read-only]] for a few minutes on Wednesday, 25 March 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1774450800 15:00 UTC]. This is for the datacenter server switchover backup tests, [[wikitech:Deployments/Yearly calendar|which happen twice a year]]. During the switchover, all Wikimedia website traffic is shifted from one primary data center to the backup data center to test availability and prevent service disruption even in emergencies. '''Updates for editors''' * Wikimedia site users can now export their notifications older than 5 years using a [[toolforge:echo-chamber|new Toolforge tool]]. This will ensure that users retain their important notifications and avoid them being lost based on the planned change to delete notifications older than 5 years, as previously announced. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T383948] * Wikipedia editors in Indonesian, Thai, Turkish, and Simple English now have access to Special:PersonalDashboard. This is an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Moderator Tools/Dashboard|early version of an experience]] that introduces newer editors to patrolling workflows, making it easier for them to move from making edits to participating in more advanced moderation work on their project. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T402647] * The [[Special:Block]] now has two minor interface changes. Administrators can now easily perform indefinite blocks through a dedicated radio button in the expiry section. Also, choosing an indefinite expiry provides a different set of common reasons to select from, which can be changed at: [[MediaWiki:Ipbreason-indef-dropdown]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T401823] * Mobile editors [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Account Creation Experiments#Logged-out|at several wikis]] can now see an improved logged-out edit warning, thanks to the recent updates from the Growth team. These changes released last week are part of ongoing efforts and tests to enhance [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Account Creation Experiments|account creation experience on mobile]] and then increase participation. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T408484] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:36}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:36|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the bug that prevented mobile web users from seeing the block information when affected by multiple blocks has been fixed. They can now see messages of all the blocks currently affecting them when they access Wikipedia. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Images built using Toolforge will soon get the upgraded buildpacks version, bringing support for newer language versions and other upstream improvements and fixes. If you use Toolforge Build Service, review the recent [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/cloud-announce@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/EMYTA32EV2V5SQ2JIEOD2CL66YFIZEKV/ cloud-announce email] and update your build configuration as necessary to ensure your tools are compatible. [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:Toolforge/Building_container_images&oldid=2392097#Buildpack_environment_upgrade_process][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T380127] * The [https://api.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page API Portal] documentation wiki will shut down in June 2026. API keys created on the API Portal will continue to work normally. api.wikimedia.org endpoints will be deprecated gradually starting in July 2026. Documentation on the API Portal is moving to [[mw:Wikimedia APIs|mediawiki.org]]. Learn more on the [[wikitech:API Portal/Deprecation|project page]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.21|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes|WMDE Technical Wishes]] is considering improvements to [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/References/VisualEditor automatic reference names|automatically generated reference names in VisualEditor]]. Please check out the [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/References/VisualEditor automatic reference names#Proposed solutions|proposed solutions]] and participate in the [[m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/References/VisualEditor automatic reference names#Request for comment|request for comment]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/13|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W13"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 16:51, 23 March 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30268305 --> == Tech News: 2026-14 == <section begin="technews-2026-W14"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/14|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Beta version of [[abstract:|Abstract Wikipedia]] a new Wikimedia project which is language-independent, was launched last week. The project allows communities to build Wikipedia articles in their native language, which can be readily accessed by other users in their own languages. The wiki is powered by instructions from Wikifunctions and also based on structured content from Wikidata. [[:f:Special:MyLanguage/Wikifunctions:Status updates/2026-03-26|Read more]]. '''Updates for editors''' * The Growth team is running an A/B test to evaluate a clearer, more user-friendly message that promotes account creation on wikis. Currently when logged-out mobile users begin editing, they see a jarring warning message that can feel abrupt and discouraging. This also presents temporary account editing as the default rather than encouraging account creation. The test is running on ten Wikipedias, including Arabic, French, Spanish and German. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Account Creation Experiments#2. Improve logged-out warning message (T415160)|Read more]]. * The Wikimedia Apps team is inviting feedback on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Future of Editing on the Mobile Apps|how editing should work on the Wikipedia mobile apps]]. The discussion focuses on improving how users access editing tools when they tap "Edit". This is part of a broader effort to convert readers who develop an interest in editing, to access a more user-friendly pathway to start contributing. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:45}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:45|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where citation fetching from the large newspaper archive [https://www.newspapers.com Newspapers.com] was no longer working, due to a block in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Citoid|Citoid]] requests, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T419903] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.22|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/14|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W14"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:25, 30 March 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30329462 --> == Tech News: 2026-15 == <section begin="technews-2026-W15"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/15|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents extension]] now includes a new group goal-setting feature, enabling organizers to set and track event goals such as the number of articles created and participating contributors in real time. Similarly, participants can work toward shared targets and see their collective impact as the event unfolds. The feature is now available on all Wikimedia wikis. Learn more in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents/Registration/Collaborative contributions#Goal setting|the documentation]]. * [[File:Maki-gift-15.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] The new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Watchlist labels|watchlist labels]] feature (announced in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/07|Tech News 2026-07]]) is now available via VisualEditor, the source editor, and the 'watchstar' (or watch link, for skins that don't have a star icon). Previously it was only possible to assign labels via [[Special:EditWatchlist|EditWatchlist]]. In all three places it is a new field following the expiry field. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:23}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:23|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the issue where talk pages on mobile with Parsoid are unusable after empty section headers, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T419171] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|sub-referencing feature]], which lets editors add details to an existing reference without duplicating it, will be gradually rolled out to [[phab:T414094|more wikis]] later this year. Wikis using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reference Tooltips|Reference Tooltips]] gadget are encouraged to update their version (typically at [[m:MediaWiki:Gadget-ReferenceTooltips.js|MediaWiki:Gadget-ReferenceTooltips.js]] as shown [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=1344408362 here]) to ensure compatibility. Other reference-related gadgets may also be affected. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T416304] * All Wikinews editions will be closed and switched to read-only mode on 4 May 2026. Content will remain accessible, but no new edits or articles can be added. This closure was approved by the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation following extended discussions. [[m:Wikimedia Foundation Board noticeboard#Board of Trustees Approves Closure of Wikinews|Read more]]. * The [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/API:Action API|Action API]] has had several formats for requested output. One of them, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>format=php</nowiki></code></bdi>, is being removed soon. Please ensure your scripts or bots use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/API:Data formats#Output|JSON format]]. This removal should affect very few scripts and bots. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T118538] * The [[Special:NamespaceInfo|Special:NamespaceInfo]] page now includes namespace aliases. For example "WP" for the "Project" ("Wikipedia") namespace on the German Wikipedia. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T381455] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.23|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/15|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W15"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 16:19, 6 April 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30362761 --> == Tech News: 2026-16 == <section begin="technews-2026-W16"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/16|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Experienced editors are invited to [https://b24e11a4f1.catalyst.wmcloud.org/wiki/Main_Page test] the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article guidance|Article guidance]] feature, designed to help less-experienced editors create well-structured, policy-compliant Wikipedia articles. Testing instructions are [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article guidance/Test feature guide|available]]. Also, after reviewing [https://b24e11a4f1.catalyst.wmcloud.org/wiki/Category:Pages_using_article_guidance the outlines], please provide feedback on the [[mw:Talk:Article guidance|project talk page]]. Based on your input, the feature will be refined and transferred to the pilot Wikipedias to translate and adapt. Check out [[c:File:Article Guidance workflow demo - April 2026.webm|the video]] explaining the feature. '''Updates for editors''' * On most wikis, all autoconfirmed users can now use [[Special:ChangeContentModel|Special:ChangeContentModel]] page to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:ChangeContentModel|create new pages with custom content models]], such as mass message lists, making custom page formats more accessible. Check [[Special:ListGroupRights|Special:ListGroupRights]] for the status of your wiki. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T248294] * The Growth team has launched an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Account_Creation_Experiments|account creation experiment]] to evaluate whether adding an account creation button to the mobile web header increases new account registrations and encourages more mobile users to contribute to the wikis. The experiment is currently live on Hindi, Indonesian, Bengali, Thai, and Hebrew Wikipedia, and targets 10% of logged-out mobile web users. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:30}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:30|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where VisualEditor could get stuck loading on Windows devices with animations turned off, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T382856] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Starting later this week, {{int:group-abusefilter}} who have the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|{{int:codemirror-beta-feature-title}}]] beta feature enabled will have [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror]] instead of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeEditor|CodeEditor]] as the editor at [[Special:AbuseFilter|Special:AbuseFilter]]. This is part of the broader effort to make the user experience more consistent across all editors. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T399673][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T419332] * Tools and bots that access the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Notifications/API|Notifications API]] (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>action=query&meta=notifications</nowiki></code></bdi>) will need to update their OAuth or BotPassword grants to also include access to private notifications. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T421991] * Due to a library upgrade, listings on category pages may be displayed out of order starting on Monday, 20th April. A migration script will be run to correct this, and will take hours to days depending on the size of the wiki (up to a week for English Wikipedia). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T422544] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.24|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/16|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W16"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 15:19, 13 April 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30380527 --> == Tech News: 2026-17 == <section begin="technews-2026-W17"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/17|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * After two years of development, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|{{int:codemirror-beta-feature-title}}]], also known as [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror 6]], is to be promoted out of beta on Tuesday, April 21. It brings better code and wikitext readability, reduction in typing errors, and other [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|benefits]] to all users of the standard syntax highlighter. A huge thank you to volunteer [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/p/Bhsd/ Bhsd] who developed many of the new features, including [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror#Code folding|code folding]], [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror#Autocompletion|autocompletion]], and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror#Linting|linting]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T259059] * A major update to the Wikipedia app for iOS is now rolling out, redesigning the interface to align with Apple's latest "Liquid Glass" visual design. [https://apps.apple.com/us/app/wikipedia/id324715238 Download the latest version] and explore the update. '''Updates for editors''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/WE3.3.4 Reading lists|Reading lists]] is a feature which allows readers to save articles to a list for reading later. This feature is now in beta on Arabic, French, Indonesian, Vietnamese, and Chinese Wikipedias and by default for all new accounts on all Wikipedias. * An experiment which explores extending [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth/Mobile page previews|Page Previews to mobile web]] will be launched in the week of April 20 on Arabic, English, French, Italian, Polish, and Vietnamese Wikipedias. Page Previews are pop-ups that display a thumbnail, lead paragraph, and a link to open the full article of a blue link, thereby improving content discovery. The feature is already available on desktop and in the apps. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/List of experiments in Product and Technology#Template|Read more about this experiment and others]]. * On several wikis, logged-in editors who haven't [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Email confirmation|confirmed their email addresses]] can now see a banner encouraging them to do so. Having the email address confirmed allows a user to restore access to the account if they lose it. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity/Account Security#Encouraging users to confirm their email addresses|Learn more]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T421366] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:15}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:15|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where editing very large wiki pages in the 2017 wikitext editor caused slow loading, preview and scrolling lag, and performance issues when selecting, cutting, or pasting content, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T184857] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * As part of the promotion of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror]] from a beta feature, all users will use [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror]] instead of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:CodeEditor|CodeEditor]] for syntax highlighting when editing JavaScript, CSS, JSON, Vue and Lua content pages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T419332] * The <code>mirrors.wikimedia.org</code> service for Debian and Ubuntu users will sunset and stop working on May 15. The resources for the service will be replaced with new and better options. Some users may need to switch to a different server which should take about a minute. [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/LJYRIS4WB66HIRCAO4GIDTXCMDVZRBMA/ You can read more]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T416707] * The <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>image</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>oldimage</nowiki></code></bdi> table will be removed from [[wikitech:Help:Wiki Replicas|wikireplicas]]. If your tools or queries access <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>image</nowiki></code></bdi> or <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>oldimage</nowiki></code></bdi> directly, please update them to use the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>file</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>filerevision</nowiki></code></bdi> table before 28 May. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T28741] * Following the recent implementation of global API rate limits on unidentified traffic, the Wikimedia Foundation will continue efforts to ensure [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/MediaWiki Product Insights/Responsible Reuse|fair use of infrastructure]] by applying global limits to identified API traffic beginning the last week of April. These limits are intentionally set as high as possible to minimise impact on the community. Bots running in Toolforge/WMCS or with the bot user right on any wiki should not be affected for now. However, all developers are advised to follow updated best practices. For more information, see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits|Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits/FAQ|Frequently Asked Questions]]. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Attribution API|Attribution API]] is now available as a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia APIs/Stability policy|beta]]. The API fetches information for crediting Wikimedia articles and media files wherever they are used. Reference documentation is available through the REST Sandbox special page available on all Wikimedia wikis (such as the [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?api=attribution.v0-beta&title=Special%3ARestSandbox REST sandbox on English Wikipedia]). Share your feedback on the [[mw:Talk:Attribution API|project talk page]]. * There is no new MediaWiki version this week. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/17|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W17"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 15:00, 20 April 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30432763 --> == Tech News: 2026-18 == <section begin="technews-2026-W18"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/18|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * There is a change in how new users are autoconfirmed that will improve anti-vandalism protection. Currently, users who have had an account for a few days and made a few edits are automatically added to the [[{{int:grouppage-autoconfirmed/{{CONTENTLANGUAGE}}}}|{{int:group-autoconfirmed}}]] group. This configuration tends to be exploited by some vandals, who create accounts and start to use them only after some time. To mitigate this, the configuration will be updated next week so that – for the purpose of becoming autoconfirmed – the account age will be counted from their first edit, instead of registration date. The numeric value of the age threshold will remain the same. This change will be deployed only to wikis which require at least one edit as part of the autoconfirmation conditions. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T418484] * All Wikipedia users with new accounts and those who activated the "automatically enable most beta features" option in their preference can now use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/WE3.3.4 Reading lists|reading lists]] beta feature to save articles for later reading. This helps organize reading interests in one place for convenient access. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:30}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:30|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the issue where infobox images have huge padding in Firefox, has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T423676] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * As a reminder, the global API rate limits will be applied this week to identified API traffic. This is to help ensure [[mw:MediaWiki Product Insights/Responsible Reuse|fair use of infrastructure]]. Bots running in Toolforge/WMCS or with the bot user right on any wiki should not be affected for now. However, all developers are advised to follow updated best practices. For more information, including the actual rate limits, see [[mw:Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits|Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits]] and [[mw:Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits/FAQ|Frequently Asked Questions]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.26|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/18|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W18"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:06, 27 April 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30458046 --> == Tech News: 2026-19 == <section begin="technews-2026-W19"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/19|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article guidance|Article guidance]] team invites experienced editors of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article guidance/Pilot wikis and collaborators|pilot Wikipedias]]—Arabic, Bangla, Japanese, Portuguese, Persian, Turkish, Simple English, Spanish, and French—to help translate and adapt [https://b24e11a4f1.catalyst.wmcloud.org/wiki/Category:Pages_using_article_guidance sample outlines]. These outlines will guide editors in creating clear, well-structured, and policy-compliant articles when using [https://b24e11a4f1.catalyst.wmcloud.org/wiki/Special:NewArticle the feature] once it is launched in May 2026. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article guidance#Adapting a sample outline in a Wikipedia|Simple instructions]] on how to translate and adapt the outlines are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council|Product and Technology Advisory Council]] has published [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council/May 2026 draft PTAC recommendation for feedback|draft recommendations]] on a model that affiliates can follow when contributing to the technical space. Community members are invited to provide feedback on the recommendation until May 8th [[:m:Talk:Product and Technology Advisory Council/May 2026 draft PTAC recommendation for feedback|on the talk page]]. * The number of available thumbnail size preferences in MediaWiki is being reduced to three standardized options—Small (180px), Regular (250px), and Large (400px), as part of ongoing efforts to improve performance and reduce strain on thumbnail services. As a result, existing preferences will be mapped to the nearest new size (for example, smaller selections like 120px or 150px will render at 180px, while larger ones like 300px or 360px will render at 400px). The preferences interface will soon be updated to reflect these changes, and users who wish to opt out or provide feedback can do so. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T424909] * From now on, even when a permission expires automatically, users will receive an Echo notification similar to the standard notification for permission changes. There is a difference between this and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Global reminder bot|Global reminder bot]] in that the latter reminds users a week ''before'' the rights are due to expire, so that they can renew the rights. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:32}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:32|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the problem where the ULS language selector in [[m:Special:Translate|Special:Translate]] would scroll vertically when it shouldn't, has been resolved. Previously, when users opened the "Translate to English" dropdown and typed certain inputs, the dialog would scroll vertically by a few pixels even when there was enough space to display all results. The dropdown no longer shifts unnecessarily when filtering languages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T358864] * The [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlist|Global Watchlist]], which lets you view your watchlists from multiple wikis on a single page, continues to improve. For example, watchlists for Wikibase sites such as [[:d:|Wikidata]] now support [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:EntitySchema|EntitySchema]] elements for better tracking. The Live Updates mode now refreshes the special page every 60 seconds to comply with the updated [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits|global API rate limits]] for improved real-time responsiveness. Additionally, a directionality bug that displayed links as "changes 3" instead of "3 changes" in mixed-direction lists has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T415450][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T424422][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T418091] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The second phase of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits|global API rate limits]] has been rolled out to reduce the [[diffblog:2026/03/26/quo-vadis-crawlers-progress-and-whats-next-on-safeguarding-our-infrastructure/|impact of AI crawlers]] and ensure fair, sustainable access to Wikimedia resources, prioritising human and mission-aligned traffic. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits#Limits|Limits]] have been shifted from per-hour to per-minute, producing smoother traffic patterns and more predictable API load. Community users are not expected to be affected, and no action is required. Early indications show some User-Agent-based requestors are adjusting behaviour, and around 64% of automated API traffic has been identified. Monitoring continues, and Wikimedia Enterprise remains available for commercial support. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.46/wmf.27|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/19|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W19"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:43, 4 May 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30498077 --> == Tech News: 2026-20 == <section begin="technews-2026-W20"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/20|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Community Tech has published [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/How to write a good wish|new guidance]] explaining how wishes on Community Wishlist are triaged and prioritized. The documentation is intended to help contributors write stronger proposals by clarifying the factors that influence prioritization decisions. Beyond vote counts, the guidance highlights considerations such as potential impact on the community when determining which wishes move forward. '''Updates for editors''' * The Reader Growth team is launching an experiment to test a new [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Growth/Share_Card|Share Card feature]] that allows readers to create visually engaging cards from Wikipedia articles or selected article sections and share them online, with each card linking back to the original article to help expand readership and article discovery. The mobile-only A/B test will be available to a portion of readers on Arabic, Chinese, French, Vietnamese, and English Wikipedia to better understand reading and sharing habits, and is scheduled to begin the week of May 18 and run for four weeks. * The Android and iOS Wikipedia apps recently released the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Apps/Team/25th_Birthday_Reading_Challenge|25-day reading challenge]] into Beta, as part of efforts to drive reader engagement by encouraging users to complete reading milestones. To track their reading streak during the challenge, App users can add a widget featuring Baby Globe to their home screen. The challenge officially begins May 11. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:17}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:17|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where the global preference for enabling syntax highlighting in wikitext could unexpectedly disable itself after being turned on, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T425286] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Octicons-tools.svg|12px|link=|alt=|Advanced item]] The ResourceLoader module <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>mediawiki.ui.input</nowiki></code></bdi>, deprecated since [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2023/39|September 2023]], will be removed this week. There is a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Codex/Migrating_from_MediaWiki_UI|guide for migrating from MediaWiki UI to Codex]] for any tools that use it. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T420125] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.2|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/20|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W20"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:20, 11 May 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30524429 --> == Tech News: 2026-21 == <section begin="technews-2026-W21"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/21|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Abstract Wikipedia team has identified five potential pilot wikis to assess their interest in adopting abstract articles on their wikis. The pilots are Malayalam, Bengali, Dagbani, Arabic, and Indonesian Wikipedia. The feedback period will be open until May 22. If your community is interested in becoming a pilot, [[m:Talk:Abstract Wikipedia|let us know on Meta]]. '''Updates for editors''' * An experiment to show [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists|Reading Lists]] to logged-out readers on mobile web will launch on May 18 across German, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Polish, Dutch, Turkish, and Urdu Wikipedias, and will run for one month. The effort supports broader goals of helping readers save and organize articles for later reading, while encouraging habits that could lead to future Wikipedia contributions. * To support a bookmark button in the Reading List beta feature, the "Tools > Action" menu has been updated to display icons, including the watch star indicator that helps editors identify temporarily watched articles. The icons now also match those used on mobile, improving consistency across platforms. The change is currently limited to the actions menu and mainly affects editors with privileged user rights. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T426008] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/VisualEditor/Suggestion Mode|Suggestion Mode]] was released as an [[w:en:A/B test|A/B test]] for newcomer editors on the mobile website at [[phab:T421189|~15 Wikipedias]]. The experiment will measure the impact that Suggestion Mode has on the proportion of newcomer mobile web edit sessions that result in constructive (un-reverted) article edits. The experiment will also evaluate the feature's impact on editor retention, and monitor changes in revert and block rates. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:27}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:27|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue in the Wikipedia Android app where images could sometimes fail to load after opening a recommended reading list notification, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T418231] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata Platform|Wikidata Platform team]] has published its [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:SPARQL query service/WDQS backend update/Backend Replacement|backend replacement recommendation]] and accompanying [[wikitech:Wikidata Query Service/WDQS Architecture re-design|technical architecture]] for the migration of the Wikidata Query Service (WDQS) away from Blazegraph. Feedback is invited until May 25th 2026, especially on potential gaps and impacts on advanced use cases. Wikidata community members and WDQS users are also encouraged to help identify high-impact tools and workflows that may need attention on [[d:Wikidata:SPARQL query service/WDQS backend update/High-Impact Use Cases|this page]]. Feedback can be shared on the [[d:Wikidata talk:SPARQL query service/WDQS backend update|Migration talk page]] or during the [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:Blazegraph Migration Office Hours|next office hour]]. See the [[d:Special:MyLanguage/Wikidata:Wikidata Platform team/Newsletter|WDP team newsletter]] for more details. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.3|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * On English, French, Japanese, and a few other Wikipedias, there was a [[diffblog:2025/09/02/better-detecting-bots-and-replacing-our-captcha/|trial of hCaptcha]], a third-party bot detection service. The trial showed that hCaptcha effectively detects and deters some bad-faith automated activity, on its own and by giving [[w:en:Wikipedia:Village pump (technical)/Archive 225#Introducing SuggestedInvestigations|checkusers and stewards]] signals to look into. Because the results were positive, hCaptcha will be rolled out across all wikis over the next few weeks. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity/Anti-abuse signals/hCaptcha|See the hCaptcha project page]] for technical information about the implementation and privacy protections. [[diffblog:2026/05/04/better-detecting-bots-and-replacing-our-captcha-part-2/|Learn more]]. * The latest Community Tech update is now available, with progress across several Community Wishlist initiatives, including Reading Lists expansion from the mobile app to the website, new language support for "Who Wrote That" and the Personal Dashboard, improvements to 3D rendering and Charts, and upcoming work on talk page sorting, audio playback, and editing workflows. The update also shares current priorities, wishlist status trends, and opportunities for community feedback on future focus areas and the Wikimedia Foundation’s 2026–2027 Annual Plan. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Updates#May 13, 2026: Latest updates from the Community Tech team|Read the full newsletter for details]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/21|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W21"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:21, 18 May 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30539262 --> == Tech News: 2026-22 == <section begin="technews-2026-W22"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/22|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Following a [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Account Creation Experiments#LOWM|successful account creation experiment]], an improved logged-out edit warning message will be deployed to all Wikimedia wikis in the first week of June. The change will only affect logged-out users on mobile web who open an editing session. The updated experience is designed to encourage account creation more clearly, while still allowing users to edit with temporary accounts. Results from the experiment showed a significant increase in account creation, with a 27% relative lift among users shown the updated message. As expected, as more people funnel into account creation, temporary accounts decreased by a relative 16%. The experiment did not show any significant changes in constructive edit rates or other monitored contributor metrics. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T424595] '''Updates for editors''' * For security reasons, members of certain user groups are [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Mandatory two-factor authentication for users with some extended rights|required to have two-factor authentication]] (2FA) enabled. Members of these groups will be unable to disable the last 2FA method on their account, and it will be impossible to add users without 2FA to these groups. Users will still be able to add new authentication methods or remove them, as long as at least one method is continuously enabled. In the next few weeks, users without 2FA will be removed from these groups. Notably, this applies to bureaucrats. See the linked tasks for deployment schedules. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T423119][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T423120] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes|WMDE Technical Wishes]] will run an [[w:en:A/B testing|A/B test]] on [[:phab:T415904|10 wikis]], testing [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/References/Reference Previews|potential improvements for Reference Previews]]. The experiment will run for ~2 weeks at the end of May / beginning of June and will affect 10% of desktop readers on the participating wikis. * After two successful experiments, the Reader Growth team is rolling out an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth/Image Browsing|Image Browsing]] beta feature for all Wikipedias on mobile on May 25. This means that anyone who has all beta features on by default will start to see this feature, and others can check the box to turn it on in their preferences. The beta feature will include a carousel of all an article's images at the top of the article, with controls for editors to [[mw:Readers/Reader_Growth/Image_Browsing#Phase_2.1_beta_feature|exclude images from the article's carousel or to exclude an article from the feature entirely]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:30}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:30|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, three dimensional STL files were being rendered incorrectly by the media viewer 3D extension which is now fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T416723] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The legacy CSS classes <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>tleft</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>tright</nowiki></code></bdi> have been replaced with <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>floatleft</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>floatright</nowiki></code></bdi> as the former do not work consistently across all MediaWiki platforms, notably mobile web and mobile apps. Projects relying on these classes are encouraged to review related usage and plan for migration. Please note that <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>floatleft</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>floatright</nowiki></code></bdi> may also be deprecated in future, although there are currently no plans to do so. [[phab:T426452|Read more]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.4|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/22|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W22"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:52, 25 May 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30584502 --> == Tech News: 2026-23 == <section begin="technews-2026-W23"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/23|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience|Reader Experience team]] is conducting an experiment to show the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists|reading lists]] feature, which is still in development, to logged-out mobile readers to test whether it encourages account creation at a higher rate compared to the watchstar button. The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists#Experiment timeline|experiment]] was launched on May 18th on German, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Polish, Dutch, Turkish, and Urdu wikis, and it will run for a month. * The Wikimedia Apps team released [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Explore Feed Refresh/Phase 1|Phase 1]] of the redesigned Home Feed to the Android Beta app. The new Home Feed includes a refreshed "Community" tab and a personalized "For You" tab featuring daily updated reading recommendations. The redesign is part of a broader effort to improve content discovery and create more engaging learning experiences in the Wikipedia apps. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:18}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:18|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where images could fail to load for some suggested edits on [[w:Special:Homepage|Special:Homepage]], leaving the thumbnail stuck in a loading state, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T424048] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.5|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/23|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W23"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:08, 1 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30613639 --> == Tech News: 2026-24 == <section begin="technews-2026-W24"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/24|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Wikimedia Enterprise has increased the free usage limits for its API offerings. The monthly request limit for the On-demand API has increased from 5,000 to 50,000 requests, while the Snapshot API limit has increased from 15 to 30 requests per month. In addition, Structured Contents snapshots are now available for free accounts. These changes expand access to Wikimedia Enterprise data for developers, researchers, and organizations using Wikimedia content. [https://enterprise.wikimedia.com/blog/enhanced-free-api] '''Updates for editors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Apps/Team/Explore Feed Refresh/Phase 1|refreshed Explore Feed]], now called the Home Feed, is rolling out to 50% of users of the Wikipedia Android app. The Home Feed helps readers discover relevant content through two new tabs: ''Community'' and ''For You''. The Community tab provides a scrollable feed of curated content and updates from the broader Wikimedia community and movement, while the ''For You'' tab offers a full-screen, swipeable experience that shows content tailored to a user's interests. The redesign is part of a broader effort to improve discovery and enhance the learning experience in the Wikipedia app. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/iOS/"Which came first?" Game|Which came first?]] daily trivia game is now available in the beta version of the Wikipedia iOS app in English, German, French, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, Arabic, Chinese, and Turkish. The game uses historical events from Wikipedia's "On This Day" content and challenges readers to guess which of two events happened first. The game was previously released on Android. Communities interested in making the game available in their languages can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Apps/Team/Games#Game availability by language|read the instructions and requirements]]. * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|Sub-referencing]], a new MediaWiki feature that allows editors to reuse references with different details, will begin rolling out to Wikimedia wikis following a successful pilot phase. Deployment will start on 8 June for most [[wikitech:Deployments/Train#Wednesday|Group 1 wikis]] and French Wikipedia, with additional Wikipedia language editions receiving the feature over the coming months. Communities are encouraged to prepare by checking for [https://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=ext-cite&language=en&action_source=search&filter=%21translated&optional=1&action=translate untranslated Cite extension messages] in their language and reviewing any use of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reference Tooltips|Reference Tooltips]], which may require [[:phab:T416304#11668731|updates]] to support the new functionality. Wikis using [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Reference Previews|Reference Previews]] do not need to take any action. Communities may also wish to create the ''cite-tracking-category-ref-details'' [[Special:TrackingCategories|tracking category]] as a hidden category using <code><nowiki>__HIDDENCAT__</nowiki></code> (or a dedicated template), and connect it to the corresponding Wikidata item [[d:Q129764848]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T425662] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth/Mobile page previews#Experimentation|Page Previews experiment]] on mobile web has concluded. The team decided not to roll out the feature after the results showed no statistically significant impact on reader retention, as the primary success metric was retention improvement. Page Previews, which are already available on desktop and in the apps, display a thumbnail, lead paragraph, and link to the full article when readers tap a blue link. The experiment tested this experience on mobile web across six Wikipedias. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Codex/Design/Icons|user interface icon library]] will be [[phab:T399175|updated later this week or next week]]. Most of the ~300 icons have been slightly refined and ~30 new icons have been added. These changes improve the icons to make them more consistent and comprehensible, and provide more visual balance when they are used in groups. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Language Selector|Universal Language Selector]] (ULS) interface in MediaWiki, which helps users select content in other languages, has been updated. The new version improves speed and accessibility, and users of Wikimedia projects can now pin languages for quicker language switching. The deployment to Wikimedia sites will happen gradually in the coming weeks. You can test it now as a beta feature by selecting [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|beta features]] in your profile preferences and share your feedback on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Language Selector/New ULS|the project page]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:21}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:21|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where the Pageviews Analysis dashboard on pageviews.wmcloud.org stopped updating graph data in May 2026, affecting all users, has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T427171] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The function signature for <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>mw.util.addPortletLink()</nowiki></code></bdi> has been simplified. Developers can now pass a configuration object instead of a list of positional parameters when creating portlet links. The previous function signature remains supported for backwards compatibility. For example, instead of: <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>mw.util.addPortletLink('p-cactions', '#', 'Stub', 'ca-stubtag', 'Add a stub tag to this page');</nowiki></code></bdi> use <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>mw.util.addPortletLink('p-cactions', { href: '#', text: 'Stub', id: 'ca-stubtag', tooltip: 'Add a stub tag to this page' });</nowiki></code></bdi>. Script maintainers are encouraged to review existing uses of <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>addPortletLink()</nowiki></code></bdi> and update them where appropriate. This change will be available on all wikis from 11 June. Thanks to community volunteer Gerges for contributing this improvement. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T427945] * '''Community Wishlist discussion''': Product & Technology [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Updates#May 20, 2026: Community Tech becomes a program|introduced changes]] meant to increase the number and complexity of wishes fulfilled, including the disbanding of the Community Tech team. They are [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Updates|engaging in discussions]] about a [[m:Talk:Community Wishlist#Proposed direction for Wishlist|proposed direction for the wishlist]] from community members. Includes ways to structure annual voting, better tracking of wishes, removing focus areas, and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Updates|staffing updates]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.6|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/24|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W24"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:30, 8 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30650573 --> == Tech News: 2026-25 == <section begin="technews-2026-W25"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/25|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth|Reader Growth team]] has launched an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth/Image Browsing|Image Browsing]] beta feature on the mobile web version of all Wikipedias. The feature shows an image carousel at the top of articles with 3 or more images. Editors can configure this feature with the following controls: to hide a specific image from a page, either use <code>class=notpageimage</code> excluding it from thumbnail previews, or <code>class=noviewer</code> excluding it from MediaViewer. The carousel can also be disabled from a page entirely, with the magic word <code><nowiki>__NOMEDIAVIEWERCAROUSEL__</nowiki></code>. To submit feedback or flag bugs, please visit the [[mw:Talk:Readers/Reader Growth/Image Browsing|project page]]. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Tables#class="wikitable"|Wikitables]] can now be [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Sortable tables#Forcing the initial sort direction|sorted in descending order]] on the first click by adding <code dir=ltr>data-sort-order="desc"</code> to the header cell. Previously, by default, clicking a column header for the first time sorts it in ascending order. This addition to a Wikitable gives it more control and flexibility, while the default behavior for subsequent clicks remains unchanged. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T398416] '''Updates for editors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article guidance|Article guidance]] feature is currently being tested with some editors creating new articles on the Simple English, French, and Turkish Wikipedias. The experiment will soon begin on the Arabic and Bangla Wikipedias as well. [[w:simple:Special:NewArticle|This feature]] gives editors community-curated guidance to help them create articles that follow community standards. Experienced editors can continue creating or adapting outlines for specific article types that are commonly created by less experienced contributors. The outlines guide less experienced editors in creating high-quality articles. A quick guide to markups used in outlines can be found on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article guidance/Test feature guide#Markups in outlines|this page]]. [[w:simple:Wikipedia:Article Guidance|Example outlines]] that can be adapted and instructions for how to adapt them are on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article guidance#Adapting a sample outline in a Wikipedia|this section]] of the project page. * Wikis that wish to replace the "indefinitely" button in Special:Block for temporary accounts (for example, wikis that block temporary users only until account expiration) will be able to do so by creating [[MediaWiki:ipb-indefinite-expiry-temporary-account]] with the block duration they want. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T427125] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:41}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:41|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * By the end of June, a valid user-agent string will be required for automated dumps downloads from the dumps.wikimedia.org website. Automated requests that provide a generic or empty user-agent will be blocked. This [[phab:T400119|extends enforcement]] of the long standing [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Wikimedia Foundation User-Agent Policy|user-agent policy]]. Access to dumps through Wikimedia Cloud Services will not change. * The roll out of global [[mw:Wikimedia APIs/Rate limits|API rate limits]] is now complete, with limits enforced across all APIs and at the documented levels for all groups. Bots running in Toolforge/WMCS or with the bot user right on any wiki remain exempt. All bots should continue to follow the documented best practices to avoid being rate limited. * The [https://api.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page API Portal wiki] will be read only starting this week (June 15-18). The following week (June 22-25), all API Portal wiki URLs will redirect to [[mw:Wikimedia APIs|Wikimedia APIs on mediawiki.org]]. Learn more on the [[wikitech:API Portal/Deprecation|project page]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.7|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * On June 17th at 6pm UTC the WMF will be holding Discord call focused on a code review. We've heard through the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Developer Satisfaction Survey/2026|Developer Satisfaction Survey]] that volunteers are struggling with code review and we'd like to discuss these experiences with the goal of surfacing workable solutions. You can join the call [https://discord.gg/wikipedia?event=1514727511102062664 via the Wikimedia Community Discord server]. * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Conferencia Wikimedia de América Latina 2026|Latin American Wikimedia Conference]] will host a regional hackathon that will bring together the Wikimedia movement’s technical community including developers, system administrators, data scientists, and users with extended rights. Interested technical contributors can [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSf4osJzTHBJjQbYJk7TMVEJjTEQv7IgtsUDfP-o-qTgeRQQxw/viewform apply for a scholarship] to participate until June 21 at midnight (Bolivia time, UTC-4). * Sign up for Wikimania Team Challenges to join this special event. The Team challenges will take place online and in person from July 21 to 22, before Wikimania conference. Everyone is welcome, regardless of skills or Wikimania registration. Teams will work on 10 important challenges supporting the Wikimedia community. For details, visit [[wmania:Special:MyLanguage/2026:Team challenges|the Team Challenges page]] and [https://wikimedia.eventyay.com/wm/teamchallenges/ register there]. Registration closes on June 20th at 11pm UTC. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/25|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W25"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 16:48, 15 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30689604 --> == Tech News: 2026-26 == <section begin="technews-2026-W26"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/26|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature summary|Growth features]] are [[phab:T418115|now available at Wikidata]]. This update enables access to Mentorship ([[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Mentorship|if configured]]), Impact module, the Help Panel, and a simplified Newcomer Homepage (without Suggested Edits). Wikidata administrators are still configuring the features through Community Configuration. '''Updates for editors''' * The special page [[{{#special:RangeCalculator}}]] has been created. It allows users to find an IP range without needing to rely on external tools. Until now, this tool was only available to CheckUsers. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T268429] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|Sub-referencing]] is a new MediaWiki feature that allows editors to reuse references with different details. It will be deployed to most small and medium-sized Wikipedia language versions on June 23. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#deployment|FAQ]] lists possible actions to take on your wiki to support the deployment. Check the [[:phab:T414094|rollout plan]] for the next deployment steps. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T428902] * Starting next week, users will get a notification when they are blocked or unblocked from editing, or if this block changes. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T100974] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:32}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:32|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Starting next week, abuse filters that are set to "require CAPTCHA verification" will begin to also affect users with the <code>skipcaptcha</code> right, which includes most autoconfirmed users. Bots are exempted. This change only affects edits that trigger an abuse filter. The <code>skipcaptcha</code> right will continue to exempt users from having to solve CAPTCHAs in the ordinary course of using the wikis. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T402595] * Reference documentation for the [[wikitech:Machine_Learning/LiftWing/API|Lift Wing API]] has moved from the API Portal to the interactive [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?api=lift-wing&title=Special%3ARestSandbox REST Sandbox]. * The API Portal wiki is now closed. For API documentation, see [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_APIs|Wikimedia APIs on mediawiki.org]]. All API Portal wiki URLs (https://api.wikimedia.org/wiki/) will redirect to the mediawiki.org page starting June 22. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T427537] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.8|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * Join an online call on 25 June at 2:30pm UTC to meet the current Wikimedia interns for [[mw:Google_Summer_of_Code/2026|Google Summer of Code]] and [[mw:Outreachy/Round_32|Outreachy]]. Interns will provide an overview of their projects and a brief demo of their work so far. Attendees are encouraged to [[mw:event:Google_Summer_of_Code/Summer_2026_June_Internship_open_session|share ideas and connections in their community]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/26|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W26"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 13:05, 23 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30722494 --> == Tech News: 2026-27 == <section begin="technews-2026-W27"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/27|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * As part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Account Creation Experiments|Account Creation Experiments]], the Growth team tested adding a user account icon in the mobile web header for logged-out users, providing direct access to "Create account" and "Log in" actions. The experiment increased account creation by about 20% without negatively affecting edit quality or constructive edit rates. The feature will now be rolled out to all Wikimedia Foundation wikis on mobile web in the first week of July. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T428220] * After a [[phab:T426248|successful experiment]], logged-in users who did not [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Email_confirmation|confirm their email address]] when their account was created see a new banner asking them to complete that process. This helps reduce the risk that users get locked out of their account, and makes account email addresses overall more reliable. This is part of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Product Safety and Integrity/Account Security|Account Security]] project. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T428292] * An update to [[Special:Search|Search]] is refining how the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>-prefix:</nowiki></code></bdi> behaves when used to exclude results. Previously, using <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>-prefix:</nowiki></code></bdi> with negation could unintentionally broaden search results by adding the namespaces included in the search scope, leading to confusing behavior for users expecting a straightforward exclusion filter. With the update, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>-prefix:</nowiki></code></bdi> will now strictly exclude matching page titles as intended and may display a warning if the relevant namespace has not been explicitly selected. The behavior of <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>prefix:</nowiki></code></bdi> without negation however remains unchanged. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T427443] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:33}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:33|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where reviewers using the Page Curation toolbar were not automatically subscribed to talk page discussions they started has now been fixed. Reviewers will now receive notifications when someone replies to those discussions. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T329346] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Starting June 29th, automated downloads from the dumps.wikimedia.org website will be subject to the [[Foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Wikimedia Foundation User-Agent Policy|user-agent policy]]. Automated requests that provide a generic or empty user-agent will be blocked. Access to dumps through Wikimedia Cloud Services remains unaffected. This is a follow up to the announcement made in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/25|2026/25 issue of Tech News]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.9|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/27|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W27"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 11:48, 29 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30744833 --> == Tech News: 2026-28 == <section begin="technews-2026-W28"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/28|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:34}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:34|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where the search bar results on Wikidata, showed English results instead of using the correct language fallback for users of language variants, has now been fixed. Search suggestions will now follow the expected language fallback chain. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T429769] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * In preparation for [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Celebrate Women|Celebrate Women campaign]] planned for March 2027, the Wikimedia Foundation’s [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation/Advancement/Community Growth/Content Enablement|Content Enablement team]] has launched a 22-question survey to better understand technical contributions by women+ (anyone who identifies as a woman) across Wikimedia projects. The survey takes approximately 15–20 minutes to complete and will remain open until 20 July 2026. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Celebrate Women/Technical contributions survey|questions]] are also available on-wiki for review in advance. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Score|Score extension]] now supports rendering music scores as SVG images in addition to PNG, addressing a long-standing [[:phab:T49578|feature request]] and resolving historical image quality issues. Both formats are now provided to clients, with PNG in the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>src</nowiki></code></bdi> attribute and SVG in the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>srcset</nowiki></code></bdi> attribute. * The new [[wikitech:Parsoid|Parsoid]] parser [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser_Unification/Updates|continues to be deployed to additional wikis]], making it easier to introduce new reading and editing features. It was enabled on French Wikipedia, bringing total progress to covering 78.9% of Wikipedia page views. Rollout to English Wikipedia desktop will progress through this week. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.10|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The Wikimedia Hackathon 2026 [[diffblog:2026/06/29/wikimedia-hackathon-2026-building-collaborating-and-shaping-the-future-together/|recap blog post]] is now live. It highlights the projects, sessions, and social activities from this year’s event, and shares initial plans for the 2027 Wikimedia Hackathon. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/28|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W28"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 13:57, 6 July 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30773578 --> == Tech News: 2026-29 == <section begin="technews-2026-W29"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/29|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Revise_Tone|Revise Tone]] helps newcomers identify passages in Wikipedia articles that may contain non-encyclopedic language and encourages them to consider revising the tone. The feature was [[w:en:A/B_testing|A/B tested]] on the Arabic, English, French, and Portuguese Wikipedias, where newcomer task completion rates [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Revise_Tone#Experiment_Results|increased by 38.7%]] compared to the default Copyedit task, with no decrease in edit quality. The test ended on July 9, and the feature is now available for everyone on these wikis, configurable via Community Configuration. [[phab:T426364|The plan]] is to release Revise Tone to more wikis. * The community configuration that allows [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Mentorship#Automated mentor list cleanup|automatic removal of inactive mentors]] based on configurable criteria will be enabled on Thursday 16, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Deployment|on some wikis]] to keep mentor lists up to date. Mentors are experienced contributors who opt in to help new users on-wiki through the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Feature summary|Growth Features]]. Administrators can now prepare the settings via [[w:Special:CommunityConfiguration/Mentorship|Special:CommunityConfiguration/Mentorship]]; they will take effect starting Thursday. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:38}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:38|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where some users of the Wikipedia Android app were logged out immediately after signing in, preventing them from staying logged in and editing pages, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T316916] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Editing a page via user scripts or gadgets was causing watchlist labels that the user had assigned to that page to reset. This has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T423778] * To work around a Safari bug (see [[phab:T425211]]), on Parsoid-enabled wikis, wikilink hrefs now use absolute urls instead of protocol-relative urls. REST API output remains unchanged and continue to use protocol-relative urls. Gadgets, user scripts, bots, and CSS might need to be adapted if they relied on the presence of protocol-relative urls in wikilink hrefs. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T431358] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.11|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The Wikimedia Foundation’s Experiment Platform Team has published a blog post reflecting on its first year of structured experimentation. It highlights successful experiments such as Paste Check, Reference Check, and Tone Check, which improved editing outcomes and have been rolled out to more users, as well as experiments that did not lead to product changes. [[diffblog:2026/07/07/moving-the-needle-how-we-test-new-ideas-across-wikimedia-projects|Read more]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/29|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W29"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 16:11, 13 July 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30804401 --> == Tech News: 2026-31 == <section begin="technews-2026-W31"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/31|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[File:Maki-gift-15.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/ContentTranslation|Content Translation]] now supports dark mode, fulfilling a [[m:Community Wishlist/W544|Community Wishlist request]]. This brings the tool in line with the accessibility features available in the Vector 2022 and Minerva skins, helping reduce visual fatigue for users translating content. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T367077] * DiscussionTools' source mode and the 2017 wikitext editor will now offer autocomplete for links (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>[[</nowiki></code></bdi>), templates (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{{</nowiki></code></bdi>), HTML and parser tags (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki><</nowiki></code></bdi>), and magic words (<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>__</nowiki></code></bdi>), making it quicker and easier to insert links, templates, and other wiki markup while editing. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T432400] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth/Mobile page previews|Readers Growth team]] has concluded its experiment with mobile page previews and will not roll out the feature. Page Previews are a pop-up bottom sheet that appears when readers tap a blue link, showing a thumbnail, lead paragraph, and an option to open the article. The experiment showed flat retention and negative indicator metrics, suggesting that mobile web readers preferred navigating directly to linked articles rather than using page previews. * The Reader Experience team has seen encouraging early results from the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists|Reading Lists feature]], with 93% of participating users reporting that it was useful. Reading Lists help active readers save articles for future reading and support their learning goals on Wikimedia projects. The team plans further improvements before expanding the feature to more users. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Explore Feed Refresh|Explore Feed Refresh]] initiative was tested with new and casual Wikipedia app readers. The refreshed feed helps readers discover new and relevant content. After a 10.5% increase in engagement with the feed, Wikimedia Apps team has decided to scale the Home Feed redesign to iOS with the learnings from the Android release applied. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:23}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:23|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where subject names in the Article Guidance feature were displayed with incorrect capitalization on French Wikipedia, has now been fixed. Subject names will now follow the correct capitalization rules for the language. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T427201] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * After running several [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Account Creation Experiments|Account Creation Experiments]] to improve registration completion rates, a new version of the username field on [[Special:CreateAccount|Create Account]] has been rolled out. It includes [[:c:File:Create account - July 2026 updates.png|a popover summarizing the username policy]] to provide clearer guidance during account creation. As part of this change, the messages <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>createacct-helpusername</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>createacct-username-help</nowiki></code></bdi> that several communities have configured will no longer be used. If communities want to customize the guidance shown in the new popover, they can instead edit the following messages: <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>createacct-username-policy-popover-bullet1</nowiki></code></bdi>, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>createacct-username-policy-popover-bullet2</nowiki></code></bdi>, and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>createacct-username-policy-popover-bullet3</nowiki></code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T430604] * Later this week, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror syntax highlighter]] will offer [[w:en:Theme (computing)|themes]]. The themes can be picked from a dropdown menu in the full [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror#CodeMirror preferences|CodeMirror preferences]] dialog. For wikitext, available themes are default, colorblind-friendly (previously the colorblind preference option on [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-editing]]) and no-highlighting. For code languages (i.e., CSS/JavaScript/JSON/Vue/Lua), there are several themes available. These same themes will eventually be available for wikitext, too. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T163533] * From now on, wikis can restrict editing in the "User" namespace to only the page owner and certain user groups. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:$wgRestrictUserPageEditing|Read the configuration documentation]] to learn more. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.14|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/31|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W31"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:49, 27 July 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30856308 --> == Tech News: 2026-32 == <section begin="technews-2026-W32"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/32|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience|Reader Experience team]] has developed a [https://82db7c8d4b.catalyst.wmcloud.org/w/index.php?title=Regent%27s_Park&uselang=de patch demo] that wraps the page toolbar onto two lines when there is not enough horizontal space for all the buttons. This aims to reduce crowding in the Vector 2022 toolbar, which can occur on some language Wikipedias at certain screen widths. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T429518] * The Reader Experience team is planning to launch [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists|Reading Lists]], a [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist Survey 2021/Mobile and apps/Have Apps reading lists available on Destop/Mobile|Community Wishlist item]], which is currently available to try in beta, as a full feature in September. Before then, volunteer translator help is needed for [https://translatewiki.net/w/i.php?title=Special%3ATranslate&group=ext-readinglists&filter=&action=translate string translations] into a number of languages. The feature supports reading and learning goals on Wikipedia. * Next week, the table of contents on Wikimedia Commons file pages will be improved by consolidating the file page table of contents with the page table of contents. This will make it easier to understand a file page’s structure, navigate to specific sections, and share links to individual sections. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T332644] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:24}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:24|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where some [[w:TIFF|TIFF]] images failed to load after clicking their thumbnail, causing a broken image to be displayed instead of the full-size image, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T429326] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The variable and function selector in AbuseFilter has been updated to support search and autocomplete. It will allow filter maintainers to find the desired variable or function more quickly. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T323698] * The MJPEG and VP8 formats are removed from the video player. The MP4 format (MPEG-4 Part 2) is added instead, which provides higher quality videos to older iPhone devices. It may take a few weeks to retroactively update all existing videos. The default format for modern devices stays the same (VP9/WebM). [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T358266] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.15|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/32|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W32"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 19:46, 3 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30872536 --> == Tech News: 2026-33 == <section begin="technews-2026-W33"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/33|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[File:Maki-gift-15.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Wishlist item]] A new ChartWizard is [[c:Special:ChartWizard/Data:Example.Pie.chart|now available on Wikimedia Commons]] for users interested in creating charts from their own data. The wizard makes the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart|Chart extension]] more beginner-friendly by allowing editors to create charts, such as bar and pie charts, without needing to use JSON. Users can still switch to the JSON editor if they prefer. Feedback on the new tool is welcome on the [[m:Talk:Community Wishlist/W414|wish talk page]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:19}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:19|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where the Wikipedia iOS app’s Picture of the Day widget displayed the same image every day instead of updating daily, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T430692] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Math|Math formula]] SVG images will soon be generated in the browser instead of on the server. MathML continues to be generated on the server and renders in the browser without JavaScript. Wikibooks will see this change on 12 August, Wikisource on 19 August and Wikipedia from 20-27 August. You can try this by selecting "{{int:Mw-math-mathjax}}" in your preferences. This change is part of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/RESTBase/deprecation|deprecating RESTBase]] and [[phab:T431372|deprecating Mathoid]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T271001] * Category pages will soon support sorting entries by the time they are added to a category. This will make it easier to find recently or long-standing categorized pages. It will also improve workflows for maintenance categories such as deletion backlogs and other time-based review tasks. You can use <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>cldsort=timestamp</nowiki></code></bdi> URL argument in category view to sort the entries. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433768] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Gadgets|Gadgets]] and user scripts on Wikimedia wikis may now use [[phab:T395347|ES2018 features]] and [[phab:T419142|ES2019 features]] in JavaScript code. Previously, the platform only allowed up to ES2017. MediaWiki validates the source code to protect functionality from syntax errors and to ensure scripts are valid in all [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Compatibility#Browser_support_matrix|supported browsers]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T419142] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.16|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/33|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W33"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:45, 10 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30901051 --> == Tech News: 2026-34 == <section begin="technews-2026-W34"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/34|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents/Registration/Worklist|Worklist feature]] for the Event Registration tool is now live on all Wikimedia wikis. With Worklist, event organizers can add the articles their event will focus on directly to the event page. The Worklist also powers [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CampaignEvents/Registration/Worklist#How Event Pathways uses the worklist|Event Pathways]] which notifies other editors of the upcoming or ongoing event when they edit an article featured in the event's Worklist. This is the minimum viable version (MVP), and feedback is welcome. Organizers are encouraged to try the feature. A hands-on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Worklist Setup Workshop: Get Your Event Ready|Worklist Setup Workshop]] will take place on 18 August at 16:00 UTC and 19 August at 11:00 UTC. '''Updates for editors''' * [[Special:ShortPages]] displays short pages by their size, but in many cases it gets filled with disambiguations and soft redirects, making it harder to find the short articles themselves. Starting this weekend, you will be able to choose not to include an article in the special page by adding the magic word <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>__EXPECTSHORTPAGE__</nowiki></code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433203] * One new wiki has been created: a {{int:project-localized-name-group-wikipedia/en}} in [[d:Q3436680|Bole]] ([[w:bol:|<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>w:bol:</nowiki></code></bdi>]]) [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T429921] * Starting the week of August 17, the page toolbar will wrap onto two lines when there is not enough horizontal space for all the buttons. This is a [[phab:T429518|fully merged patch from the Reader Experience team]] which aims to reduce crowding in the Vector 2022 toolbar, that may occur on some language Wikipedias at certain screen widths. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:16}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:16|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, uploading large files to Wikimedia Commons has become more stable and less prone to failure following some fixes related to the “Could not acquire lock” upload error. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T386640] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Debian Bullseye will reach the end of its Long Term Support on 31 August 2026. [[phab:T434103|Some Cloud VPS projects]] still have instances running Debian Bullseye. Maintainers of those projects are encouraged to migrate to Debian Bookworm or Debian Trixie. A [[wikitech:Help:Cloud VPS instance operating system migration|migration guide]] is available to help with the process, and users may also want to consider whether their workload is better suited to Toolforge. If you need help or cannot complete the migration by 31 August, please contact the Cloud VPS admins as soon as possible. [[listarchive:list/cloud-announce@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/RVIPQSYLKMSL5M46JP6NEJVGVE6I2RXQ/|Read more]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.16|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/34|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W34"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:03, 17 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30922806 --> == Tech News: 2026-35 == <section begin="technews-2026-W35"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/35|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * The [[Special:CreateAccount|Special:CreateAccount]] page has been simplified as part of ongoing work to modernize the account creation experience. The panel showing project statistics no longer appears next to the form on desktop and mobile web. Multiple account creation experiments show that a simpler form helps newcomers complete registration. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433783] * In order to improve page performance, images now load when they are viewed. This means images lower down an article will not load if a reader never scrolls to that part of the page, which may affect some image-related metrics. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T148047] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:42}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:42|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where image thumbnails in Abstract Wikipedia could fail to display after the corresponding file was moved on Wikimedia Commons, has now been fixed. Thumbnails will now update correctly when files are moved. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433448] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * User Info card is a feature that helps patrollers see information about user accounts. So far, it has been available only in places such as page history, logs and recent changes. Now, it's possible to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CheckUser#User_Info_card_in_page_content|place it in the page content]] as well, using the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{{#uic:}}</nowiki></code></bdi> parser function. It can be particularly useful in templates like [[:en:Template:Userlinks|<bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{{Userlinks}}</nowiki></code></bdi>]] (or their specialized variants), as it will make it easier to see the context about a user on various noticeboard pages. The card will be displayed only to users who have it enabled in their [[Special:Preferences#mw-input-wpcheckuser-userinfocard-enable|preferences]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T424466] * Due to user security and privacy risks, we have disabled access to <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>Special:MyPage</nowiki></code></bdi> URLs when specifically using <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>action=raw</nowiki></code></bdi>. If you are impacted by this, consider whether you can use an alternative approach. <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>Special:MyPage</nowiki></code></bdi> URLs can still be accessed and used without <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>action=raw</nowiki></code></bdi>. Specified user page URLs (e.g. <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>User:Myusername</nowiki></code></bdi>) can still be used with <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>action=raw</nowiki></code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T120386] * Due to an update, the thumbnailing software has been improved. This includes upgrading <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>librsvg</nowiki></code></bdi> to 2.60 and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>ImageMagick</nowiki></code></bdi> to 7, as well as resolving a number of long-standing thumbnailing bugs like rendering errors. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T419815#12222841] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.17|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/35|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W35"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:45, 24 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30961208 --> == Tech News: 2026-36 == <section begin="technews-2026-W36"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/36|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * A new format for the Community Wishlist is open for feedback. You can [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Community Wishlist 2027|read the proposed ideas on Meta]]. This new process plans to improve how wishes are triaged, voted on, and prioritized in a way that is transparent and balanced across project families and language editions. This consultation is open for two weeks. '''Updates for editors''' * The latest release of the Wikipedia Android app includes updates to the Saved feature, bringing the app’s saving experience closer to iOS and Web. The update redesigns the Saved tab with an “All articles” view, removes the default “Saved” reading list, renames reading lists to “Collections,” and modernizes the article-saving experience. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T420788] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists|Reading Lists]] feature was enabled for all logged-in users on Bengali, Chinese, Czech and Vietnamese Wikipedias on August 25, after several months as a beta feature. Reading Lists will be available to all logged-in users on Arabic, French and Indonesian Wikipedias on September 1, followed by English Wikipedia on September 14, and all other Wikipedia wikis on September 28. * At the end of the month, some logged-out readers on Bengali, Czech, Persian, English, and Polish Wikipedias using the Minerva skin on mobile will see an [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Growth/Minimal_Minerva|updated navigation bar]] in an [[w:A/B test|A/B test]]. The test will compare the current navigation bar with a new version designed to make it easier to find information more quickly. The goal is to determine whether these changes encourage readers to return more often. This experiment will not change the experience for logged-in readers and/or editors. * Editors who maintain redirects, templates, and categories used on redirect pages now have improved ways for finding and curating redirects. Previously, redirects pages could not be searched. Two new search keywords, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>onlyredirects:</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>withredirects:</nowiki></code></bdi>, now allow redirects to be searched directly and can be combined with existing keywords such as <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>incategory:</nowiki></code></bdi>, <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>intitle:</nowiki></code></bdi>, and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>insource:</nowiki></code></bdi>. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T204089] * The ISBN lookup tools for generating citations were recently not working because of external service problems. Developers are working on solutions. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T435179] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:30}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:30|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where searching for pages by category using <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>deepcat</nowiki></code></bdi> could return no results or unrelated results has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T414859] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The domain of URLs for thumbnails is changing from upload.wikimedia.org to thumb.wikimedia.org. The old URLs will continue to work for the foreseeable future but MediaWiki will advertise the new domain instead. URLs to other types of media such as original files, videos and transcodes will still be served from upload.wikimedia.org. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T427465] * The Wikimedia [https://www.mediawiki.org/w/index.php?api=wmf-math%2Fv1&title=Special%3ARestSandbox Math API] is now deprecated. These endpoints will be fully sunset by the end of September 2026. Developers who call these endpoints should transition to alternative math rendering solutions, such as the native [https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/MathML MathML] or [https://www.mathjax.org/ MathJax]. Third-party MediaWiki installations that utilize the Math extension for formula rendering are required to upgrade to v1.43+ to avoid disruption of service. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.18|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * Read more about [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit_check/TextMatch|TextMatch]] in a Diff post titled, [[diffblog:2026/08/28/custom-edit-suggestions-for-every-wiki-how-communities-are-shaping-suggestion-mode-with-textmatch/|Custom edit suggestions for every wiki: How communities are shaping Suggestion Mode with TextMatch]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/36|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W36"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 20:53, 31 August 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=30990659 --> == Tech News: 2026-37 == <section begin="technews-2026-W37"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/37|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Growth/Tools/Add_a_link|Add a Link]] has been upgraded for English Wikipedia users with improved detection of links that have different capitalization. This will help reduce ambiguous suggestions caused by differences in capitalization in article titles, including articles about cultural goods. A second phase of improvements is planned, which will also prepare the feature for release in other languages. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T435526#12240876] [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T434259] * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article_guidance|Article guidance]] feature will be enabled by default for junior editors on Simple English and Turkish Wikipedia starting 10 September 2026 following [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Article_guidance/Updates#Summary_of_experiment_result|an experiment]]. Junior editors with 0 to 99 edits will automatically see the feature when they click a red link or use the "[[tr:Vikipedi:Madde_sihirbazı|Madde oluşturto]]" option on Turkish Wikipedia to create a new article. The change is intended to help junior editors create higher-quality articles that meet each Wikipedia’s standards. [[phab:maniphest/query/z3tcTjmLMxk5/#R|Additional improvements]] will continue based on the experiment results and community feedback. * The [https://pageviews.wmcloud.org Pageviews Analysis] tool which allows users to compare pageviews across multiple pages, turns 10 years old this year and several new features have been added. They include [[toolforge:wikinav|WikiNav]] which provides insights into how readers of Wikipedia explore the content, editing stats in [https://pageviews.wmcloud.org/siteviews?range=latest-30&sites=en.wikipedia.org Siteviews], the ability to [https://pageviews.wmcloud.org/massviews?source=wikiproject&project=en.wikipedia.org lookup articles belonging to a WikiProject], and support for dark mode. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T378549] * A [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Growth/Minimal_Minerva|visually simplified Minerva]] navigation bar is being tested for logged-out readers using mobile web on the Bengali, Czech, English, Farsi, and Polish Wikipedias. The experiment aims to determine whether simplifying the navigation improves reader retention. The test will run from August 31 to September 28, and no action is required from users. * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes|WMDE Technical Wishes]] is working on improving [[en:Wikipedia:VisualEditor/Named references|auto-generated reference names in VisualEditor]]. Editors will only notice a slight change starting this week. When adding automatic reference names the numbering will start at <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>:1</nowiki></code></bdi> instead of <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>:0</nowiki></code></bdi>. Read more on the [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/References/VisualEditor automatic reference names|project page]]. [https://gerrit.wikimedia.org/r/c/VisualEditor/VisualEditor/+/1332704] * All wikis will be [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|read-only for a few minutes]] on September 23. This is planned at 14:00 UTC. More information will be published in Tech News and will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming weeks. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433363] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:25}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:25|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid|Parsoid]] could mishandle nested nowiki tags, causing content to be lost and displaying unwanted text has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T435116] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Interface administrators can configure gadgets from [[MediaWiki:Gadgets-definition]]. The definition format has been updated and no longer requires the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>ResourceLoader</nowiki></code></bdi> option, as gadgets are always loaded through <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>ResourceLoader</nowiki></code></bdi>. This simplifies gadget configuration by removing an option that is no longer necessary, making gadget definitions easier for administrators. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T298199] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.19|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/37|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W37"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:44, 7 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31008437 --> == Tech News: 2026-38 == <section begin="technews-2026-W38"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/38|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The Future Audiences team has started a [[en:Special:MyLanguage/Wikipedia:Village pump (proposals)#New proposed experiment to let readers know about “Google preferred sources”|discussion on English Wikipedia]] about a proposed new experiment to show a temporary notice about the new [https://blog.google/products-and-platforms/products/search/original-high-quality-content-search/ Google Preferred Sources] feature to Wikipedia readers coming from Google. The experiment is to test whether this notice makes visitors come back to Wikipedia more often. Preferred Sources feature lets users choose websites they trust so Google can highlight content from those sources more prominently in Search and AI experiences. We are interested in testing this on other languages that Google supports and would welcome assistance with starting conversations on other wikis. If interested, please reach out to Future Audiences on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Future Audiences/Preferred sources|talk page]]. '''Updates for editors''' * The chat platform Discord is releasing a new self-service framework that websites can use to specify how their links should look when shared on Discord. The Future Audiences team is planning to start using this new framework to improve how Wikipedia links look when shared on Discord, giving better attribution and credit to contributors. The link appearance and behavior won't change in the first phase of this project as we want to first collect some baseline data to assess the impact of future changes. However, if community members who are active on Discord spot any issues, they can reach out on [[phab:tag/future-audiences/|Phabricator]] or [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Future Audiences|Metawiki]]. * The Reader Growth team will be running an experiment to test whether [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Growth/Compact Lead|compacting article lead sections on mobiles]] with the addition of a "read more" button improves reader retention. The test will begin on September 17 on Arabic, Spanish, French, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Vietnamese, and Chinese Wikipedias and will run for four weeks. * All wikis will be [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|read-only for a few minutes]] on September 23. This is planned at 14:00 UTC. More information will be published in Tech News and will also be posted on individual wikis in the coming week. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433363] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:28}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:28|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where [https://wikistats.wmcloud.org/ Wikistats] for Wikipedias was returning an HTTP 500 error and could not be reached, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T435959] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Developers who maintain a tool that queries the Wikimedia Commons links tables need to update their code to connect to the new x4 database cluster. The links tables have been moved from the s4 cluster to x4, and will no longer receive updates on s4. The page and redirect tables remain available on both clusters. A wiki replica for the x4 cluster will be set up afterwards. The change is being made because the s4 cluster has grown too large to operate efficiently. You can [[wikitech:Special:MyLanguage/News/2026 Commons links tables database split|read more]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.20|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/38|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W38"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 15:31, 14 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31039826 --> == Tech News: 2026-39 == <section begin="technews-2026-W39"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/39|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|All wikis will be read-only]] for a few minutes on Wednesday, 23 September 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1790172000 14:00 UTC]. This is for the datacenter server switchover backup tests, [[wikitech:Special:MyLanguage/Deployments/Yearly calendar|which happen twice a year]]. During the switchover, all Wikimedia website traffic is shifted from one primary data center to the backup data center to test availability and prevent service disruption even in emergencies. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433363] '''Updates for editors''' * The Growth team tested a new post-edit notice designed to [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Contributors/Account Creation Experiments#4. Encourage Temporary Accounts to Register|encourage Temporary Account holders to register for a permanent account]]. The new notice replaced multiple dialogs and a simultaneous welcome notification with a single message highlighting the benefits of creating an account. The experiment increased permanent account creation from 1.94% to 3.66%, an 87% relative increase. The change will now be released to all wikis. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433551] * For Wikipedia editors using the [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|"Suggestion mode" Beta Feature]], there is a [[Special:Preferences#mw-input-wpvisualeditor-editcheck-experimental|new opt-in user preference]] for showing "experimental" edit checks and suggestions. These types are listed at [[Special:EditChecks#experimental-checks|Special:EditChecks]], and are intended for early developer-testing and for gathering feedback from experienced users. Administrators can change the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/Configuration|configuration details]] for each suggestion as usual. Administrators can also [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Suggestion mode#Experimental Suggestions|use this feature]] to help test their community's ideas for locally created checks and suggestions. Experimental types will have a more distinct visual style later this week. [[mw:Talk:VisualEditor/Suggestion Mode|Feedback is welcome]]. * The [[m:CEE Technical Village Pump|CEE Technical Village Pump]] has been launched as a space for technical discussions and collaboration among Wikimedia communities in Central and Eastern Europe. * A new tool, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Language Onboarding and Development/Starter kit|Starter Kit]], is now available for new and small language Wikipedia communities. It brings together guided tasks, tools, and resources to help communities get started, monitor their progress, and collaborate with the broader Wikimedia community. Starter Kit is hosted on Wikimedia Toolforge and is designed for Wikipedias with fewer than 50,000 articles. Learn more about how Starter Kit works and how communities have been using it in [[diffblog:2026/09/18/introducing-starter-kit-for-new-and-small-language-wikipedias/|this Diff blog post]]. * The Reader Growth team is launching a retest of the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth/Image Browsing|image carousel experiment]]. The retest will use three new versions of the design, updated based on community feedback. The team will assess results and determine with communities whether or not to proceed with the feature. The experiment will begin the week of September 28 and will run on Arabic, Bengali, Chinese, Czech, English, Farsi, French, German, Indonesian, Japanese, Polish, Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish, and Vietnamese Wikipedias. * After successful rollouts to Arabic, Bengali, Chinese, Czech, English, French, Indonesian, and Vietnamese Wikipedias, the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists|Reading Lists feature]] from the Reader Experience team will be available to all logged-in users on all Wikipedia wikis starting September 28. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:28}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:28|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where the mentor status script repeatedly updated mentors’ status even when nothing had changed, creating unnecessary Recent Changes entries, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T436659] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>abusefilters</nowiki></code></bdi> list query API, used to retrieve specific details about active or historical abuse filters configured on a wiki, has been updated to support the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>formatversion=2</nowiki></code></bdi> configuration parameter, thereby leading to breaking changes to the API response. All users who maintain user-scripts or other code need to check if they use the <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>abusefilters</nowiki></code></bdi> list query API, and respond to any breaking changes. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T435828] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.21|MediaWiki]] '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/39|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W39"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 11:56, 27 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31085309 --> == Tech News: 2026-40 == <section begin="technews-2026-W40"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/40|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * Users of default skins on desktop and mobile web (Vector 2022 and Minerva respectively) will now be informed if the search suggestions displayed as they type into Search come from page redirects. Previously, users could get confused when the top search suggestions did not match exactly what they had typed. The new redirect notice clarifies that these suggestions are not random, but related to the search. The suggested pages may be redirects to the most relevant destination articles being searched for. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T303013] * Logged-out Wikipedia users on mobile web will begin to see a bookmark button for saving articles to their [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Experience/Reading lists|reading lists]] instead of the current Watchstar button. When clicked, the bookmark button prompts users to log in or create an account to save an article for later. An earlier experiment found that the bookmark icon was four times more likely than the Watchstar button to encourage logged-out users to create an account. This change is part of efforts to encourage more readers to become account holders and use features that help them save and return to content. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T438769] * An experiment will begin on September 29 on Spanish, Arabic, English, and French Wikipedias to simplify the experience users encounter immediately after account creation. The test will explore whether removing friction from the current Welcome Survey helps new users understand what to do next more easily. The experiment will run through the end of October. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T430058] * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Product and Technology Advisory Council|Product and Technology Advisory Council]] has put out a call for the community to suggest topics that it should consider and discuss with the Wikimedia Foundation. Editors and technical contributors are invited to add topics to [[m:Talk:Product and Technology Advisory Council|the council's talk page]]. * Later this week, it will be possible for communities to configure [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Edit check|Edit Checks and Suggestions]] so that they are [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/Configuration#extraNamespaces|shown within additional namespaces]], such as a <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>Draft:</nowiki></code></bdi> namespace. [[mw:Talk:VisualEditor/Suggestion Mode|Feedback is welcome]]. * A bug in the [[m:Special:GlobalWatchlist|Global Watchlist]] is causing the page to fail to load for users that have unseen changes on Wikimedia Commons. Developers are working on a fix. Until then, affected users can follow the workarounds described in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:GlobalWatchlist#GlobalWatchlist temporarily broken for users with Wikimedia Commons|relevant]] help section. * New magic words <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{{CATEGORYSORT:TIMESTAMP}}</nowiki></code></bdi> and <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{{CATEGORYSORT:RTIMESTAMP}}</nowiki></code></bdi> are now available for use. They are able to change the default sorting of categories to be based on timestamp of categorization. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433768] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:20}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:20|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the issue where [https://wikistats.wmcloud.org/ Wikistats] for Wikipedias was not reachable has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T435959] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * The datacenter switchover, scheduled on September 23, has been postponed. [[diffblog:2025/03/12/hear-that-the-wikis-go-silent-twice-a-year/|The equinox exercise]] revealed capacity issues, preventing the switch of all services to the other datacenter. The process has been paused, prioritizing investigating that issue, to ensure that we continue to be able to serve our users reliably. A new exercise will be scheduled. Meanwhile, all traffic and edits continue to work as usual. * On September 23, a power loss briefly affected all wikis, creating intermittent issues on both reading and editing modes. This also affected Gerrit. This is unrelated to the datacenter switchover postponement. [https://www.wikimediastatus.net/incidents/9fm19t8qykk8] * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:Produnto|Produnto]] has been deployed to mediawiki.org and [[phab:T421436|some Indic language wikis]]. We want to hear your feedback on this experimental product. Produnto allows users to use Lua modules hosted in [[gitlab:repos/lua|Wikimedia's GitLab]]. It simplifies the sharing of Lua code between wikis. Instead of copying each individual Lua module from one wiki to another, users will be able to easily share packages across all wikis. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.22|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * A [[m:Event:Cross-wiki Code Collaboration Workshop|Cross-wiki code collaboration workshop]] will be held online on October 2 at 12:30 UTC, bringing together South Asian technical contributors to learn about Produnto and begin piloting it on Hindi, Punjabi, Odia, Telugu, and Malayalam Wikipedias. Produnto is a package manager for deploying Lua modules hosted on GitLab to Wikimedia wikis, and was recently deployed on some pilot wikis. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/40|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W40"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 10:49, 28 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31092225 --> == Tech News: 2026-41 == <section begin="technews-2026-W41"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/41|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * The process for this year’s Community Wishlist [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Community Wishlist 2027#Updated Community Wishlist Process 2027/2028|has been published]], incorporating community feedback. The wish submission process will [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/FAQ#What is the deadline for submitting wishes?|end on November 8]]. This year, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/Community Wishlist 2027/Working group|a working group (open for volunteering)]] that includes community members familiar with the technical aspect of our wikis alongside Wikimedia Foundation staff, will take care of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community Wishlist/FAQ#What is triage?|triage process]]. The triage is expected to be completed by late November. Votes for wishes will start in January. '''Updates for editors''' * Editors using the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/VisualEditor|visual editor]] will now see a warning when they paste text that is likely to have initially been copied from one of five external generative AI chatbots into Wikipedia. This feature is known as [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/LLM Paste Check|LLM Paste Check]]. It is a type of [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check|Edit Check]] that is community configurable. The check looks for markers in the copied HTML and is not using content watermark detection. Edits will also [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/LLM Paste Check#Edit tags|be tagged]] so that patrollers can review them more closely. The feature helps newcomers add content that respects Wikipedia’s policies and makes it easier for experienced editors to identify problematic edits. Communities with local policies about LLM usage can [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Edit check/LLM Paste Check#Configuration|adjust the wording and policy that is linked]]. The team [[listarchive:list/translators-l@lists.wikimedia.org/message/EVHKWJ4IERZELMPIWNH3XUVUSQV5KOO4/|apologizes]] that this was rolled out without a delay for translations. * Editors can now easily [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Apps/Team/Future of Editing on the Mobile Apps|access the web visual editor directly from the iOS and Android apps]]. When opening the editor, users will be given a choice between visual editing and source editing. If they choose visual editing, they will be sent to a mobile web window in their phone's browser. After completing their edit, a banner will give them the option to return to the app. This enables readers to make quick contributions while casually reading. * Users of the Wikipedia Android and iOS apps will now see a one-time account creation prompt after they have used the app for two consecutive weeks. This prompt explains the benefits of having an account. It is intended to help more casual readers become logged-in users who return to the apps regularly. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T434847] * Editors on [[wmnoc:conf/dblists/group1.dblist|group1 wikis]], including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Recent changes|Recent Changes]] and [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help: Watching pages|Watchlist]] when a link to another language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on October 5 at 07:00 UTC as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make important changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications can read more on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project page]] and share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T439415] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:36}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:36|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where mentors who removed themselves from the mentorship program could still have mentees assigned to them and receive questions, has now been fixed. Mentees will now be reassigned when a mentor leaves the program. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T418194] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * Wikimedia Brasil has published its [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Brasil/Arcabouço de Boas Práticas de Desenvolvimento|Development Best Practices Framework]] (ABPD). It is a guide for staff, contractors and volunteers building technical tools and projects. It covers the project lifecycle, security, accessibility, personal data protection and responsible AI use, and explains how movement-wide guidelines were adapted to a local context. They encourage other affiliates to reuse it and adapt it. Read more in the [[wmfblog:2026/09/26/wikimedia-brasils-development-best-practices-framework-technical-sustainability-as-an-organizational-responsibility|Diff post]]. * A new, canonical base URL for Wikimedia APIs will soon be introduced. The new canonical route follows a <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{projectName}/api/</nowiki></code></bdi> pattern and will act as an alternative path for current REST APIs (for example: <bdi lang="zxx" dir="ltr"><code><nowiki>{projectName}/w/rest.php/</nowiki></code></bdi>). Both versions will be callable for all existing APIs, but the new structure will be the preferred path for newly created API modules. This change will be non-breaking for most users. The existing pathways will remain available for all existing endpoint requests. However, some endpoints may return URLs following the new pattern in response bodies. Changes will be available on test wiki first, with the rollout expected to cover all wikis by the end of October. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T433535] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.23|MediaWiki]]. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/41|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W41"/> 18:52, 5 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31098825 --> == Tech News: 2026-42 == <section begin="technews-2026-W42"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/42|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * Starting October 13, wikis can change the default pattern for [[:en:Wikipedia:VisualEditor/Named references|auto-generated reference names in VisualEditor]] (currently <syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" inline><ref name=":1" /></syntaxhighlight>). They will be able to use human-readable, content-based reference names that are more helpful to contributors using the source editor (e.g. <syntaxhighlight lang="wikitext" inline><ref name="Miller2026-1" /></syntaxhighlight>). VisualEditor reference name patterns can be defined using MediaWiki system messages, JSON, templates and modules ([[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Cite/VisualEditor reference names|more information]]). Admins can enable these changes via [[Special:CommunityConfiguration/Cite-VisualEditor-Autonames|community configuration]]. This is a [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/W17|community wish]] implemented by [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes|WMDE Technical Wishes]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T436255] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|Sub-referencing]] is a new MediaWiki feature that allows editors to reuse references with different details. It will be deployed to English Wikipedia on October 14 and to remaining Wikimedia Foundation wikis by end of October (likely October 21). The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#deployment|FAQ]] lists possible actions to take on your wiki to support the deployment. This is a [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing/History|long-standing community wish]] implemented by [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes|WMDE Technical Wishes]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T440243][https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T440304] '''Updates for editors''' * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Moderator Tools|Moderator Tools]] will be removing the list view of the Watchlist and defaulting everyone to the changelog view. Previously, there were two versions of how the Watchlist is shown to mobile web users: the list view, where editors could see watched articles in a list format, and the changelog view, where editors could see changes to watched articles in a log format, controlled by a user's Advanced Mobile Control settings. This has created issues for code-base maintenance: two different displays means two sets of code to manage. By defaulting to the changelog view, we are simplifying the codebase and avoiding the likelihood of missing bugs. * The Wikipedia Android app is testing a way to listen to article introductions in the “For you” feed. A text-to-speech model reads the existing article text aloud without rewriting it or adding any content. The 30-day experiment will begin in the Wikipedia Beta app during the third week of September, then move to the regular Wikipedia Android app in October for a limited group of eligible users. A small portion of app users (those with English feeds and at least one topic interest) will have access to the feature. This experiment is part of broader efforts to give app readers options in how they consume content in order to deepen engagement and user retention. [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Listening to Wikipedia/Phase 1|Learn more]] and [[mw:Talk:Readers/Listening to Wikipedia|share feedback]]. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:CodeMirror|CodeMirror syntax highlighting]] was [[phab:T288161|enabled]] by default for all logged out and newly registered users on the English Wikipedia on September 14. With no signs of adverse effects, the same change is being proposed to be made globally across all wikis in a few weeks. If you have concerns or feedback, or if your wiki would like to opt out, [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help talk:Extension:CodeMirror#Enabling CodeMirror by default on all WMF wikis for newbies|please see the help page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T440077] * [[d:Wikidata:Usability_and_usefulness/Item_editing_experience/Mobile_editing_of_statements|Wikidata mobile statement editing]] of all datatypes will be officially launched on October 13, when it will be removed from Wikidata [[d:Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|beta features]] and become available to all editors. Users can [[d:Wikidata_talk:Usability_and_usefulness/Item_editing_experience/Mobile_editing_of_statements|report bugs and share feedback]]. * Last week, language link changes were removed from [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] feeds on Wikivoyage, Wikisource, Wikiversity, Wikiquote and Wiktionary. As no adverse effects have been observed, the [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] plans to roll out this change globally to all Wikipedias. This is scheduled for October 13 at 07:00 UTC, after which editors will no longer see when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. Editors who rely on these notifications can read more on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project page]] and share feedback or ask to opt out their wiki on the [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]]. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T440698] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:28}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:28|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where accidentally touching the graph while scrolling on the Pageviews tool on mobile could unintentionally zoom in has now been fixed. Click-and-drag zoom is now disabled on touch devices. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T440075] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * There are three major changes coming to dumps: the legacy content dumps [https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/xmldatadumps-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/E6D5EU4PMSTSOI2J7A46HJ3YW2W554CS/ deprecated in January 2026] will now be sunset, the replacement [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/MediaWiki_Content_File_Exports MediaWiki Content File Exports] will be delayed to implement a “safety buffer”, and they are now also available as 7zip-compressed files. Users will need to switch the URL they download their dump from. For more information, timeline and migration instructions, see [https://wikitech.wikimedia.org/wiki/Legacy_content_dumps_sunset Legacy content dumps sunset]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.47/wmf.24|MediaWiki]] '''In depth''' * The Wikimedia Foundation discovered unauthorized activity by OpenAI agents on Wikimedia projects, including edits to wikis, attempts to exploit a public note-taking tool, and heavy automated traffic. [[diffblog:2026/10/05/openai-rogue-agent-activities-found-on-wikimedia-projects/|Read the blog post on Diff]] for more details about the activity and the Foundation’s response. '''Meetings and events''' * Save the date for the next Wikimedia Hackathon! We’ll be meeting in lovely Tirana, Albania for the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Wikimedia%20Hackathon%202027 2027 Wikimedia Hackathon] from April 9–11, 2027. Scholarship and staff sponsorship applications are currently being [https://pretix.eu/wikimedia/Hackathon-2027/ accepted through Pretix] and will close on October 30, 2026. General registration will open in January 2027. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/42|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W42"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 07:40, 13 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31142468 --> == Tech News: 2026-43 == <section begin="technews-2026-W43"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/43|Translations]] are available. '''Updates for editors''' * To measure the impact of incorporating some [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Growth/Image_Browsing#November 2025: Ideas and feedback|community-requested features]] on logged-out reader retention, a test for [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Growth/Image_Browsing|Image Carousel]] will be pushed to logged-out readers. With the Image Carousel feature, readers browse community-uploaded images, selected by editors as relevant to specific articles. The test starts on November 20. * An experimental notice will be pushed to 0.5% of logged-out mobile readers who come to English Wikipedia from Google, asking them to add Wikipedia as a [https://blog.google/products-and-platforms/products/search/preferred-sources/ Google Preferred Source]. The test is to see if this notice increases reader retention and encourages people who use Google Search to visit Wikipedia more often. It will run from October 15–29 and will be assessed for its impact on retention and referrals. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:26}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:26|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, an issue where [[quarry:|Quarry]] returned an “Access denied” error when users tried to run SQL queries, preventing queries from running normally, has now been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T440966] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[File:Cog-icon-grey.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Advanced item]] Due to a long-standing bug, applications that use the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/OAuth/For_Developers|OAuth 2]] client credentials flow to act on their owners’ behalf are treated as if they are logged out. This will be fixed for new applications registered on or after Monday, October 19. Some affected applications need to re-register. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T420297] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.48/wmf.1|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * A proposal to hold the Wikimedia Hackathon every three years, with regional hackathons in between, [[mw:Wikimedia Hackathon/Community Proposal 2026|has been shared]]. It explores making the event more accessible to technical communities in different regions. Share your feedback on the proposal’s [[mw:Talk:Wikimedia Hackathon/Community Proposal 2026|talk page]] before November 6. '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/43|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W43"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 14:38, 19 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31178499 --> == Tech News: 2026-44 == <section begin="technews-2026-W44"/><div class="plainlinks"> Latest '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|tech news]]''' from the Wikimedia technical community. Please tell other users about these changes. Not all changes will affect you. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/44|Translations]] are available. '''Weekly highlight''' * An experiment launched on September 29 is testing [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader_Experience/Reading_recommendations|article recommendations]] for new account holders who also identify as readers. By suggesting articles to read, similar to recommendations in the Wikipedia app for logged-in readers, the experiment aims to encourage new account holders to read and return to the website regularly, with the goal of increasing internal referrals by 1%. See the related [[m:Community Wishlist/W505|Community Wishlist]] proposal. * Several Wikimedia services were taken offline last week because of a [https://www.php.net/archive/2026.php#2026-10-20-1 security vulnerability in PHP]. This is because they need to be updated before they are safe to put back online. This is not a problem just for the Wikimedia movement but affects a lot of websites. You can follow updates on [[wikitech:Incidents/2026-10-21 PHP security update/Community|Wikitech]]. Cloud VPS and Toolforge will take longer to bring back online. This is to make sure that applications which run on Cloud VPS or Toolforge are not affected. Tool developers can see updates and more information on the [https://lists.wikimedia.org/postorius/lists/cloud-announce.lists.wikimedia.org/ Cloud-announce mailing list]. [https://diff.wikimedia.org/2026/10/21/impact-of-php-vulnerabilities-on-wikimedia-tools-and-services/][https://diff.wikimedia.org/2026/10/21/impact-of-php-vulnerabilities-on-wikimedia-cloud-services/] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/43|Last week we shared]] that to measure the impact of incorporating some community-requested features on logged-out reader retention, a test for the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Readers/Reader Growth/Image Browsing|Image Carousel]] feature would be pushed to logged-out readers. Due to an issue, we will be restarting the test, but it will be live on October 26, not November 20 as initially announced. '''Updates for editors''' * A new [[wikitech:KAPOW|bot detection system]] to better identify automated traffic that disguises itself as human visitors, is coming to the Wikimedia wikis. This might cause sudden changes to visitor statistics starting from 26 October, going back to 20 June 2026. * The [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Score|Score extension]] which renders musical notation inside wiki pages, has been temporarily disabled on all wikis due to a security issue. Affected pages will display a notice instead of musical scores, but the underlying code remains intact. No action is needed from editors, and a fix is in progress. A separate announcement will follow when the extension is re-enabled. Read more on [[phab:T441579|Phabricator]]. * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] View all {{formatnum:18}} community-submitted {{PLURAL:18|task|tasks}} that were [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Recently resolved community tasks|resolved last week]]. For example, the issue where CodeMirror syntax highlighter appears to have been enabled in error for existing editors has been fixed. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T441308] '''Updates for technical contributors''' * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|All wikis will be read-only]] for a few minutes on Wednesday, October 28 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1793199600 15:00 UTC]. This is for the datacenter server switchover backup tests, [[wikitech:Deployments/Yearly calendar|which happen twice a year]]. During the switchover, all Wikimedia website traffic is shifted from one primary data center to the backup data center to test availability and prevent service disruption even in emergencies. [https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/T439703] * [[File:Reload icon with two arrows.svg|12px|link=|class=skin-invert|Recurrent item]] Detailed code updates later this week: [[mw:MediaWiki 1.48/wmf.2|MediaWiki]] '''Meetings and events''' * Scholarship and sponsorship applications for the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Wikimedia%20Hackathon%202027 2027 Wikimedia Hackathon] will close on Friday, October 30th. Submit your application [https://pretix.eu/wikimedia/Hackathon-2027/ through Pretix] before the deadline! '''''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News|Tech news]]''' prepared by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/Writers|Tech News writers]] and posted by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:MediaWiki message delivery|bot]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News#contribute|Contribute]]&nbsp;• [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/News/2026/44|Translate]]&nbsp;• [[m:Tech|Get help]]&nbsp;• [[m:Talk:Tech/News|Give feedback]]&nbsp;• [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|Subscribe or unsubscribe]].'' </div><section end="technews-2026-W44"/> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 18:56, 26 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:STei (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Tech_ambassadors&oldid=31199592 --> phpmhtx57khfvvhpft47n4i0mpryom1 0 264381 2842740 2841941 2026-10-26T23:18:35Z Scogdill 1331941 2842740 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg|alt=Old drawing for a magazine of an aristocratic man in a formal suit|thumb|"Kim," Viscount Mandeville, 1882]] == Overview == The Mandeville who was in a relationship with music-hall and vaudeville star Bessie Bellwood was Kim (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892). He was Viscount Mandeville from 18 August 1855 (when his grandfather died) to 22 March 1890 (when his father died).<ref name=":1" /> When he succeeded to the dukedom in 1890, he ended his relationship with Bellwood. His father was the 7th Duke and his mother was [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise Cavendish]], "double Duchess" of [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester|Manchester]] and then [[Social Victorians/People/Devonshire|Devonshire]]. In 1882 Viscount Mandeville (right) was "Man of the Day" (#255) for ''Vanity Fair'', drawn by Leslie Ward ("Spy").<ref>"Viscount Mandeville Vanity Fair 1882-04-22.jpg." Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Viscount_Mandeville_Vanity_Fair_1882-04-22.jpg (retrieved 8 September 2026).</ref> Kim Montagu, Lord Mandeville ended the relationship with Bessie Bellwood sometime during 1890, presumably after acceding to the dukedom. In November of 1890, his son secretly married Helena Zimmerman. == Also Known As == *Family name: Montagu *The title Viscount Mandeville is a courtesy title for the heir apparent and eldest son of the [[Social Victorians/People/Manchester |Duke of Manchester]]. This title is one of only 2 (for the heir apparent of a duke) that is below the rank of Earl (the other is the heir apparent of the Duke of Somerset). (Is Mandeville a toponym?) *Viscount Mandeville **"Kim" (George Victor Drogo) Montagu [8th Duke], (18 August 1855 – 22 March 1890) **[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (22 March 1890 – 18 August 1892) **Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu (2 October 1902 – 9 February 1947)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-15|title=Alexander Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Montagu,_10th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=983660353|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> *Viscountess Mandeville **Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu [8th Duchess] (22 May 1876 – 22 March 1890) **Helena Zimmerman Montagu (14 November 1890 – 18 August 1892) *Lord Kimbolton (Baron Kimbolton of Kimbolton is the courtesy title for the heir presumptive, the heir apparent's eldest son, so the son of Viscount Mandeville<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2026-09-21|title=Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=1375987697|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref>) ** [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke (1877 – 22 March 1890) == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === "Kim" Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 === ==== Friends ==== * Edward Russell, 24th Baron de Clifford * Derrick Westenra, 5th Baron Rossmore * Francis Needham, 3rd Earl of Kilmorey === Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu === ==== Friends ==== *Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was in the intimate circle of [[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales |Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]]. ==Organizations== === "Kim" Montagu, 8th Duke, Lord Mandeville until 1890 === * Eton<ref name=":1" /> === Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu === * Consuelo Iznaga y Clement Montagu was a member of the New York City social set called the Buccaneers when she was a teenager.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&oldid=982192002|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Edith Wharton is said to have taken details from the 8th Duke's marriage for her novel ''The Buccaneers''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-06|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=982188929|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> == Timeline == '''1855 August 18''', the 6th Duke died. The families "placed in mourning" were the following, as listed in the ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Record'':<blockquote>He is succeeded in the Dukedom by his eldest son, Viscount Mandeville, M.P. By the melancholy event the families of the Marquess and Marchioness of Tweeddale, the Duchess of Wellington, the Duke of Montrose, Lord and Lady Olivia Ossulston [?], Lady Eliza [Elisa?] Steele, the Duke of Richmond, the Countess of St Germans, Lady Sophia Cecil, and many others of rank, are placed in mourning.<ref>"Death of the Duke of Manchester." ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Standard'' 22 August 1855, Wednesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 5c [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001177%2F18550822&page=2&article=025&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title ''Edinburgh Evening Post and Scottish Record''; n.p.</ref></blockquote>'''1855 October 11, Wednesday''', H. I. Cridland says in a "Notice,"<blockquote>I will hold Audit Days at Lyttelton, on Wednesday, 11th October, for the receipt of rents and other monies due to the 25th of September, on account of the Soames, Jackson, Ecclesiastical, and Lyttelton Trust Estates, the lands of Lord Mandeville, Lady Emily Bathurst, Lady Olivia Sparrow, Rev. J. P. Rhoades, Rev. Charles Hodge, Dr. Merrion C. T. Maunsell, George Hart, late William Draper, and J. E. Fitz Gerald, Esqrs. ... Tenants are requested to present their last receipt.<ref>"Notice." ''Lyttelton Times'' 6 October 1855, Saturday: 1 [of 10], Col. 3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003346%2F18551006&page=1&article=004&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Newspaper title ''The Lyttelton Times'', n.p. </ref></blockquote>This notice was repeated in the ''Lyttelton Times'' on 29 December 1855. '''1855 October 20, Saturday''', the [[Social Victorians/People/Wilton|Earl and Countess of Wilton]] hosted a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1850s#1855 October 20, Saturday|house party at Heaton Hall]], with a visit to a silk mill in town. [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise, Duchess of Manchester]] was present with the Duke and their son Lord Mandeville (Kim, later 8th Duke), who was 2 years old. '''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and "Kim" (George Victor Drogo, 8th Duke) Montagu married in Grace Church, New York City.<ref name=":0" /> '''1889 December 23''', Lord Mandeville was involved in a [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|boxing match in Bruges, Belgium between British Jem Smith and Australian Frank Slavin]], and the resulting social fallout. === 1890s === '''1890 January 1, Wednesday, New Year's Day''', the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Marchioness of Londonderry's "At Home"|Marchioness of Londonderry]] [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Marchioness of Londonderry's "At Home"|hosted an "At Home" on New Year's Day for 700–800 people]], including people from local neighborhoods. Lady Mandeville was invited, but the Viscount's name is not listed. '''1890 January 5, Sunday''', Viscount Mandeville is mentioned in a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#"A Very Bad Lot"|rant in Reynolds's Newspaper called "A Very Bad Lot,"]] talking about immoral practices in the aristocracy. '''1890 January 6, Monday''', Lady Mandeville was present at [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#11 January 1890, Saturday|Merton with a small party and the Prince of Wales]] during the funeral of Empress Augusta. Also on Monday, 6 January 1890, Viscount Mandeville took part in a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Amicable Gathering of Boxers and Sportsmen|gathering to see "Parson" Davies off on his trip to the US]]. The gathering was amicable, Slavin was there. '''1890 January 10, Friday''', Lady Mandeville was invited to a [[Social Victorians/1890-01-10 Ulster Club Ball|ball at the Ulster Club, Belfast]]. The article in the ''Lady's Pictorial'' says the "principal families in the north of Ireland were invited,"<ref>"Court and Society Notes." ''Lady's Pictorial'' 18 January 1890, Saturday: 44 [of 60], Col. 1b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0005980%2F18900118&page=44. Same print title, p. 94.</ref> but Lord Mandeville is not mentioned. '''1890 January 13, Monday''', Lord Mandeville was an organizer of a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#Wallace-Camp Boxing Match|boxing match between "Nunc" (Edwin) Wallace and George Camp]]. This match was important and Wallace was very important in the history of this sport. Lord Mandeville was also reported to be at an [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Smith-Slavin 1889-12-23|unfair and notorious match in Bruges between a British and an Australian fighter]] that occurred on 23 December 1889. '''1890 January 14, Tuesday, probably, or January 7''', Lord Mandeville was "attacked" in a restaurant by a boxer:<blockquote>The "Evening Post" states that Charles Mitchell, the pugilist, attacked Lord Mandeville and Mr Abington at a West-End restaurant on Tuesday night. They were immediately separated.<ref>''Aberdeen Press and Journal'' 15 January 1890, Wednesday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000032%2F18900115&page=6&article=097&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Aberdeen Weekly Journal'', p. 6.</ref></blockquote>'''1890 January 21, Tuesday''', on or about, Lady Mandeville attended the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 21, Tuesday|wedding of Baron S. Alfred Oppenheim and Miss Florence Hutchins]]. '''1890 January 28, Tuesday''', Lady Mandeville attended what was supposed to be [[Social Victorians/People/Lily Langtry#1890 January 28, Tuesday|Lily Langtry's opening-night performance at the St. James's]] with the Prince of Wales and some of his circle. Also on this date, the ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' reported that Lady Mandeville [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 January 28, Tuesday|had bought 30 "Exploration" shares]], which funded exploration expeditions with the possibility of rights to minerals or resources or the development of monopolies for goods that were "discovered."<ref>"Notes — Mainly Personal." ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 28 January 1890, Tuesday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2b [of my 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18900128&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Evening Telegraph'', n.p.</ref> Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louisa, Duchess of Manchester]] also had bought 30 shares, both small amounts compared to some others. '''1890 January 29, Wednesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville was a guest at the house party around the [[Social Victorians/Santurce Murrieta Wedding 1890-01-29|wedding of Miss Clarita de Murietta and the Duc de Santona]]. She had her eldest son with her, Lord Kimbolton (the 9th Duke of Manchester). Her mother in law, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Louise, Duchess of Manchester]] was also present. '''1890 February 6, Thursday''' '''(shortly before 6 February)''', Lord Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 6, Thursday|boxing match fought by the prize-fighter Pete Jackson]] at the New Pelican Club. '''1890 January 30, Thursday, through at least February 8, Saturday''', Lord Mandeville was among the [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#1890 February 8, Saturday|recent arrivals at Brighton]] although apparently after the most notable had already left. Certainly he does not appear to have been at the party the next evening that the Prince of Wales attended. '''1890 February 9, Sunday''', the Prince of Wales came after one of Consuelo's dinner parties:<blockquote>Lady Mandeville, who has been giving a series of small dinners in her house in Cumberland Place, had a dinner on Sunday. The Prince of Wales came in after dinner to meet a small party.<ref>"Society Gossip. (From ''The World''.)." ''Leighton Buzzard Observer and Linslade Gazette'' 11 February 1890, Tuesday: 6 [of 8], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001091%2F18900211&page=6&article=106&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Leighton Buzzard Observer'', p. 6. </ref></blockquote>'''1890 February 24, Monday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#24 February 1890, Monday|Lilly Langtry's performance as Rosalind in As You Like It at the St. James's Theatre]]. '''1890 February 25, Tuesday''', Consuelo Lady Mandeville attended a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#25 February 1890, Tuesday|party hosted by Mrs. Adair]]. Viscount Mandeville is not listed among those who attended. '''1890 March 4, Wednesday''', Consuelo's brother Fernando Yznaga married New York "beauty and society leader" Miss Mabel Wright.<ref>"Personal." ''American Register'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 5 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003338%2F18900322&page=5&article=070&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref> Presumably at least Consuelo was there? '''1890 March 10, Monday''', the Prince and Princess of Wales gave a [[Social Victorians/Timeline/1890#10 March 1890, Monday10 March 1890, Monday|dance at Marlborough House in honor of their wedding anniversary]]. The Viscountess Mandeville is listed among the guests invited, but the Viscount is not mentioned. '''1890 March 22, Saturday''', the Portsmouth ''Evening News'' expressed outrage about a man with a reputation like Lord Mandeville's becoming 8th Duke of Manchester and joining the House of Lords:<blockquote>While the House of Commons were debating the necessity for a House of Lords, the Duke of Manchester was on his death bed in Naples. There is more in the incident than appears at first sight, for Viscount Mandeville succeeds to the Dukedom, with the attendant rights of presentation to seven livings and the privilege of mutilating or rejecting Bills demanded by the people and passed by their representatives in the Commons. {{Paragraph break}} It will hardly be urged by the moat zealous advocate of the Upper Chamber, as at present constituted, that the new Duke of Manchester, ''nee'' Viscount Mandeville, will bring much dignity, wisdom, or weight to the House of irresponsible legislators. This nobleman has had a merry time. The one sensible thing he did was to marry a charming and accomplished American lady, who, by consenting to share the name of Mandeville has kept its head above water. Viscount Mandeville himself has a weakness for bankruptcy proceedings, rows with cabmen, which music hall ladies come forward to take his part, and the class of events generally which do not approve themselves to the minds of the ordinary Briton. It is possible that Lord Mandeville may now discover that he has sown his wild oats, and may settle down with his beautiful and popular wife to the enjoyment of his 25,000 acres of land and £38,000 a-year. We have not to do with what Lord Mandeville may be. Our simple duty is to point out that it is an outrage on common decency and common sense that a man bearing the reputation of Lord Mandeville should have the right to step into the House of Lords whenever a vote is needed to swell the prejudice or sustain the selfishness that find among the Peers their natural home.<ref>"To-Day." ''Portsmouth Evening News'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 1c [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000290%2F18900322&page=2&article=001&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Evening News'', n.p.</ref></blockquote>The ''Birmingham Daily Mail'' had a similar opinion, though perhaps slightly more optimistic:<blockquote>The Duke of Manchester, who expired last night at Naples, cannot be said to have been much of a public man. He led a quiet, retired life, and the announcement of his death would, if Lord Mandeville were not heir to the title, arouse but little interest. Lord Mandeville is, unfortunately for himself, more widely known than his father was. He developed tastes for gambling, with disastrous financial results, as the details of his bankruptcy made public last year, and more recently, his name has been publicly associated with those of prizefighters and music-hall singers. Altogether, he can hardly be termed a credit to the aristocracy of England, but the higher position to which he will now attain may cause him to alter his ways and try redeem the errors of the past.<ref>"Notes and News." ''Birmingham Mail'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 2 [of 4], Col. 3a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000644%2F18900322&page=2&article=027&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''Birmingham Daily Mail'', n.p.</ref></blockquote>On the same day, Consuelo's brother and new wife were reported to apparently be immigrating to the UK:<blockquote>Among the immigrants, says a London lady correspondent, is a New York belle who has just been married to Mr. Ferdinand Yznaga, brother to Lady Mandeville and of Lady Lister-Kaye. Young Mrs. Yznaga will enter London society under the wing of her sister-in-law, Lady Mandeville, and is expected to make as great a furore as did Mrs. Langtry a few seasons ago. Mr. Yznaga married a sister-in-law of Mr. Vanderbilt, who divorced him two years ago.<ref>"An American Belle." ''Huddersfield and Holmfirth Examiner'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 16], Col. 4a [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003869%2F18900322&page=6&article=006&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''The Huddersfield Examiner'', p. 6.</ref></blockquote>'''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (9th Duke) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London. '''1897 July 2''', the Duke and Duchess of Devonshire ( [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish|Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish]] and [[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Cavendish]]) hosted the [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball|Duchess of Devonshire's fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House. Lord Charles Montagu, likely Charles William Augustus Montagu, attended, as did [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], the 9th Duke, who was 20 at the time. But Consuelo, Duchess of Manchester did not attend? Even though she had been so intimate with the Prince of Wales? The 8th Duke, Kim Montagu (Louisa's son), died ion 1892. == Demographics == ===Nationality=== *Consuelo Iznaga y Clement was Cuban-American. *Helena Zimmerman was American. *George, William and Alexander Montagu were British. === Residences === * 1890: "The family estates — 27,312 acres, with a nominal rent-roll of £40,000 — were chiefly situated in Huntingdonshire and Armagh."<ref>"Men and Things." (London) ''Echo'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 1 [of 4], Col. 6b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004596%2F18900322&page=1&article=010&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref> * In 1890 at the death of the 7th Duke, Kimbolton Castle: <blockquote>The [7th] Duke of Manchester... He was an old-fashioned Tory, and a man of simple tastes, whose chief interests were military and agricultural rather than political. Kimbolton Castle is a magnificent place, and the Duke's horses and troop of yeomanry were always the admiration of the Prince of Wales, the Marquis of Hartington, and many other visitors. Lord Hartington, it may be mentioned, was at Kimbolton when the news came of the  breaking out of the war between France and Germany [1871], he being a member of the Cabinet. The Duke had travelled much as a young man, and was familiar with the Continent, as also with South Africa, of which he was very fond. There is a private chapel at Kimbolton Castle, connected with which is a very extensive library containing some theological and historical volumes of great value. Notwithstanding his somewhat bluff manner the Duke was liked by the tenantry and poor from the kindly interest he took in their concerns. Even the poachers had a good word for his Grace. The feature, however, of the Duke's career was the marked contrast between his pursuits and those of the Duchess. The Duke loved every blade of grass, every tree and flower on his ancestral domain, and cared nothing for London life in its modern developments. Lord Mandeville [the 8th Duke] succeeds to the title, but the estates are heavily mortgaged.<ref>"Death of the Duke of Manchester." ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 22 March 1890, Saturday: 6 [of 8], Col. 2b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000098%2F18900322&page=6&article=014&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p. </ref></blockquote> == Family == *Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga y Clement Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909), née Doña María Consuelo Iznaga y Clement<ref name=":0" /> *"Kim" (George Victor Drogo) Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892)<ref name=":1" /> #William Angus Drogo Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947) #Jacqueline Mary Alva Montagu (27 November 1879 – 15 March 1895). #Alice Eleanor Louise Montagu (27 November 1879 – 10 January 1900) *[[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drogo Montagu]], 9th Duke of Manchester (3 March 1877 – 9 February 1947)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=William Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_9th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=982513036|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> *Helena Zimmerman Montagu (25 September 1878 – 15 December 1971)<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-10-08|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&oldid=982513630|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> #Mary Alice Montagu Gregory (26 October 1901 – 9 October 1962) #Alexander George Francis Drogo Montagu, 10th Duke of Manchester (2 October 1902 – 23 November 1977) #Edward Eugene Fernando Montagu (26 July 1906 – 4 May 1954/1956) #Ellen Millicent Louise Montagu Hofer Shairp (5 January 1908 – 2 August 1948) === Relations === The three Iznaga y Clement sisters were prominent in London "Society": *Consuelo (María Consuelo) Iznaga Montagu, Duchess of Manchester (1853 – 20 November 1909) *Emilie Iznaga y Clement () *Natividad (Natica) Iznaga y Clement Lister-Kaye () == Questions and Notes == *In a ''British Newspaper Archive'' search for name=mandeville keyword=#viscount for 18 August 1855–22 March 1890 (September 2026), first did "Publication date oldest first," but Kim was 2 years old when his grandfather died and his father acceded to the dukedom, so on p. 57 of the search results (the page containing 1 January 1856) I switched to "Publication date newest first." Decided it would be more fruitful to work backwards. == Papers, Memoirs and Biographies == * Personal correspondence: in the archive at Chatsworth House (group <code>CS8</code>) * The papers of Louise Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire DF14 contains correspondence to and from the 7th Duke and Duchess of Manchester. * Archives Hub: https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/ (for records of UK archives, including Northern Ireland, but not the Republic of Ireland) ** Chatsworth House: https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/locations/6e07905a-1893-3adb-93fa-6966fcfaf57e ** Louise Cavendish papers: https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/7f2209dd-e364-3318-8a5e-62e0533d7a4c ** Devonshire Collection Archives: Family papers: https://www.chatsworth.org/visit-chatsworth/chatsworth-estate/art-archives/access-the-collection/archives-and-library/family-papers-guide/ == Footnotes == {{reflist}} 8j2963whnzg0ap5xldtp0wns57di5qg 0 264724 2842677 2842602 2026-10-26T16:54:22Z Scogdill 1331941 2842677 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Dress worn by Queen Victoria at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840}} = Sandbox = Page to draft revisions for Wikipedia articles. For Gwladys Robinson, see Gwladys Lowther Robinson, [[Social Victorians/People/Ripon|Marchioness of Ripon]] and, earlier, [[Social Victorians/People/Lowther|Countess of Lonsdale]] ==References== {{reflist|2}} [[Category:1840 works]] [[Category:Royal wedding dresses|Victoria Queen]] [[Category:1840s fashion]] [[Category:British royal attire]] [[Category:Dresses in the Royal Collection of the United Kingdom|Victoria, Wedding]] [[Category:Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria]] = Victorian fashion = == Notes and Quotes == * Women followed Paris fashion in Europe and America, but London tailors led the way for men’s fashion. The Industrial Revolution actually impacted men’s fashion more than women’s. * Sewing machines in factories began mass producing cheap clothing for the largest group in the population, working class men. * Ready-made clothing affected the social structure, the economy, and gender differentiation. * Paper patterns, introduced in fashion magazines that targeted women, along with domestic sewing machines had more impact on women’s fashion than men’s. Haute couture was still bespoke (being individually constructed by tailors or dressmakers or fashion houses like Maison Worth). Sewing Machines and Clothes Before the industrial revolution wealthy people paid others to sew their clothes by hand and those who were of much lower economic status did all the manual labor necessary to feed and clothe the rich minority. The working class had to make all their own clothes. Sewing, however, came at the end of the process.  They began with raw wool cut from the backs of sheep or gathering flax.  Only the wealthy could afford to buy fabric.  They followed processes for cleaning and spinning the wool into thread and the processes of soaking and pulling out the fibrous strips to make into thread for linen fabric. After they had thread, it was tied to a loom so it could be woven into cloth.  Then it had to be cut or torn into pieces. For many families scissors were a luxury. And the last step is sewing the pieces together to create a garment. Machines could not only sew, they could process the raw materials into thread and weave it into fabric much  quicker. Regarding clothing, working class men and their families benefitted greatly from ready-made clothes. Manufacturers marketed to them because they were the largest class. For example,<blockquote>–Men’s shirts, made by machine, take 3 hours and 10 minutes each to do; by hand, 15 hours and 20 minutes; a lady’s dress, by machine, takes 12 hours 4 minutes; by hand 20 hours 35 minutes; . . . a common frock-coat, by the machine occupies 17 hours 20 minutes; by the hand, 27 hours and 40 minutes: a linen vest, by machine, 3 hours 44 minutes; by hand 7 hours 18 minutes; a fine overcoat, by machine, 28 hours 13 minutes; by hand 31 hours 20 minutes; . . . <ref>Mitchell, Rebecca, ed. "22. 'Progress of the Sewing Machine,' ''Bow Bells'' (19 April 1865), p. 283." Part 6: Production and Industry. ''Fashioning the Victorians: A Critical Sourcebook''. Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2018.</ref></blockquote> === Industrial Revolution and Technological Advancements === * the railroad * mass production of fabrics for working-class men's clothing ** Jacquard looms * sewing machines * aniline dyes, including black === Expanding Middle Class === * gender roles getting more clearly defined and rigid (referring back to page overview) === French Revolution === Sarah Gharmallah Alzahrani and Safia Abdelaziz Saroukh (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Safia-Saroukh/publication/385099194_The_Semiotic_Dimension_of_Men's_Fashion_in_Modern_Eras/links/671686fbd796f96b8ec4f90e/The-Semiotic-Dimension-of-Mens-Fashion-in-Modern-Eras.pdf):<blockquote>The 19th century started with a fashion landscape that was changing dramatically and rapidly from the styles of a generation earlier. The French Revolution brought fashions that had been emerging since the 1780s to the forefront. Neoclassicism now defined fashion as both men and women taking inspiration from classical antiquity. For women, the high-waisted silhouette in lightweight muslin was the dominant style, while fashionable men looked to the tailors of Britain for a new, refined look [17]. [17]  Franklin, H. (Aug 18, 2020). Published on Jun 25, 2020, Retrieved: <nowiki>https://fashionhistory.fitnyc.edu/1800-1809/</nowiki> 11/11/2023. Edited. ...</blockquote>Brent Shannon:<blockquote>"Costume," wrote Max Beerbohm in 1896, "enables us to classify any 'professional man' at a glance, be he lawyer, leech or who not" (24–25). A man's profession and class were read by his jacket, his hat, what he rode in, and how he carried himself. "Perhaps there is a tendency among Englishmen to judge a man too much by the shape of his hat or the kind of collar he wears," conduct author John Wanamaker confessed; "But one must remember that in England if you ''wear'' the wrong thing, you will probably ''do'' the wrong thing, and generally ''be'' the wrong thing" (1).¹¹ Such assertions were predicated on the powerful Victorian conviction that outward appearance reflected inner qualities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Cut of His Coat: Men, Dress, and Consumer Culture in Britain, 1860–1914|last=Shannon|first=Brent Alan|publisher=Ohio University Press|year=2006|location=Athens, Ohio}}</ref> (148)</blockquote> ==Women's fashion== == Men's fashion == (Two intros: one to Victorian Fashion, giving background for both women's and men's fashions; two to the decades for men's fashion) Among the influences on men's styles: * differentiation of genders (domestic ideology, ideology of the spheres) * the "Great Male Renunciation," the French Revolution and English tailoring * industrial revolution: mass production of fabrics and articles of clothing, especially for working-class men * sports and country clothing * Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII, influence went beyond England; tailors led by him led fashion for the upper classes * then later, cult of youth * military uniforms * comfort and convenience * evolving definitions of gender, both femininity and masculinity evolved as concepts. The changing definitions of masculinity affected men's clothing. For the growing and rising middle classes, gender roles became more and more rigid around the concept of the separate spheres, the public for men and the private sphere for women. Cultural sources for men's clothing and men's fashion: industrial revolution; expanding middle class; technological advancements; an association in the culture between outward appearance and inward nature; French Revolution; Albert Edward, Prince of Wales Citation for Victorian Hell: <ref name=":29">{{Cite web|url=https://victorianhell.substack.com/p/victorian-mens-fashion-history-and|title=Victorian Men’s Fashion History and Clothing Guide|last="It's Monty, Actually"|date=31 October 2025|website=Victorian Hell|access-date=7 September 2026}}</ref> === Frock coats === * Apostol Mănescu, politician, wearing a frock coat, butterfly tie, black waistcoat with button chain and light coloured pants, drainpipe type. Circa 1866. Photo by Franz Duschek.jpg (1866)[[File:Apostol Mănescu, politician, wearing a frock coat, butterfly tie, black waistcoat with button chain and light coloured pants, drainpipe type. Circa 1866. Photo by Franz Duschek.jpg|thumb|Romanian (?) Politician, c. 1866, ill-fitting but probably handmade suit|center]] Full-length portrait of two young men wearing frock coats with sashes and pistols at their waists LCCN2006689564.tif (right)[[File:Full-length portrait of two young men wearing frock coats with sashes and pistols at their waists LCCN2006689564.jpg|thumb|1860, American, young men with frock coats, performers??|center]] * George Augustus Henry Sala.jpg (Mathew Brady, 1855–1865) * [[File:George Augustus Henry Sala.jpg|center|thumb|George Augustus Sala, 1855–1865, LoC]] ==== Dress and Conduct Manuals, Histories, Victorian Theory, Catalogs ==== # [Baker, William Henry.]  ''Clothes Dictionary''. Chicago, Ill.: Cahn, Wampold, 1901. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clothes_dictionary;_(IA_clothesdictionar00bake).pdf. # [[c:File:Hint's_about_men's_dress,_right_principles_economically_applied_(IA_hintsaboutmensdr00barr).pdf|Hint's about men's dress, right principles economically applied (IA hintsaboutmensdr00barr).pdf]] (book, conduct manual, American, 1888) #[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Fashion-_the_power_that_influences_the_world_%28IA_fashionpowerthat00foxg%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original Fashion- the power that influences the world (IA fashionpowerthat00foxg).pdf] (1871) (American, incl court dress, Victorian fashion theory, livery, "White, as it is the color of day, is expressive to us of the cheerfulness or gaiety which the return of day brings." [145], "Gentlemen's Furnishing and Goods," "Head and Foot Covering," Index) # [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/How_to_behave_and_how_to_amuse._A_handy_manual_of_etiquette_and_parlor_games_%28IA_howtobehavehowto00sand%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original How to behave and how to amuse. A handy manual of etiquette and parlor games (IA howtobehavehowto00sand).pdf] (1895; American; Men's Dress, p. 23; besides conduct and dress, it has parlor games) # [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/The_etiquette_of_men%27s_dress_%28IA_etiquetteofmensd00cluc%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original The etiquette of men's dress (IA etiquetteofmensd00cluc).pdf] (1888; American; some ads; anthology of individually written articles; lots of sports, outdoor events; search for "frock" — cutaway vs Prince Albert) #[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/S.W._Silver_%26_Co.%27s_handbook_for_transatlantic_travellers_.._%28IA_swsilvercoshandb00silv%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original S.W. Silver & Co.'s handbook for transatlantic travellers .. (IA swsilvercoshandb00silv).pdf] (1883; American; lots of ads from SW Silver, with prices; has blank pages where ppl can write "Introductions" and "Engagements," but this is not a conduct book, it's travel guide / catalog to London) #[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/How_we_go_to_those_who_cannot_come_to_us.._%28IA_howwegotothosewh00roge%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original How we go to those who cannot come to us.. (IA howwegotothosewh00roge).pdf] (Roger, Peet & Co.; American; catalog, spring 1891; pp. 11, clerical frock; 7 "Prince Alberts" double-breasted frocks; p. 23 shirts as underwear; has a thing on fitting and mail order; bathing suits, collars and cuffs; tennis shoes) == Victorian Men's Fashion (Intro to the Men's Fashion Section) == Museums and other historical sites have plenty of women’s clothes from the nineteenth century. There is great variety in both outer wear and underwear. “Men’s garments of the Victorian period have survived in far less quantity than women’s.” Buck p. 185 More waistcoats have survived than any other garment. The hardest garment to find are trousers. Very few survived the nineteenth century. Buck p. 185 By 1850 trousers dominated the fashion for men; the trouser straps under the shoe had disappeared; and a fly front had replaced the fall-front. Buck 185 It took most of the nineteenth century for men’s fashion to evolve into the coat, trousers and vest (waistcoat) that dominated the twentieth century and appears to be unchanging in the twenty-first century. “Men’s clothing, like women’s, was specific to each occasion and type of activity during the late nineteenth century.” Payne2, p. 518 For example, formal wear for social events was different from the casual, everyday wear for upper middle class and aristocratic men. Victorians also dressed in ensembles for hunting and riding (included knickerbockers–breeches that had a fuller cut). Casual and looser clothing was worn when participating in sports. Many different cuts of coats were available, like the Norfolk jacket, the morning coat, or the sack coat. “Tailored wool garments , originally inspired by the clothing of English country gentry, formed the backbone of men’s wardrobes in the early nineteenth century.” Men’s clothing began to change from styles that were colorful and flamboyant in the eighteenth century to styles that emphasized cut over color. By the end of the century men’s clothing had settled into a kind of uniform with coats and trousers usually made of the same fabric, often with a vest or waistcoat of the same fabric. The uniform included a shirt with a stiff collar, a necktie and very little jewelry. It took the entire nineteenth century to change to a rather static style that is still worn today. Ready-made clothing affected the social structure, the economy, and the gender differentiation. David Kutcha traces the origin of the 3-piece men's suit to King Charles II of England, who may be said to be wearing a coat, pants and a waistcoat, but otherwise is not wearing a "suit" we — or the Victorians — would recognize as such: <blockquote>... since 1666, male gentility has been associated with modesty and plainness in dress. Eschewing fashion as an increasingly feminized realm Charles II's vest inaugurated a new and essentially modern era of masculine aesthetics, one that reversed a long-held association between elaborate display and high social status. Manly thrift now displayed elite status.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Three-Piece Suit and Modern Masculinity, England 1550–1850|last=Kutcha|first=David|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles}}</ref> (2)</blockquote>So it's really Cromwell who should get credit?? The French Revolution caused both men and women to change stylistic direction radically. For one generation, stylish women wore simple white muslin dresses without foundation garments underneath. The changes in men's fashion was more lasting: men turned away from the ornamentation and ruffles of the ''ancien régime'', choosing instead understated and subtle tailoring to indicate good taste and wealth. Poole "comfort and convenience" — trousers, sack coats, collars and cuffs without a shirt, wool rather than silks and satins; knee breeches constantly riding up men as leaders of fashion, in spite of our sense that men didn't do fashion in the way that women did, were more serious than that === Dandy Stuff === Beau Brummell: "Men began to aspire to fine cutting, tailoring, and perfect fit in their clothes, flawless grooming and manners in themselves. The Englishman George Bryan (Beau) Brummell deserves much credit for the ideal of meticulous masculine appearance."<ref name=":25">{{Cite book|title=The History of Costume: From Ancient Mesopotamia Through the Twentieth Century|last=Payne|first=Blanche|last2=Winakor|first2=Geitel|last3=Farrell-Beck|first3=Jane|publisher=Addison-Wesley Longman|year=1992|isbn=0-06-047141-7|edition=2nd|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (458) "From 1796 to 1816, the Beau set the pattern for cleanliness and liberal use of starch." (459) === Gender Ideologies === '''Victorian gender ideologies''' relegated men to the "public sphere" and women to the "domestic sphere." (??) More than that “the cult of youth . . . the secularization of sport and the influence of modern warfare in generating men’s fashions, the tendency to prefer modern ideas of comfort and convenience, and the transformation of fashion knowledge and fashion urbanism from print to hyperreality”<ref name=":26">McNeil, Peter. "Men's Fashion: 1800–2022." Chapter 22. ''The Routledge History of Fashion and Dress, 1800 to the Present''. Routledge, 2024. https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/182707/2/Men%27s%20Fashion%20200822_24_12_20_09_29_44.pdf DOI: 10.4324/9780429295607-27.</ref> (McNeil 1 or 411) changed the perceptions of masculinity and femininity. === Class === The growing middle class involved among other things more and more jobs and careers for young men as clerks, office workers, they were junior, subordinate, and they were commuting on the railroads from suburbs. Carolyn Kirby:<blockquote>In western Europe the fashion for plain dark suits coincided with the rise of the affluent middle-classes in a world where the pace of industrialisation and the globalisation of trade was accelerating as never before. The sharp, dark business suit became the last word in male power-dressing. And so it remains to this day.<ref name=":27">{{Cite web|url=https://historiamag.com/invent-masculine-fashion/|title=The invention of masculine fashion|last=Kirby|first=Carolyn|date=3 December 2025|website=Historia: Magazine of the Historical Writers' Association|access-date=25 August 2026}}</ref></blockquote> === Bertie === Albert Edward, Prince of Wales was very concerned with fashion and authoritative about it, with a very specific eye to small details. He was increasingly influential in men's fashion from the last third of the 19th and into the 20th century, and many noticed what he did and copied him.<blockquote>When that great lover of pleasure, Edward VII, visited Marienbad incognito as the Duke of Lancaster, he was followed by tailors from Paris, Budapest, Vienna, and Berlin who photographed him and took notes about his clothes. Edward VII introduced many [423–424] novelties into men’s fashion. ... He is also credited with making fashionable the creased trouser in 1909 (his groom dried them with a board weight after heavy rain, resulting in the line), turned-up cuff trouser (after hitching his trouser bottoms at a dirty racing track) and, as his girth grew, undoing the bottom button of his waistcoat."<ref name=":26" /> (424)</blockquote>Cowles<blockquote>The Prince was not just ‘a swell’. In the jargon of the day he was ‘a heavy swell’, and apparently there was a world of difference between the two terms. A swell was a rich young aristocrat who lived in extreme comfort; but a heavy swell added showmanship to the comfort and lived in a stylish luxury that even the French were obliged to envy. And of course the heavy swell was the acme of sartorial elegance. The Prince did not mind changing his dress half a dozen times a day. He loved clothes, and since whatever he chose to wear became the prevailing fashion overnight, he soon was regarded as an expert on the subject. His tailor-in-chief made a fortune. For many years he patronised a Mr. Poole. He discovered this gentleman by accident. He went to the theatre one night to see a well-known actor by the name of Fecher playing ‘Robert Macaire’. As an impecunious adventurer [129–130] Fechter was obliged to wear a coat that was torn and dirty, but Bertie’s expert eye noticed the elegant cut. At the end of the performance he asked Fechter for the name of his tailor, and Mr. Poole’s future was assured. The Prince had so many clothes he could never travel with less than two valets; and two more valets were left at home cleaning, brushing and pressing his vast wardrobe. There were suits and coats for every variation of every climate the world over. There were over a hundred pieces of headgear; and since Bertie was an honorary admiral and an honorary general of most of the countries of Europe, there was an entire room devoted to uniforms, sashes, epaulettes, belts, buckles, swords, feathers and other regalia. ... Men’s clothes became of such importance that new [130–131] shops sprang up like mushrooms in Savile Row, Clifford Street and Bond Street. Most of the Prince’s innovations were inspired by comfort and convenience. He altered the cut of the evening dress waistcoat, he shortened the tails on the tail coat, he left his frock coat open (due to an increasing girth), he introduced the black homburg, and he attended race meetings, not in the frock coat hitherto ''de regueur'' but in tweeds. He tried having his trousers creased down the sides rather than the front and back, in order to hide his bandy legs, but this idea did not catch on, and he soon discarded it himself. But the prince was not the only arbiter of men’s fashions. The band of  "heavy swells" who followed his lead gave him plenty of competition. Lord Raglan and Lord Petersham invented coats which are still named after them. Lord Dupplin the dinner jacket and Lord Cardigan the button-up sweater. But Lord Hardwicke made the most spectacular contribution. Men’s silk hats were made of beaver which was left in its original rough, shaggy state. Lord Hardwicke polished his hat until he could see his face in it, and consequently was known as "Glossy Top". He is responsible for the top hat as we know it today.<ref name=":28">{{Cite book|title=Gay monarch, the life and pleasures of Edward VII|last=Cowles|first=Virginia|publisher=Harper|year=1956|location=New York, New York|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/gaymonarchlifepl0000cowl/}}</ref> (129–131)</blockquote> === Men’s Clothing 1830–1900 (Intro to the Decades) === “Tailored wool garments , originally inspired by the clothing of English country gentry, formed the backbone of men’s wardrobes in the early nineteenth century.”<ref name=":25" /> (458) Men’s clothing began to change from styles that were colorful and flamboyant in the eighteenth century to styles that emphasized cut over color. By the end of the century men’s clothing had settled into a kind of uniform with coats and trousers usually made of the same fabric, often with a vest or waistcoat of the same fabric. The uniform included a shirt with a stiff collar, a necktie and very little jewelry. It took the entire nineteenth century to change to a rather static style that is still worn today. (this is middle-class men for day wear?) The silhouette for men sometimes followed the same line as women’s clothing on the top half of their bodies. For example, as women’s sleeves grew into the huge leg-of-mutton fullness, the shoulders of men’s coats also had added fabric to make a pouf at the shoulder, thus emphasizing a broad shouldered look across the front. Men’s silhouettes changed subtly without the exaggerated fullness of women’s skirts or the raising and lowering of the neckline. Once men began to wear trousers, they did not go back to formal knee breeches (except in European courts or for court wear for Victoria). The line of men’s garments changed in smaller increments than women’s. Coats and trousers might fit tighter in some decades and looser in others. They were slim, then boxy, flared, then straight and evolved into the contemporary line we see on men today. Men's fashions in the 19th century have been less researched than women's fashions, in part because of fewer artifacts of what men wore were saved in museums for study. Photography, the first century that we have actual images (rather than artists' interpretations) of what people wore. ==== Court and Formal Dress ==== Livery, working class Formal dress was separate attire, used for specified occasions, varies by decade ==== Shirts ==== Shirts and collars separated: "by 1827 detachable collars became available."<ref name=":25" /> (477) Shirts were considered more like underwear early in the century but by the end of the 1800s, they were becoming the outside garments popular in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Neck treatments (and shirt cuffs) Shirts were treated as underwear early in the century but by the end of the 1800s, they were becoming the outside garments popular in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== The 1901 ''Clothes Dictionary'' says coats were "The principal garment of men's attire."<ref name=":30" />{{rp|10}} Several styles of coats were available to fashion-conscious aristocratic and upper-middle-class men. Men’s suits in this period were tailor made, fitted to one specific man. The factories, however, knew that the vast majority of men were working class and began to manufacture and sell ready-made shirts, coats and trousers. More clothes were available for working men and they cost less. The cheaper work clothes enabled upper-working-class men to own more than one set of clothes and to have more formal clothes for church or other events. Ready-made shirts were also available in generic sizes, small, medium and large. Generic sizing speeded up the mass production process and, since little of the shirts could be seen, they did not need custom fitting. Almost all of the coats Victorian men wore could be single or double breasted, with a couple of exceptions like morning coats and Norfolk jackets. On more formal occasions upper-class men wore a '''cutaway morning coat''' with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark '''tail coat''' and trousers in the evening. (define these terms) Morning coats was a general term for the jacket part of "full dress" or formal daytime wear, distinguished from formal evening wear. Most morning coats were cutaways, but the shape or cut is not the distinguishing feature: the bottom was curved or tailed, so the coat was short in front, it did not have a waist seam, single-breasted. Worn over a waistcoat and shirt. According to Payne, "During the early 1820s tailcoats were the most popular type of coat."<ref name=":25" />{{rp|474}} "Tailcoats gave way to skirted frock coats by the 1840s."<ref name=":25" /> (491) Tailcoats came down as far as the waist and then had tails (or "claw hammer" tails) attached at the waist in the back. Single-breasted, could be worn buttoned or unbuttoned in the front, over a waistcoat and shirt. Nowadays, the only tailcoats are tuxedos, a term not in use until the 1880s, and named for Tuxedo Park, a village in New York populated by the elite. Originally only the white coat, ''tuxedo'' gradually came to mean the entire suit. ==== Frock Coats ==== [[File:Frock coat MET CI38.23.39 F.jpeg|alt=Old-fashioned coat hanging on a mannequin|thumb|Frock coat, 1840, American]] Frock coats were introduced in the 1820s and worn throughout the nineteenth century with only minor changes to the line or fit. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. Initially frock coats were tightly fitted and closed with buttons. The more tailored frock coats had a waist seam and a flared skirt almost to the knees. The rate of fashion change notable in women's fashion was true for men's clothing as well. The frock coat persisted for a century, but it was in a state of constant (but subtle) evolution, with collars and lapels, coat length, the waist seam, the fullness of the coat itself as well as the sleeve, color, patterns like stripes or plaids. A Prince Albert is a double-breasted, very well-tailored, form-fitting frock coat.<ref name=":30">[Baker, William Henry.] ''Clothes Dictionary''. Chicago, Ill.: Cahn, Wampold, 1901. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clothes_dictionary;_(IA_clothesdictionar00bake).pdf.</ref>{{rp|33}} Gentlemen, clergy, military Men around the world and especially in the British Empire wore frock coats: images and descriptions exist of men wearing frock coats in India<ref>Woodyatt, Nigel Gresley. ''Under Ten Viceroys; The Reminiscences of a Gurkha''. London: H. Jenkins Limited, 1922. Pp. 31, 107, 1774.</ref>, Iran (Persia at that time)<ref>Sparroy, Wilfrid. ''Persian children of the royal family; the narrative of an English tutor at the court of H. I. H. Zillus-Sultán, G.C.S.I''. London and New York, J. Lane, 1902. Pp. 11, 29, 30.[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Persian_children_of_the_royal_family%3B_the_narrative_of_an_English_tutor_at_the_court_of_H._I._H._Zillus-Sult%C3%A1n%2C_G._C._S._I_%28IA_persianchildreno00sparrich%29.pdf?utm_source=commons.wikimedia.org&utm_campaign=index&utm_content=original https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Persian_children_of_the_royal_family%3B_the_narrative_of_an_English_tutor_at_the_court_of_H._I._H._Zillus-Sult%C3%A1n%2C_G._C._S._I_%28IA_persianchildreno00sparrich%29.pdf].</ref>, Japan<ref>Watson, W. Petrie. ''Japan, Aspects and Destinies''. New York, Dutton: 1904. P. 7, 19, 31.</ref>, Egypt and Turkey<ref>Butler, Alfred Joshua. ''Court Life in Egypt''. London: Chapman and Hall, 1887. P. 7.</ref>, .... ==== Trousers ==== Working-class men had been wearing trousers (or "trowsers") increasingly since the 16th century in Europe,('''citation''') but after the French revolution the middle and upper classes adopted them because "the safest dress was that of the working man, ... who did not wear knee breeches, but rather trousers."<ref name=":26" /> (416) Breeches: Men’s bifurcated garment that ended just below the knee Trousers (or long pants): men’s bifurcated garment that went down to the ankles or foot The most sweeping change in men’s fashion before 1820 was in the length of their pants. Trousers that went from waist to foot were so much more comfortable and popular than knee breeches that they replaced what had dominated men’s wear since the sixteenth century. And trousers have been worn for over two centuries now. They were originally tailored but began to be mass produced. Although the aristocracy were required to wear knee breeches at court, they wore trousers more than they wore breeches, and they could afford to have their suits and shirts hand sewn and individually. Working class men had to contend with small, medium, and large from mass production. This bifurcated garment was modified in specific places, like the length, the fullness over the hips or the width of the leg. In summer trousers were lighter in color — "grayish blue, aqua and pearl gray." (Payne 2, 505) In winter trousers mixed darker colors like "steel gray and brown, black and brown, and black and green." (Payne 505) More on summer colors, winter colors? [Find quote about QV's men's court dress and the men being so cold] Lewandowski: "First worn by the early horse-riding steppe people, introduced to Western world by Italians in 16th century. They were accepted as informal dress in the Directoire (1790–1815 C.E.). They became a part of semi-formal dress around 1815 and became worn commonly after 1830."<ref name=":31" /> (298) ==== Waistcoats ==== Victorian men put their creativity, color and specialty fabrics into their waistcoats. At the beginning of the century men's waistcoats were made from specialty fabrics, like velvet or brocade or a patterned silk, sometimes two at the same time: "During the 1820s and 1830s, men sometimes wore two waistcoats, in combinations like white velvet over rose-and-gold brocade."<ref name=":25" /> (474) Long after coats and trousers were made from the same dark wool, waistcoats continued to be colorful, making them the focus of the ensemble. By the end of the 19th century waistcoats made from the same fabric as the trousers and coat dominated men’s fashion. 1880s: "The term vest now applied to all but low-necked formal styles, which were still called waistcoats." (Payne 2 528) [[File:Homosexualitywilde.jpg|thumb|Oscar Wilde and Bosie Douglas, straw boater and derby, 1894]] ==== Overcoats ==== Overcoats became a significant fashion element and many styles were seen throughout the century. <ref name=":24" />Kay, Fiona and Neil R. Storey, ''Victorian Fashions for Women'', Pen & Sword History, Yorkshire - Philadelphia, 2022 Surtout: "An overcoat cut in the style of a frock coat."<ref name=":30" /> (39) Lewandowski says somethng more generic, "term referring to any man's long cloak or coat."<ref name=":31">{{Cite book|title=The Complete Costume Dictionary|last=Lewandowski|first=Elizabeth J.|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=2011}}</ref> (282) ==== Hats ==== The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hats]] (known in America as a derby) were worn by the working class. 1830s This class of men also wore round cloth caps, often seen on male children. The straw boater was the most popular hat by the end of the century and was worn by all of the classes. Men wore [[top hats]], with wide brims in sunny weather. 1830s - 1900 Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular. Homburgs, deerstalkers and “Trilbies” were also popular. Buck, p. 198-199 (George de Maurier novel ''Trilby'') Hats were ''de rigueur'' for all Victorians, all classes, all ages, all genders. ==== Shoes ==== [[File:Men's fashion silhouette of 1837.jpg|thumb|Men's coats, 1837]] [[File:Lev Wittgenstein by F. Kruger.JPG|thumb|Lev Wittgenstein by F. Kruger, 1836]] === 1830s and 1840s === For men's fashion, the 1830s and 1840s were dominated by a defined waist, lean limbs and tall hats. Working-class men had been wearing trousers for some time, but by the 1830s and '40s, middle- and upper-class men generally wore frock coats and trousers for casual or less formal attire in the city. In the country, what they wore depended on what they were doing — hunting, riding, shooting and so onen[[File:Man's Frock Coat LACMA M.2007.211.61 (1 of 4).jpg|alt=Male mannequin wearing a light-colored thigh-length coat similar to a suit jacket and a top hat|thumb|Men's frock coat, c. 1845]] [[File:Stockholms mode-journal- Tidskrift för den eleganta werlden 1847, illustration nr 2.jpg|thumb|Stockholm's fashion magazine, 1847]]Some men wore corsets during this time, so the waist was nipped in and the skirt of the frock coat flared out. The sleeves of their coats and jackets were slightly puffed at the shoulders. The trouser legs were straight with a strap under the instep. The figure on the left in the fashion plate from ''Modes de Paris Journal des Tailleurs'' (right) illustrates this silhouette very clearly as well as the frock coat, the strap under the instep, and the puffed shoulders. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== Frock coats had become fashionable for day wear in the 1820s<ref name=":25" />{{rp|474}} and were worn throughout the century. In the 1830s frock coats were tightly fitted and closed with buttons. The more tailored frock coats had a waist seam and a flared skirt almost to the knees. The main changes in frock coats in these two decades were in the colors and the neck treatments (collar and lapels). Initially frock coats were not necessarily black. They could be colorful — like "plum, mulberry, brown, bright blue, and bottle green" — with "contrasting velvet collars."<ref name=":25" />{{rp|474}} The truly bright, saturated colors made possible by synthetic dyes, however, were a couple of decades away still and were never used for frock coats. Middle- and upper-class men limited their use of tailcoats to evening wear and more formal occasions. (In the 1847 Stockholm fashion magazine, below right, the figure in the center is wearing a tailcoat.) A cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers for formal events during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers were worn in the evening. ==== Shirts ==== Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[cravats]] or neck ties. Before they were mass produced, shirts made of finer linen or cotton were tailored for upper and wealthy middle-class men. Depending on occupation, working-class men's shirts were made from a rougher, home-woven linen or cotton, often shaped loosely like a smock and sometimes without a front closure. Shirts were sometimes as long as knee-length. ==== Trousers ==== Men had adopted trousers over knee breeches for semi-formal dress "around 1815"<ref name=":31" /> (298) beginning after the French Revolution.<ref name=":26" /> (416) They were wearing trousers both for formal and semi-formal dress by the 1830s. Initially trousers "fit quite snugly ..., but in the 1840s they became looser."<ref name=":25" /> (477) Upper-class and aristocratic men still wore knee breeches at court and loose-fitting breeches (in the form of knickerbockers) for country wear and '''some sports, like riding and golf'''. Generally, however, they wore trousers more than they wore breeches. Men flocked to them once trousers became a stylish option because the looser fit was more comfortable than the tight-fitting knee breeches from earlier in the century '''and warmer in cold weather'''. Ready-made men's clothing was available in the US early, but by the 1840s ready-made suits were making an impact in Europe and the UK,<ref name=":26" /> (419–420) especially outside the upper classes. Aristocrats and upper middle class could afford the well-tailored cut and fit of individually hand-sewn trousers and coats. ==== Waistcoats ==== waistcoat; vest “Waistcoats [or vests] remained colorful, decorative items in men’s wardrobes after the rest of their costumes had become plain.” (Payne 2 460-462) They could be single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. Collars gradually lowered over the course of the two decades. Often the colorful vests were decorated with fur or velvet collars. ==== Overcoats ==== Men wore a variety of topcoats or overcoats. Surtouts were overcoats built like long frock coats, like the one worn by Lev Wittgenstein in the portrait (above right). The redingote was most popular in the 1830s and 1840s. Redingotes had a rolled collar, sleeves with fullness at the shoulders and upper arm and narrow at the elbows to the wrist. It was fitted at the waist and reached mid-calf. ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1840s in fashion|1840s]], men wore tight-fitting, calf length [[frock coat]]s and a [[waistcoat]] or vest. Sleeves were full at the top and waists were tight, creating an hourglass form. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide [[Cravat (early)|cravat]]s or neck ties. Men wore [[top hat]]s, with wide brims in sunny weather. === 1850s === The 1850s revealed several industrial inventions that significantly impacted clothing. First, the Industrial Revolution began (and still does today) with machines to weave fabric and machines to sew fabrics. Manufacturers quickly learned that the majority of the population was working class. Theirs were the simplest, least trimmed garments made in the nineteenth century. Second, mass production of shirts, trousers and coats changed how most people shopped for clothes. The aristocracy and upper middle class folks could still have their clothes made to specifically fit their bodies. Manufacturers knew that they could not mass produce clothing for each individual’s body. They invented generic sizing in small, medium, and large. They could, therefore, produce many more items of clothing with generic sizing. Third, Isaac Singer patented and began to manufacture home or domestic sewing machines (treadle machines) enabling more form-fitted '''dresses''' to be constructed for an individual’s specific shape and size. The fourth item to impact fashion and clothing was the invention of the paper pattern. These were introduced in fashion magazines targeting women. Almost all women were taught to sew by hand, whether they were aristocrats or working class. Sewing machines enormously speeded up the '''process of constructing from hours to minutes'''. Finally, aniline dyes made colors brighter and longer lasting. Prints and stripes, checks and plaids, fabrics had much more vibrant color with aniline dyes. The Industrial Revolution impacted the working class and changed their lives the most. children's clothes? Women made men's clothing too According to Judith Flanders, working-class men's clothes could be colorful. For example drivers of hansom cabs () dressed more up-scale, and drivers of hackneys () did not.<blockquote>While hackney drivers were also considered to be stereotypically shabby, hansom-cab drivers were generally represented as smartly dressed. A print in 1850 showed a driver in a snappy brown coat instead of the coachman’s heavy multiple-caped outfit, pale green striped trousers, short boots and top hat, the [167–168] reins held daintily in his gloved hands. Both cab and coach drivers wore top hats, but cabbies of a sporting bent later switched to bowlers, and in summer donned bright checked outfits.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|title=The Victorian City: Everyday Life in Dickens' London|last=Flanders|first=Judith|publisher=Thomas Dunne Books|year=2012|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (167–168 [of 972])</blockquote> A variety of silhouettes was seen in the 1850s. Trousers were long and slim with a strap under the instep of the shoe. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== "Although the frock coat was worn throughout the century, it lost its dominant position in the 1850s, when the morning coat began to replace it."<ref name=":29" /> A jacket shorter than the frock coat or morning coat that had visible pockets began to be worn in about 1850. Cutaway tail coats were still reserved for formal occasions. All of these coats could be single or double breasted. They were called “ditto suits” by those who wore them because the coat, trousers, and waistcoat were all made from the same fabric. There were morning coats and cutaway morning coats; there were Norfolk jackets and ditto suits. The most formal were the cutaway tail coats for evening wear and balls; and the least formal were the boxy shaped sack coats. By the 1860s, it had become the most popular casual coat. ==== Shirts ==== During the [[1850s in fashion|1850s]], men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover [[collar (clothing)|collars]] and [[necktie#Four-in-hand|four-in-hand necktie]]s tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings." ==== Trousers ==== Trousers had fly fronts and breeches were used for formal functions and knickers (short pants fuller cut than breeches) for horseback riding. Men's choice to wear trousers is an instance of the importance of comfort and convenience outweighing style and presentation, a value that increased in importance through the 20th century. ==== Waistcoats ==== Waistcoats remained the one garment that could be brightly colored and copiously trimmed on exotic fabrics. Waistcoats show that men were concerned with decorative elements in their ensemble. ==== Notes & Quotes ==== * transition from frock coats to ditto suits, 1850s (Payne, 463) ==== Hats ==== The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and [[bowler hat]]s were worn by the working class. Caps ==== Overcoats ==== Overcoats were cut fuller with wider sleeves and no extra fullness at the shoulder. Unlike the redingote, the overcoats had straight seams to the knee length. Many had wide lapels that reached below the waist. Working class men and their families benefitted more from the industrial revolution in regards to clothing.  Manufacturers marketed to them because because they were the largest class. [[File:Gazette of Fashion, February 1865, RP-P-2009-2675.jpg|thumb|1865, Frock coats, etc. (Paris)]] [[File:Gazette of Fashion, October 1864, RP-P-2009-2673.jpg|thumb|1864, Frock coats, etc., Paris]] [[File:Broadway fashions, New York LCCN2003677917.jpg|thumb|Butterick, Spring-Summer 1866, Broadway Fashions]] [[File:Four young men wearing frock coats - DPLA - 4706a21c9267c45034d51c8fc5309251 (page 1).jpg|thumb|1860s, working class?, ill fitting, frock coats, trousers, shirts, vest, derby hats]] === 1860s === [[File:Corporal frock coat 1862 med.jpg|thumb|Corporal frock coat 1862, 9-botton military]]The 1860s saw fewer inventions that influenced or changed the way people were acquiring clothes. But the changes begun by mass production continued with the working class. Little changed for the higher classes, except maybe paper patterns and sewing machines. The different shape and size in clothing continued to provide slightly different silhouettes for men in the upper and middle classes. As women's clothes grew more complex in cut and style, men's clothes became simpler in cut and style. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== Individualized fittings continued for upper class and wealthy middle class clients. (Working class as well as middle and upper class.) Working class was well over 60% of the population. For the largest class, ready-made garments were ideal for men and women who were working class. For the two upper classes morning coats still led the way but frock coats were still in demand and worn in business and more casual situations. Leisure wear like knickers and ditto suits became more popular in the 1860s. Haute couture wanted every occasion or event to have special clothing. In some ways men dressed more alike (coat, trousers, waistcoat) and in some ways there was more variety in the cut of their coats and in the manufactured clothing they could buy. Many upper class men still had their shirts custom made. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length [[sack coat]] slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions, with the overall effect of a looser silhouette. The Prince of Wales: "For the countryside such as at Sandringham, he permitted an informal dress code. The Henry Poole ledger marked as 'HRH 1865' is for an evening coat without tails, the first 'dinner jacket.'"<ref name=":26" /> (424) ==== Shirts ==== Ready-made shirts rarely were seen since shirts were more underwear than outerwear. Factories began to make and sell detachable collars and cuffs. It was more convenient to replace collars and cuffs each day than the time it took a servant (working class) to wash and starch enough to look like the celluloid many of those collars were made of. ==== Trousers ==== Trousers were cut full and boxy during most of the 1850s and 1860s. The strap under the shoe disappeared and trouser legs reached the back of the heel in length. Knickers were still worn for hunting or riding and breeches were still ''de rigueur'' at court. ==== Waistcoats ==== Waistcoats remained decorative and worn with most of the coats that were popular. The young “dandies” wore the most colorful and decorated waistcoats. These “dandies” gave their highest priority to their appearance. They were the avant garde of haute couture for men. ==== Necks Treatments ==== In the [[1860s in fashion|1860s]], men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. ==== Hats ==== Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular. ==== Overcoats ==== The single-breasted redingote continued in popularity among the aristocracy and upper middle-class.  These coats were often “in colors such as plum, mulberry, brown, bright blue, and bottle green . . . [with] contrasting velvet collars.” Payne2 p. 474 [[File:Mens Coats 1872 Fashion Plate.jpg|thumb|upright|Drawing of Victorian men 1870s]] [[File:Ashurst frock coat.jpg|thumb|Ashurst Frock coat]] [[File:Grand Duke Alexis Alexandrovich of Russia Wearing a Frock Coat; Standing (fbc266c2feca43f6ad5b44e031635a8d).tif|alt=Old photograph of a man wearing a dark thigh-length coat similar to a suit coat with light-colored trousers|thumb|Grand Duke Alexis Alexandrovich of Russia Wearing a Frock Coat, c. 1872]] [[File:Caillebotte Hugot.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Paul Hugot, 1878]] [[File:Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), by Hills & Saunders, Rugby & Oxford 3 april 1876.jpg|thumb|Oscar Wilde, 1876, ditto suit]] [[File:FrockCoat.jpg|thumb|English frock coat, 1870s]] === 1870s === To correct and prevent errors being made in court dress, in 1875 the Lord Chamberlain published ''Dress Worn by Gentleman at Her Majesty's Court'', "a summary of regulations for court uniform and dress."<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Dress_worn_by_Gentlemen_at_Her_Majesty_s/pvrbQCXq0MEC?hl=en|title=Dress worn by Gentlemen at Her Majesty's Court|last=Britain)|first=Victoria (Queen of Great|date=1875|language=en}}</ref> This is the kind of thing Bertie really cared about. Define court dress. A portly, boxy silhouette was sought for most of the 1870s. Older men whose stomachs had spread outward and thus looked prosperous to the Victorians were the ideal for men’s high fashion. Sack coats and trousers were cut a little wider in the legs. Corduroy for trousers and muslin for shirts was often used in working class clothing. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== There were minor changes to some of the coats Victorian men wore. Frock coats were shortened to the knee. Sack coats (or ditto coats — the forerunner of the suits worn by men in the western cultures of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries) were found to be so comfortable that most men of the upper and middle classes had a ditto suit. Men still wore morning coats and the aristocracy still wore cutaway coats with trousers to parties and balls but cutaway coats with knee breeches at court. ==== Shirts ==== Although ready-made shirts were available, the upper and middle classes still wore bespoke clothing hand-made, with better fabric and an excellent fit but stitched on machines. The suits and shirts made for the working class were of cheaper fabrics. ==== Trousers ==== Most men were wearing trousers  all of the time (except at court) and have worn them ever since. Trousers had button flies by the 1870s which most men found to be much more convenient than laces. Trousers did not “ride up” the leg in the way that knee breeches did when dancing or sitting. If a man did not have fashionable legs, they could be obscured behind trousers. ==== Waistcoats ==== White waistcoats began to be worn by men. Black were also worn when mourning. Changes in the waistcoat could be seen but were very subtle. For example, collars were lowered as the neckline grew deeper and deeper in front, revealing more of the fancy vest. ==== Overcoats ==== A longer version of the standard overcoat, “sometimes with fur collar, cuffs, and lining” was often worn for warmth. Payne2 p. 519 Added to overcoats, “Chesterfield coats were single-breasted, with fly fronts and velvet collars.”  Payne2 p. 519 ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1870s in fashion|1870s]], three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the [[Ascot tie]]s. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter and more form fitting. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating. [[File:Elliott & Fry10a.jpg|thumb|William Gladstone, 1887, morning coat]] [[File:British politicians gambling at Ascot Wellcome V0050378.jpg|thumb|British Politicians Gambling at Ascot, 1884]] [[File:Scribner's magazine (1887) (14595087238).jpg|thumb|1887, types of American servants]] === 1880s === The silhouette narrowed and straightened. That is, the line went straight down without the flare of skirts on the coats. This smooth line had few decorations. Men wore hardly any jewelry. They might have a boutonniere or a ring.  Suits were not  decorated. All coats were straighter and shorter. Depending on the time of day, the Prince of Wales might change his clothes (thus, his silhouette) up to six times per day,<ref name=":28" /> (129) and some aristocrats and upper-class men would follow his lead. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== Although the frock coat was worn throughout the nineteenth century, the single fabric sack suit was worn for casual wear and was beginning to be seen as a businessman’s suit.  Morning coats were still in use for some events as well as casual occasions. The modern tuxedo or Cowes jacket appeared and was worn for formal occasions. The tuxedo is still worn as formal dress today. ==== Shirts ==== Shirts were still custom made for the rich and the working class bought ready-made shirts. The shirt remained basically the same but it could handle the different neck treatments.  Even mass produced shirts could have buttons or button holes for detachable collars and cuffs. ==== Trousers ==== Trouser legs began to decrease in width as the coat became narrower and emphasized strong vertical lines. ==== Waistcoats ==== During the 1880s waistcoats were called vests [is it regional?] and much of their bold trim and colorful fabric disappeared and vests were constructed from the same fabric as the coat and trousers. The business suit for men developed in the 1880s and was firmly established in the 1890s. ==== Overcoats ==== Versions of topcoats increased, adding an ulster overcoat for travel and an Inverness coat with up to five cape collars and a high curved collar. Double breasted topcoats were popular and some were knee-length and some calf-length. ==== Original Text ==== During the [[1880s in fashion|1880s]], formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or [[tuxedo]], was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The [[Norfolk jacket]] and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe. [[File:American fashions - The Jno. J. Mitchell Co. Litho., New York. LCCN2006676665.jpg|thumb|Fashion plate from the Jno. J. Mitchell Co., New York, 1899]] [[File:Alfred Milner Vanity Fair 1897-04-15.jpg|thumb|Alfred Milner, 1897, Leslie Ward ("Spy"), for Vanity Fair]] [[File:Nobl-08.jpg|thumb|Sherlock Holmes, 1892, Sidney Paget]] [[File:PUK1894page380rector poor.jpg|thumb|Rector and Drinker, 1894]] === 1890s === The dominant silhouette for men became the sack suit in the 1890s and while changes in the sack have been subtle, it remains the dominant silhouette today. ==== Coats and Jackets ==== “Sacks became ''the'' favored style of suit coat,”(Payne2, p. 532) especially among the younger men. Frock coats were associated with older men along with the cutaway coat. There were many more choices for sports wear and leisure wear than ever before. Norfolk jackets were often worn while hunting. Most informal styles could be purchased ready made. The rich still had their clothing custom made by tailors but even working class men could purchase most ready-made versions of the coats, trousers, and vests. ==== Shirts ==== Shirts could be made of patterned fabric as well as solid colors and white.  Shirts were beginning to be acceptable as outer wear especially when worn as sporting clothing. ==== Trousers ==== Early in the 1890s, “slim, straight trousers were news.” (Payne 2, p. 532) Trousers could be plaid or checked as well as the same fabric as the coat and vest. ==== Waistcoats ==== Fancy fabrics and bold trim were not seen much as the more subdued vest dominated the fashion scene. ==== Neck Treatments ==== In the 1860s, men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. ==== Overcoats ==== “Topcoats included fingertip-length styles made of twill covert cloth. Single-breasted, fly-front overcoats were fashionable too. Roomy overcoats with fur linings and collars warmed the wealthy. Inverness overcoats remained in vogue.” Payne2, p.532 ==== Original Text ==== Starting from the [[1890s in fashion|1890s]], the [[blazer]] was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Landow|first=George|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/90s/2.html|title=Men's informal sporting dress, late 1880s and '90s}}</ref> Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards. A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/costume/nunn21.html|title=Victorian Men's Fashions, 1850–1900: Hair}}</ref> Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is difficult, as reliable records do not exist.<ref name="shannon597">{{cite journal|last=Shannon|first=Brent|title=Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914|journal=Victorian Studies|year=2004|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–630|doi=10.1353/vic.2005.0022}}</ref> === Notes === *Men's suits buttoned higher up than today (Payne, 467) * Norfolk jackets and sack suits (Payne, 471) * formal attire, tuxedos with tails, cutaways (Payne, 469) * Keith Middlemas (https://archive.org/details/storyoffiesta00huxf/page/200/mode/2up?q=fashion) *Brent Shannon. "Refashioning Men: Fashion, Masculinity, and the Cultivation of the Male Consumer in Britain, 1860–1914." Victorian Studies 46, no. 4 (Summer 2004): 597–630. == Hats and headwear == [[File:Ford.madox.brown.last.emma.study.jpg|thumb|''Emma Hill'' by [[Ford Madox Brown]] (1853), a woman wearing a later version of the [[poke bonnet]]]] [[File:Hoed,_objectnr_KA_1237.tif|left|thumb|Perched bonnet style of the early 1870s.]] Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. === Men's Hats === The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.[Payne] According to Blanche Payne, "The high top hat, usually black or dark gray, had reached its characteristic shape by 1798 and dominated the entire nineteenth century." (457–58) Although top hats were the dominant hat in the 19th century, other hats became popular for working classes and lower income middle class. “The style of an individual’s hat varied, depending on fashion and their social position, as well as their profession or chosen activity..” ''Goodman 53 of 460'' Other hats that became necessary and popular include the Derby, the straw Boater, and a flat cap with a short brim. In many cases the class, work activity and income could be determined by what kind of hat was on the head of the wearer. For some men, a hat supporting a particular sport or team was important. The Derby or Bowler hat was designed by William and Thomas Bowler, brother shopkeepers in 1849. ''(Goodman 55 of 460)'' It cost less than a top hat but  lasted longer and was soon worn by middle class bankers and clerks. Straw boaters were worn by the aristocracy for casual events and working class factory workers and agricultural laborers. By 1901 working class men had changed their preference to the flat caps which became the most popular hat for the workers. Headdress for men was an essential part of dress for the entire period of the Victorian age, from the 1830s through the end of the century. Judith Flanders describes the hats worn by men in London, <blockquote>It is difficult to bear in mind the importance of hats as not only markers of class and income, but also as indicators of respectability. [509–519] [George Augustus] Sala commented that "every" man throughout the history of the world "must, necessarily and habitually, wear some kind of covering to his head". Postmen wore hats, small children wore hats, field labourers and market gardeners wore hats, cricketers, skaters — all sportsmen — wore hats. It was, self-evidently, impossible to go outdoors without one. ... Those in professional occupations wore pot hats, as did clerks and all those with pretensions to middle-class status. Even doctors' delivery boys wore battered hand-me-down pot hats: "the nap rusty, the band a mournful strip of tarnished lace; but still a Hat", which "stamps him as being associated, in however slender a manner, with a learned profession". Cloth caps were for labourers, for costers and for boys. ... Artisans wore caps made out of paper, which they folded [510–511] themselves and so could easily replace as they became dirty.<ref name=":23" /> (509–511 [of 972]) </blockquote>A pot-hat is a kind of derby or bowler in men's hats. (Lewandowski, 237) ==== Original Text ==== Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Steele |first=Valerie |url=https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee |title=Victorian Fashion. Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-19-503530-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fashioneroticism0000stee/page/51 51]–84 |url-access=registration}}</ref> For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits. === Women's Hats === For a discussion of the history of plumes and feathers, see [[Social Victorians/Victorian Things#Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers|Ostrich Plumes and Prince of Wales's Feathers in ''Victorian Things'']]. ==== Original Wikipedia Text ==== During the early Victorian decades, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. [[Poke bonnet]]s, which had been worn during the late [[Regency period]], had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts. Bonnets shrunk at the end of the 1860s and moved to a perched position in the early 1870s as hairstyles grew in scale and intricacy. This led to the popularization of hats, which became the headwear of choice for the remainder of the Victorian era.<ref name="g4223">{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=Cecil Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century |date=1990-05-01 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=0-486-26323-1 |publication-place=New York |page=}}</ref> [[File:The_London_and_Paris_ladies'_magazine_(Apr_1885)_03.png|thumb|Flower pot style hat of 1885.]] The 1880s saw a hat inspired by the top hat for women known as the flowerpot hat, and the 1890s saw the popularity of the boater. The hats of the late Victorian era were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like [[Adeline Knapp]] were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 per cent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by [[Plume hunting|plume hunter]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Everglades National Park|url=https://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927085907/http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/everglades/|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2009|publisher=PBS|access-date=7 November 2011}}</ref> == Shoes == The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.<ref name=":4" /> == Cosmetics == [[Victorian-era cosmetics]] were typically less obvious than ours. However, small amounts of pale face powder or powdered blush were widely used.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Ruth |title=How to be a Victorian |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-670-92136-2 |location=London}}</ref> Tints were sometimes added to face creams. Some cosmetics contained toxic or caustic ingredients like lead, mercury, ammonia, and arsenic {{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}. Hair color ==Mourning black== {{See also |Mourning stationery}} [[File:The royal children in mourning Mar 1862.jpg|thumb|Victoria's five daughters (Alice, Helena, Beatrice, Victoria and Louise), photographed wearing mourning black beneath a bust of their late father, Prince Albert (1862)]] [[File:Mourning dress MET 50.40.3a-b front CP4.jpg|alt=Black Victorian mourning dress|thumb|Mourning Dress, 1894–95]] In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid but evolving during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. (Davidoff) The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of [[Church of England]] (and [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]) clergy wearing lavender or mauve [[Stole (vestment)|stoles]] for funeral services, to represent the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Colors of the Church Year|url=http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|publisher=Consortium of Country Churches|access-date=6 November 2011|archive-date=13 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113075214/http://fullhomelydivinity.org/articles/colors.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> The mourning dress worn by Queen Victoria (below, right) "shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/155839?&searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&deptids=8&ft=queen+victoria&offset=0&rpp=20&amp;pos=2|title=Mourning Dress, 1894–95|last=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=7 September 2019|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=7 September 2019}}</ref> Dating from 1894–95, Queen Victoria wore this dress as a result of the death of the eldest son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Eddy, in line to the throne. === Norms for mourning=== ''Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided'' (London, Frederick Warne & Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–83}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Relationship to deceased !! First mourning !! Second mourning !! Ordinary mourning !! Half-mourning |- | Wife for husband || 1-year, 1-month; [[bombazine]] fabric covered with [[Crape|crepe]]; [[widow's cap]], [[lawn cuff]]s, collars || 6 months: less crepe || 6 months: no crepe, silk or wool replaces bombazine; in last 3 months jet jewellery and ribbons can be added || 6 months: colours permitted are grey, lavender, mauve, and black-and-grey |- | Daughter for parent || 6 months: black with black or white crepe (for young girls); no linen cuffs and collars; no jewellery for first 2 months || 4 months: less crepe || – || 2 months as above |- | Wife for husband's parents || 18 months in black bombazine with crepe || – || 3 months in black || 3 months as above |- | Parent for son- or daughter-in-law's parent || – Black armband in representation of someone lost || – || 1-month black || – |- | Second wife for parent of a first wife || – || – || 3 months black || – |} The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and "connections" (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of "1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy"). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|pages=378–9}}</ref> Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself. It was not uncommon for a widow who did not remarry to wear half-mourning for the rest of her life, except when another death necessitated full mourning. For example, Alexandra, Princess of Wales wore half-mourning for the rest of her life after her eldest son Eddy died in 1894. Empress Elisabeth of Austria did the same, as did Empress Eugénie of France. They reverted to full mourning when appropriate, but they never wore less than half-mourning after their sons' deaths. Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flanders|first=Judith|title=The Victorian House|year=2003|publisher=Harper Perennial|location=London|isbn=0-00-713189-5|page=341}}</ref> == Technological advancement == The technological changes that affected the manufacture and consumption of clothing in the Victorian age included the following: * the mass production of fabrics — for example, "by the early 1850s there were thousands of steam-powered looms churning out millions of miles of fabric every year"  [62] * the invention of aniline dyes, which were much more vibrantly colored and resistant to fading than the natural dyes that had been used. — . Invented by chemist [[William Henry Perkin]] in 1856, the first aniline dye mauveine (or mauve) "wash[ed] the fashionable landscape in a haze of purple."<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=The Dress Diary: Secrets from a Victorian Woman's Wardrobe|last=Strasdin|first=Kate|publisher=Pegasus Books|year=2023|location=New York, New York}}</ref> (247) Other intense and, to the Victorians, intensely exciting colors followed, but the new synthetic additions to fabric sometimes included chemicals harmful to their wearers. For example, a "bright-magenta hue was achieved by adding arsenical-based chemicals to existing aniline dyes, brightening the already luminous shades – but these left residues themselves, along with a toxic labour trail in their wake."<ref name=":22" /> (255) Perhaps the most famous of these is arsenic green, used on fabrics, wallpapers, and trim: "The craze for artificial foliage to adorn the heads and dresses of women of fashion in the mid-nineteenth century had seen the proliferation of flower workshops, where young women in their hundreds laboured to produce the lifelike green leaves and blooms that would make a fetching headdress or would trail becomingly across the bodice of a gown. The lushness of the green was achieved by the application of a powder, a pigment that was created by mixing copper and the highly toxic chemical, arsenic trioxide. The physical effects of working with this poisonous compound were horrific. Contemporary medical drawings depict the green hue of the skin and dreadful open lesions on the hands of the maker, whilst the daily gradual ingestion of the powder by the flower girls was eventually fatal."<ref name=":22" /> (255) * the invention of a sewing machine that could be used in the home. Although sewing machines were already in use in the clothing industry, in 1858 Isaac Merritt Singer began to sell "lightweight domestic machines" for home sewing, radically increasing women's control over their own dress.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|title=Victorian Fashions for Women|last=Kay|first=Fiona|last2=Storey|first2=Neil R.|publisher=Pen & Sword History|year=2022|isbn=978 1 39900 416 9|location=Yorkshire and Philadelphia|pages=}}</ref> (91 [of 298]) * the spread of journalism for women and fashion journalism * the Jacquard loom: "French inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard’s loom attachment mechanized the weaving of figured fabrics by 1804."<ref name=":25" /> (454) Perhaps not at the same scale as these but as important in 1850s designs was a technology that turned iron into steel, which could then be drawn into fine wires.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Culture of Fashion|last=Breward|first=Christopher|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1995|pages=145–180}}</ref> Steel was refined to a malleable state so that thin blades could be curved into concentric circles (called hoops) and connected with wires to form the cage. Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Graham|first1=P|title=The Victorian Era|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.261548|journal=Digital Library of India}}</ref> Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly. In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it. In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette without layers of petticoats, which was lighter and more hygienic.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shrimpton|first1=J|title=Victorian Fashion|publisher=Bloomsbury Shire Publications}}</ref> Synthetic dyes, such as [[mauveine]] (aniline purple), were introduced in 1856, adding bright colours to garments. In 1855's ''[[Haute couture]]'' was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Aspelund|first1=Karl|title=Fashioning Society|publisher=Fairchild Books}}</ref> Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time that sewing machines were invented.<ref name="Haute Couture">{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Richard|last2=Koda|first2=Harold|title=Haute Couture|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> Princess [[Eugénie de Montijo|Eugenie]] of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed [[Napoleon III]] and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}} Later, Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Saillard|first1=Olivier|last2=Zazzo|first2=Anne|title=Paris Haute Couture|publisher=Skira Flammarion}}</ref> By the 1860s, when made-to-fit tailoring was popular in Europe, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.<ref name="Haute Couture"/> dressmakers, couturiers, modistes == Home decor == {{main|Victorian decorative arts}} Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of [[William Morris]] as well as pseudo-[[Japonaiserie]]. == Myths and Oversimplifications == === Modesty === {{main|Victorian morality}} {{Original research|section|date=May 2008}} [[File:1868-skirt-lengths-girl-ages-Harpers-Bazar.gif|thumb|upright|"The proper length for little girls' skirts at various ages", from ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'', showing a 1900 idea of how the hemline should descend towards the ankle as a girl got older]]Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that [[corset]]s constricted women's bodies and lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating [[bric-a-brac]]. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny [[pantalette]]s. === Tight Lacing === Tight-lacing, which was not possible until the development of the grommet in 1828, was famously controversial in the Victorian age, generating many column inches of profitable newspaper copy, in part because it was (and still is) fetishistic and subversive in that adolescent girls used it as a means of rebellion and upper-working- or lower-middle-class shop girls saw it as a means of upward mobility.<ref name=":21">{{Cite book|title=Fashion and Fetishism: Corsets, Tight-Lacing and Other Forms of Body-sculpture|last=Kunzle|first=David|publisher=History Press|year=2013|isbn=978 0 7524 9545 3|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|pages=}}</ref> (71 [of 1182]) No evidence exists that tight lacing was widespread or particularly dangerous.<ref name=":21" /> () In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant [[waistcoat]]s and [[cummerbund]]s provided a touch of colour, and [[smoking jacket]]s and [[robe|dressing gown]]s were often of rich Oriental [[brocade]]s. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men.<ref name="shannon597"/> Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's [[evening gown]]s bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The [[jersey dress]]es of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gernsheim |first=Alison |title=Victorian & Edwardian Fashion: A Photographic Survey |year=1981 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |page=65|edition=New |isbn=0-486-24205-6}}</ref> Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more ''[[nouveaux riches]]'' making a rich show. The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of [[soot]] from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today. There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with [[shawl]]s or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their [[pine]] tables rather than show that they couldn't afford [[mahogany]]. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, ''A Diary in America'' written by Captain [[Frederick Marryat]], as a satirical comment on American prissiness.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Marryat |first1=C.B. |title=A Diary in America: With Remarks on Its Institutions |date=1839 |publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans |location=London, England |volume=2 |pages=246–247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-VEAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA246}} From pp. 246-247: "I was requested by a lady to escort her to a seminary for young ladies, and on being ushered into the reception-room, conceive my astonishment at beholding a square piano-forte with four ''limbs''. However, that the ladies who visited their daughters, might feel in its full force the extreme delicacy of the mistress of the establishment, and her care to preserve in their utmost purity the ideas of the young ladies under her charge, she had dressed all these four limbs in modest little trousers, with frills at the bottom of them!"</ref> Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in [[adultery|adulterous]] liaisons. == Gallery == {{gallery |2=A mid-Victorian interior: ''Hide and Seek'' by [[James Tissot]], c. 1877 Image:Winterhalter Elisabeth.jpg|3=Dress designed by [[Charles Frederick Worth]] for [[Elisabeth of Bavaria|Elisabeth of Austria]] painted by [[Franz Xaver Winterhalter]].|4=File:Frith A Private View detail.jpg|5=[[William Powell Frith]]'s painting of 1883 contrasts women's [[Aesthetic dress]] (left and right) with fashionable attire (center).|6=File:Tissot lilacs 1875.jpg|7=Day dress, c. 1875 [[James Tissot]] painting.|8=File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 011.jpg|9=[[James McNeill Whistler|Whistler]]'s [[Portrait of Lady Meux]], 1882 Image:Jeanna_Samary-Renoir.png|10=[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]]'s portrait of [[Jeanne Samary]] in an [[evening gown]], 1878|11=File:Melville_-_Queen_Victoria.jpg|12=Portrait by [[Alexander Melville (artist)|Alexander Melville]] of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], 1845|13=File:Henry Treffry Dunn Rossetti and Dunton at 16 Cheyne Walk.jpg|14=An artistic interior: [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] reading to [[Theodore Watts-Dunton]] in the drawing room at No. 16 [[Cheyne Walk]], 1882|15=File:Punch - Masculine beauty retouched1.png|16=Men's swimwear: Cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' by [[George du Maurier]]}} == See also == * [[Emily Clapham]] * [[Victorian decorative arts]] * [[Victorian dress reform]] * [[Victorian morality]] * [[Victoriana]] * [[Women in the Victorian Era]] * [[Charles Frederick Worth]] === Time periods === * [[1830s in fashion]] * [[1840s in fashion]] * [[1850s in fashion]] * [[1860s in fashion]] * [[1870s in fashion]] * [[1880s in fashion]] * [[1890s in fashion]] === Women's clothing === * [[Corset]] * [[Corset controversy]] * [[Tightlacing]] * [[Bloomers (clothing)|Bloomers]] * [[Bodice]] === Contemporary interpretations === * [[Steampunk]] * [[Neo-Victorian]] * [[Lolita Fashion|Lolita]] == References == {{Reflist}} == Further reading == *{{cite book |author=Phipps, Elena| title= ''From Queen to Empress: Victorian dress 1837-1877'' | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1988 | isbn=0870995340| url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/69547/rec/235 | display-authors=etal}} * Sweet, Matthew – ''Inventing the Victorians'', St. Martin's Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-312-28326-1}} == External links == * [http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion Victorian Fashion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407223711/http://www.victorians.co.uk/victorian-fashion |date=7 April 2018 }} * [https://www.victorianvoices.net/topics/fashion/index.shtml VictorianVoices.net] – Fashion articles and illustrations from Victorian periodicals; extensive fashion image gallery * [http://www.cracked.com/article_19575_5-ridiculous-sex-myths-from-history-you-probably-believe.html Victorian myths] * [http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm Victorian fashion, etiquette, and sports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103162620/http://www.victorianstation.com/lifestylemenu.htm |date=3 January 2018 }} * [http://www.thesmartset.com/article/article12180701.aspx Background on "A Diary in America"] * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_17_EN.html Form and Fashion] — the evolution of women's dress during the 19th century (many photographs) * [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/jeu2/ Educational Game: Mix and Match] — build a 19th-century dress using a virtual mannequin * {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] |url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/v/victorian-dress-at-v-and-a/ |title= Victorian Dress |work= Fashion, Jewellery & Accessories |date= 14 January 2011 |access-date= 2011-04-03}} *[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/creative-life/fashion-detective-fashion-fiction-and-forensics/ Fashion detective: Fashion, Fiction and Forensics in nineteenth century Australian fashion] on Culture Victoria {{Timeline of clothing and fashion|state=collapsed}}{{Victorian era|state=collapsed}} [[Category:Victorian fashion| ]] [[Category:19th-century fashion|*]] [[Category:1900s fashion]] [[Category:History of Western fashion]] [[Category:19th century in the arts]] =From ''Women in the Victorian era''= ===Victorian women's fashion=== {{Multiple issues|{{tone|date=March 2023}} {{more footnotes needed|date=March 2023}}|section=y}}{{Further|Victorian fashion}} The ideal Victorian woman was pure, chaste, refined, and modest. This ideal was supported by etiquette and manners. The etiquette extended to the pretension of never acknowledging the use of undergarments (sometimes generically referred to as "unmentionables"). The discussion of such a topic, it was feared, would gravitate towards unhealthy attention on anatomical details. As one Victorian lady expressed it: "[those] are not things, my dear, that we speak of; indeed, we try not even to think of them", in contrast to current norms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=20}}</ref> The pretence of avoiding acknowledgement of anatomical realities met with embarrassing failure on occasion. In 1859, the Hon. Eleanor Stanley wrote about an incident where the [[Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|Duchess of Manchester]] moved too quickly while manoeuvring over a [[stile]], tripping over her large [[hoop skirt]]: {{blockquote|[the Duchess] caught a hoop of her cage in it and went regularly head over heels lighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats above, above her head. They say there was never such a thing seen – and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her undergarments consisted in a pair of scarlet tartan [[knickerbockers (clothing)|knickerbockers]] (the things Charlie shoots in) which were revealed to the view of all the world in general and the [[Aimable Pélissier|Duc de Malakoff]] in particular".<ref>{{cite book|last=Cunnington|first=C. Willett|title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations|year=1990|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-26323-6|pages=20–1}}</ref>}} However, despite the fact that Victorians considered the mention of women's undergarments in mixed company unacceptable, men's entertainment made great comedic material out of the topic of ladies' [[bloomers (clothing)|bloomers]], including men's magazines and music hall skits.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cunnington |first=C. Willett |title=English Women's Clothing in the Nineteenth Century: A Comprehensive Guide with 1,117 Illustrations |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-486-26323-6 |pages=22}}</ref> Victorian women's clothing followed trends that emphasised elaborate dresses, skirts with wide volume created by the use of layered material such as [[crinoline]]s, hoop skirt frames, and heavy fabrics. Because of the impracticality and health impact of the era's fashions, a [[Victorian dress reform|dress reform movement]] began among women. The ideal silhouette of the time demanded a narrow waist, which was accomplished by constricting the abdomen with a laced [[corset]]. While the silhouette was striking, and the dresses themselves were often exquisitely detailed creations, the fashions were cumbersome. At best, they restricted women's movements and at worst, they had a harmful effect on women's health. Physicians turned their attention to the use of corsets and determined that they caused several medical problems: compression of the thorax, restricted breathing, organ displacement, poor circulation, and prolapsed uterus.<ref name="O'Connor"/> Articles advocating the reform of women's clothing by the British National Health Society, the Ladies' Dress Association, and the [[Rational Dress Society]] were reprinted in ''The Canada Lancet'', Canada's medical journal. In 1884, Dr J. Algernon Temple of Toronto even voiced concern that the fashions were having a negative impact on the health of young women from the working classes. He pointed out that a young working-class woman was likely to spend a large part of her earnings on fine hats and shawls, while "her feet are improperly protected, and she wears no flannel petticoat or woollen stockings".<ref name="O'Connor"/> [[File:Bloomers.jpg|thumb|1850s illustration of a woman wearing [[bloomers]]]] [[Florence Pomeroy]], Lady Haberton, was president of the Rational Dress movement in Britain. At a National Health Society exhibition held in 1882, Viscountess Haliburton presented her invention of a "[[divided skirt]]", which was a long skirt that cleared the ground, with separate halves at the bottom made with material attached to the bottom of the skirt. She hoped that her invention would become popular by supporting women's freedom of physical movement, but the British public was not impressed by the invention, perhaps because of the negative "unwomanly" association of the style with the American [[Bloomers]] movement.<ref>{{cite book|last=Murray|first=Janet Horowitz|title=Strong-Minded Women and Other Lost Voices from 19th Century England|year=1982|publisher=Pantheon Books|location=New York|isbn=0-394-71044-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68 68–70]|url=https://archive.org/details/strongmindedwome00jane/page/68}}</ref> [[Amelia Jenks Bloomer]] had encouraged the wearing of visible bloomers by feminists to assert their right to wear comfortable and practical clothing, but it was no more than a passing fashion itself among radical feminists. The movement to reform women's dress would persist and have long-term success, however; by the 1920s, [[Coco Chanel]] was successful at selling a progressive, far less restrictive silhouette that abandoned the corset and raised hemlines. The new silhouette symbolised modernism for trendy young women and became the 20th century standard. Other Paris designers continued reintroducing pants for women and the trend was gradually adopted over the next century. Fashion trends, in one sense, travelled "full circle" over the course of the Victorian era. The popular women's styles during the [[Georgian era]], and at the very beginning of Victoria's reign, emphasized a simple style influenced by flowing gowns worn by women in [[Ancient Greek clothing|Ancient Greece]] and [[Clothing in ancient Rome|Rome]]. The [[Empire waist]] silhouette was replaced by a trend towards ornate styles and an artificial silhouette, with the restrictiveness of women's clothing reaching its low point during the mid-century passion for narrow corseted waists and hoop skirts. The iconic wide-brimmed women's hats of the later Victorian era also followed the trend towards ostentatious display. Hats began the Victorian era as simple [[Bonnet (headgear)|bonnets]]. By the 1880s, milliners were tested by the competition among women to top their outfits with the most creative (and extravagant) hats, designed with expensive materials such as silk flowers and exotic plumes such as ostrich and peacock. As the Victorian era drew to a close, however, fashions were showing indications of a popular backlash against excessive styles. Model, actress and socialite [[Lillie Langtry]] took London by storm in the 1870s, attracting notice for wearing simple black dresses to social events. Combined with her natural beauty, the style appeared dramatic. Fashions followed her example (as well as Queen Victoria's wearing of mourning black later in her reign). According to [[Harold Koda]], the former Curator-in-chief of the [[Costume Institute at The Met|Metropolitan Museum of Art's Costume Institute]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-museum/press-room/exhibitions/2014/death-becomes-her|title=Death Becomes Her: A Century of Mourning Attire : October 21, 2014-February 1, 2015|website=Metmuseuim.org|access-date=7 November 2021}}</ref> "The predominantly black palette of [[mourning]] dramatizes the evolution of period silhouettes and the increasing absorption of fashion ideals into this most codified of etiquettes," said Koda, "The veiled widow could elicit sympathy as well as predatory male advances. As a woman of sexual experience without marital constraints, she was often imagined as a potential threat to the social order." ====Evolution of Victorian women's fashion==== <gallery> File:Fashion plate December 1844.jpg|Ladies' December Fashions (1844). Hand-coloured steel engraving from a women's magazine. File:Thegalleryofhmscalcutta james tissot 1876.jpg|''[[The Gallery of HMS Calcutta]]'' by [[James Tissot]] (1876). [[Bustle]]s were fashionable in the 1870s and 1880s. File:Mrs lillie langtry george frederic watts 1880.jpg|''Mrs. Lillie Langtry'' by [[George Frederic Watts]] (1880). File:Five-women-on-queenslander-steps-r.jpg|Fashionable women in [[Queensland]], Australia around 1900. </gallery> {{Short description|Irish writer (born 1963)}} {{Use Irish English|date=August 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Infobox writer | name = Darach Ó Scolaí | image = Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG | alt = Man holding prize-winning book | caption = Ó Scolaí in 2019 | birth_name = Darach Ó Scolaí | birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|df=y}} | birth_place = [[County Galway]], The Republic of Ireland | death_date = | death_place = | occupation = Writer, artist, publisher | alma_mater = [[University of Galway]] | years_active = 1998–present | genre = Novel, retelling, translation, play, screenplay, illustrated book for children and adults | other_names = | spouse = | children = 3 | awards = [[Awards and Honors received by Darach Ó Scolaí|Awards and Honors]] | signature = | website = }}[[File:Darach Ó Scolaí.JPG|thumb|Darach Ó Scolaí, holding ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (his translation of Robert Louis Stevenson's ''Treasure Island'')]] == Darach Ó Scolaí == Darach Ó Scolaí (<small>Irish:</small> [/ˈda.rax/ /oː/ /sˠkˠoː/l̪ˠəi/]; born 1963<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portraidi.ie/en/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=20 October 2017|website=Portráidí (Portraits of Irish-Language Writers)|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>) is an Irish author who works in a number of genres, from novels, plays and screenplays to illustrated books for children and adults. He began his literary career in 1998 writing screenplays, stage plays, retellings and translations; he began to publish novels in 2008. Ó Scolaí is widely recognized as a leading figure in contemporary Irish literature, known as “one of the most important Irish language writers of his generation”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=2022|title=? Suil an Daill: Constant Tensions and Shifting Allegiances|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/suil-an-daill-constant-tensions-and-shifting-allegiances/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> and "one of the great Irish language novelists [duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge]."<ref name=":17" /> His writing has been called “the high literature of the Irish language.”<ref>Ó Coimín, Maitiú. ''Nós'' 2 February 2018). Qtd. in "Táin Bó Cuailnge." ''Leabhar Breac''. Retrieved 25 August 2025.</ref> Much of his fiction is based on a knowledge of traditional Irish tales and narrative practices as well as Irish history. He specializes in literary and [[wikipedia:Historical_fiction|historical fiction]], or as novelist Alan Titley says, Ó Scolaí’s “peak (for now), or at least his greatest imaginative interest, is the historical novel [tá an chuma air gurb é a bhuaic (go fóill), nó ar a laghad, a mhórspéis samhlaíochta, an t-úrscéal staire].”<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=Fall 2020|title=An Stíl Go Deo!: Soather Dharach Uí Scolaí (The style would be forever!: Worker Darach Ó Scolaí)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27046090|journal=Comhar|volume=80, No. 10|pages=27|via=JSTOR}}</ref> His retellings of old stories and tales from their original Middle and Early-Modern Irish into Modern Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]) are respected for their accessibility to students and language learners as well as for their artistry. Ó Scolaí also regularly reviews books and lectures and writes on literature and culture. Beyond his writing, Ó Scolaí is a publisher and has co-produced a number of film, television shows and stage plays. == Life == Ó Scolaí was born in Dublin and raised in the Galway [[wikipedia:Gaeltacht#Galway Gaeltacht|Gaeltacht]] (Irish-speaking) regions of Cois Fharraige on the north shore of Galway Bay, in the Republic of Ireland, where he lives now with his wife and children in Lochán Beag (Indreabhán).<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=30 October 2024|title=Duais don úrscéal liteartha is fearr buaite ag Darach Ó Scolaí ag Oireachtas na Samhna|url=https://tuairisc.ie/duais-don-ursceal-liteartha-is-fearr-buaite-ag-darach-o-scolai-ag-oireachtas-na-samhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ní Scolaí|first=Aifric|date=2024|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://www.taiscecf.ie/ealaiontoiri?category=Scr%C3%ADbhneoir|journal=Taisce Chois Fharraige}}</ref> He graduated the [[wikipedia:University_of_Galway|University of Galway]] (then University College Galway) with a B.A. in 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/in/darach-ó-scolaí-20026920/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|last=Ó Scolaí|first=Darach|date=August 2025|website=LinkedIn}}</ref> === Writing and Publishing === Ó Scolaí writes in Irish ([[wikipedia:Irish_language|Gaeilge]]), his native language, and lives in an area defined for the predominant presence of Irish as the vernacular language, the language spoken at home. Irish was the language of his parents' home and is the language of children as well. He is fluent in Irish and English and conversant in French. None of his works has been translated into English. ==== Leabhar Breac ==== In 1995 Darach Ó Scolaí and his brother Caomhán Ó Scolaí — a [[wikipedia:Typography|typographer]] and designer — founded the publishing house Leabhar Breac at Indreabhán (Inverin), County Galway. Their father “Séamas Ó Scolaí was an editor at An Gúm and worked on the Irish-English dictionary team [bhí a n-athair Séamas Ó Scolaí ina eagarthóir sa Ghúm agus d’oibrigh sé ar fhoireann an fhoclóra Gaeilge-Béarla].”<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/about-us/|title=About Us|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> Darach Ó Scolaí has been publisher and literary editor at Leabhar Breac since its founding. Named for [[wikipedia:An_Leabhar_Breac|An Leabhar Breac (The Speckled Book)]], Leabhar Breac publishing house has more than 140 books in print.<ref name=":0" /> Leabhar Breac aims to publish Irish-language books that meet “a high literary and artistic standard.”<ref name=":0" /> Besides the content, Leabhar Breac is known for the typically "superb [thar cionn]" quality of the design and production of the "physical book [leabhar fisiciúil]."<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Mhuilneoir|first=Gráinne|date=30 July 2024|title=‘Bláthnaid’ – leabhar álainn i sraithín álainn faoi mhná|url=https://tuairisc.ie/blathnaid-leabhar-alainn-i-sraithin-alainn-faoi-mhna/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> Its books regularly win awards for literary and artistic quality. Leabhar Breac also publishes translations for children and adults from various early versions of Irish as well as from French and English (and has published translations of books for young readers from Spanish, Catalan, and Italian as well). Leabhar Breac prints its books in Ireland. === Stage and Screen === ==== Rosg ==== In 1998 along with Ciarán Ó Cofaigh,<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.rosg.ie/en/about/History_6/|title=About Us: History|date=July 2025|website=Rosg|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Ó Scolaí co-founded the film and television production company [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ Rosg] and was co-director until 2006. Rosg produced Ó ScolaÍ’s films ''Cosa Nite'' (1999), ''An Leabhar'' (2001) and ''Na Cloigne'' (2010). He left Rosg in 2006 to devote his time to other artistic activities. ==== Ealaín ar Oileán ==== In 2004, along with Val Balance, Ó Scolaí co-founded the annual artists' symposium Ealaín ar Oileán (trans., Art on an Island). The Irish-language symposium was held annually in the Áras Éanna arts and cultural center on Inis Oírr ([[wikipedia:Inisheer|Inisheer]], the smallest of the [[wikipedia:Aran_Islands|Aran Islands]]) from 2004 to 2013. Ó Scolaí was its co-director from its founding<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darach_Ó_Scolaí.|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=3 February 2024|website=Vicipéid|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> until 2013. Besides being its co-director, Ó Scolaí has taken part in this conference as an artist<ref>{{Cite journal|date=16 January 2005|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050116163252/http://bliainiris.com/authors/darach_oscolai.html|journal=Bliainiris}}</ref> and writer<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|title=The Conference|date=7 September 2013|website=Ealaín ar Oileán|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907083744/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ealainaroilean.html|archive-date=7 September 2013|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref>. ==== Salamandar ==== In 2006 Ó Scolaí founded the stage production company Salamandar and directed his own play ''An Braon Aníos''. His plays ''An tSeanbhróg'' (2009) and ''Craos'' (2008) were also produced by Salamandar.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/darach-o-scolai/|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 July 2025}}</ref> == Works == === Novels === * [[wikipedia:An_Cléireach|''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'')]], Leabhar Breac, 2007. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2007; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2008, and "named as ‘the best novel since the turn of the Century’ by Comhar."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-cleireach/|title=An Cléireach - Leabhar Breac - Irish language novel|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-24}}</ref> * ''Na Comharthaí'' (trans., ''The Signs''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2019.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/suil-an-daill/|title=Súil an Daill|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Bódléar'', Leabhar Breac, 2024. The Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction, 2024<ref name=":7" />; The Ó Súilleabháin Award (Book of the Year) in 2025; featured in the 2025 Listen-Up Irish Summer Challenge for students of the Irish language.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://connachttribune.ie/novel-approach-helps-people-learn-irish-in-a-creative-way/|title=Novel approach helps people learn Irish in a creative way|last=Murphy|first=Judy|date=3 October 2025|work=Connaught Tribune|access-date=24 October 2025}}</ref> === Retellings, Translations and Editions === The retellings and translations are into modern Irish. * ''Feis Tigh Chonáin'' (trans., ''The Feast of Conán's House''), Leabhar Breac, 2000; a retelling of a 15^th-century tale from the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/feis-tigh-chonain/|title=Feis Tigh Chonáin|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach'' (trans., ''The Narrow-Striped Kern''), Leabhar Breac, 2002; a retelling from c. 1500, also illustrated by Darach Ó ScolaÍ.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/fiction/an-ceithearnach-caolriabhach/|title=An Ceithearnach Caolriabhach|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), Leabhar Breac, 2017, both a modern edition of an 11th-century epic and an annotated edition.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/tain-bo-cuailnge-2-2/|title=Táin Bó Cuailnge|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> "''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' won the Aodán Mac Poilín Memorial Prize 2017."<ref name=":19" /> * ''Deirdre'', Leabhar Breac, 2023, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/deirdre/|title=Deirdre|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Part of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]], ''Deirdre'' is a retelling of the story of possibly the most widely known Irish figure from the early tales and sagas.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology|last=MacKillop|first=James|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=9780198609674|pages=181}}</ref> * ''Bláthnaid'', Leabhar Breac, 2024, a “picture book for adults” with artist Anastasia Melnykova; “one of the great stories of the [[wikipedia:Ulster_Cycle|Ulster Cycle]].”<ref name=":4" /> * ''Sadhbh,'' Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers, illustrated by Alé Mercado; a retelling of the medieval tale ''Ceasacht Inghine Ghuile (''trans., ''The Complaint of Guile's Daughter'').<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/tales-of-wonder/|title=Tales of Wonder|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Eoghan Béal'', Leabhar Breac, 2025, a picture book for adult readers illustrated by Alé Mercado<ref name=":5" />; a retelling of the medieval tale ''[https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caithr%C3%A9im_Cellaig Cathréim Ceallaigh]'' from ''The Yellow Book of Leacan.''<ref name=":5" /> === For Young Readers === Ó Scolaí has written illustrated books for young readers (8–10 years old) in two series, the Fionn Series and the Scéalta Staire series, and translated a large number of classics and popular books for children of all ages. The number of these written and translated works suggests a commitment to children and their literacy in Irish. The Fionn Series “is a retelling ... of the great legends of the Fianna for the young Irish readers of today.”<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/doiteoir-na-samhna/|title=Dóiteoir na Samhna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> [[wikipedia:The_Boyhood_Deeds_of_Fionn|Macgnímartha Finn (The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn)]] is a medieval story in the [[wikipedia:Fenian_Cycle|Fenian Cycle]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' (trans., ''The Salmon of Knowledge''), Leabhar Breac, 2010, “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/8-9/an-bradan-feasa/|title=An Bradán Feasa|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Dóiteoir na Samhna'' (trans., ''The Halloween Burner''), 2010.<ref name=":6" /> * ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' (trans., ''The Churl in the Dun Coat''), 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/|title=Bodach an Chóta Lachna|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> The Scéalta Staire (Historical Stories) series<ref name=":9" /> * ''Mánas Ó Dónaill'', 2000. * ''Seán Ó Néill'', Leabhar Breac, 2000. * ''Gráinne Mhaol Ní Mháille'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. * ''Tadhg Dall Ó hUiginn'', Leabhar Breac, 2003. ==== Translations ==== * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''Oileán an Órchiste'' (trans. of ''Treasure Island''), Leabhar Breac, 2014.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-06-19|title=Oireachtas na Gaeilge|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge&oldid=1296394643|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> * Robert Louis Stevenson, ''An Fuadach'' (trans. of ''Kidnapped''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. * Clement Clarke Moore, ''Cuairt San Nioclás'' (trans. of ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas"), Leabhar Breac, 2022. '''''The Corto Maltese Graphic Novels''''' Written in Italian by Hugo Pratt and translated by Ó Scolaí, both adults and teenagers read this series of Italian adventure graphic novels.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2025-07-01|title=Corto Maltese|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corto_Maltese&oldid=1298285365|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> Ó Scolaí's '''translation of ''Corto Maltese''''' was listed in 2017 among "The 30 Irish books that Irish people love."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=09/06/2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil [The 30 Irish books that Irish people love]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Port na Farraige Goirt'', Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: The Golden House in Samarkand'', 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Na Liopard-Fhir ó Rufiji'' (trans. of ''Corto: The Leopard Men of Rufiji''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: In Ainm Dé Uilthrócairigh'' (trans. of ''Corto: In the Name of God All-Merciful''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Tóraíocht Eile'' (trans. of ''Corto: Another Quest''), Leabhar Breac, 2014. * Hugo Pratt, ''Corto: Sa tSibéir'' (trans. of ''Corto: In Siberia''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. '''''Other Translations for Children''''' Ó Scolaí has translated into Irish six books from the ''Le Pavillon Noir'' (trans., ''Jolly Roger'') series by Alain Surget; four books from the ''Catalan First Steps'' series by Enric Lluch Girbés and the ''Caitlín & Cormac'' series by Joan Carles; three books from the ''Louisette le Taupe'' series by Bruno Heitz, and three books from the ''Loup'' series by Orianne Lallemand. === Plays and Screenplays === ==== Stage Plays ==== Ó Scolaí was writer and director of the original productions of two plays in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (trans., ''Three Drops'') trilogy; ''Coinneáil Orainn'' was directed by Darach Mac Con Iomaire and staged by An Taibhdhearc. All three plays have been published in book form by Leabhar Breac. * ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32553|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The first play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. [[wikipedia:Taibhdhearc_na_Gaillimhe|An Taibhdhearc]], the national Irish-language theatre of Ireland, toured the country in 2005 with ''Coinneáil Orainn''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/coinneail-orainn/|title=Coinneáil Orainn|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Walter Macken Prize, 2005; BBC Stewart Parker Award, 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/person/darach-scola|title=Darach Ó Scolaí|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904.|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Branwen'', 2006, by Darach Ó Scolaí and Ifor ap Glyn, in Irish, Welsh and English, co-produced by Project Arts Centre and Llwyfan Gogledd Cymru, toured the Republic of Ireland and Wales.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32418|title=Branwen|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An Braon'' Aníos (trans., ''Rising Damp''), 2006, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32461|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The second play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy. “The Salamandar company toured the country in 2006-07 with this play, and Salamandar also produced a radio version of the play for RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta in 2009.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/an-braon-anios/|title=An Braon Aníos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Craos'' (trans., ''Gluttony''), 2008, directed by Ó Scolaí.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32867|title=Craos|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> The third play in the ''Trí Bhraon'' (''Three Drops'') trilogy, it toured to Cork and Belfast.<ref name=":13" /> A review of the 2008 Salamander performance in the ''Irish Times'' says, “a humorous play which offers plenty to think about, fine acting, and sparklingly witty dialogue.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/darach-o-scolai/craos-2/|title=Craos|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> * ''A+E'', 2008, by Ríonach Ní Néill and Darach Ó Scolaí, "dance and music drama," co-produced by Ciotóg and Salamandar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=32962|title=A+E|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''An tSeanbhróg'' (trans., ''The Old Shoe''), 2009, produced by Salamander<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishplayography.com/play?playid=33042|title=An tSeanbhróg|date=2025|website=PlayographyIreland: A Comprehensive Database of New Irish Plays Produced Professionally Since 1904|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> and staged in the Axis Arts Centre, Dublin, and the Letterkenny Arts Centre. * '''In ''Mhuir Fhíondorcha/The Wine-Dark Sea: The Homer Project'', Ó Scolaí's translation of Homer's Cyclops story, performed at the 2019 IMRAM festival'''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/imram-a-festival-celebrating-the-irish-language-1.4047610|title=Imram: a festival celebrating the Irish language. Liam Carson reveals the myths and legends appearing in this year’s programme|last=Carson|first=Liam|date=11 October 2019|work=The Irish Times|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> ==== Screenplays ==== * ''Cosa Nite'' (trans., ''Washed Feet''), short film, 1998 (dir. Dearbhla Walsh, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg); "a prose version of ''Cosa Nite'' was published (Rosg 2000)."<ref name=":9" /> Nominated for an Irish Film and Television Award.<ref>{{Citation|title=Cosa Nite (Short 1998) - Awards - IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191917/awards/|accessdate=2025-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref> * ''Na Glúnta'' (trans., ''The Generations''), 2001<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iftn.ie/production/production_companies/production_sub/feature/?act1=record&aid=70&rid=3917&tpl=filmography_dets&only=1&force=1|title=Na Glúnta {{!}} The Irish Film & Television Network|website=www.iftn.ie|access-date=2025-08-25}}</ref>, co-directors Ciarán Ó Cofaigh & Darach Ó Scolaí, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg. * ''An Leabhar'' (trans., ''The Book''), short film, 2000, (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg) Rosg, 2000.<ref>{{Citation|title=An Leabhar|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0963767/|publisher=Bord Scannán na hÉireann / The Irish Film Board, ROSG|accessdate=2025-08-25|first=Robert|last=Quinn|others=Colm O&apos;Maonlai, Peadar O&apos;Treasaigh, Diarmuid Mac an Adhastair}}</ref> * ''Na Cloigne'' [trans., The Heads], 3-episide series, 2010 (dir. Robert Quinn, prod. Ciarán Ó Cofaigh, Rosg), TG4.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1607924/|title=Na cloigne|date=2010|website=IMDb|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> === Nonfiction === Ó Scolaí's essays and lectures are published and his interviews are broadcast regularly, making for a large body of nonfiction critical and analytical work. Here are a few, almost all published in [https://comhar.ie/iris/scribhneoiri/darach-o-scolai/ Comhar]: * “Ceol Ciúin na nÉagmaise” (trans., “The Silent Music of Absence ['''the Fall?''']”), an essay on the 2014 Nobel Prize winner for literature, [[wikipedia:Patrick_Modiano|Patrick Modiano]], ''Comhar'', December 2014. * The Ó Cadhain Lecture: [https://leachtaiuichadhain.clo.ie/leachtai/2014 “Cuimhne agus Díchuimhne (trans., “Memory & Forgetfulness"]), 2014. * “Rithim agus Réim” ("Rhythm and Register"), a public lecture in the University College Dublin lecture series “Ó Thrácht go Twitter” (trans., "From Talk to Twitter"), 2014. * Review of Pádraig Ó Cíobháin’s ''Dréachta Chrích Fodla'', '''Comhar?, ??'''. * “Na Geilt i mBun an Tí” (trans., "The Madmen in Charge"), a talk at the Merriman Winter School, Comhar April 2012.<ref name=":18">{{Cite web|url=http://darachoscolai.ie/beathaisneis.html|title=Darach Ó Scolaí: Beathaisnéis|website=darachoscolai.ie|access-date=2025-09-26}}</ref> * The EFACIS podcast: Síle Ní Choincheannain talks to Darach Ó Scolaí about the historical novel. == Critical Reception == Ó Scolaí’s style has been called “crisp and elegant, and rich in language while being highly readable,”<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heussaf|first=Anna|date=Summer 2025|title=Bláthnaid—A tale of love, violence and sorcery retold for readers today|url=https://booksirelandmagazine.com/blathnaid-a-tale-of-love-violence-and-sorcery/|journal=Books Ireland}}</ref> with “an unsurpassed richness and precision of language.”<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Cróinín|first=Breandán|date=Summer 2025|title=unknown|journal=The Limerick Leader}}</ref> “Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned” is how Éilis Ní Dhuibhne described his writing.<ref name=":20" /> === Original Works === Ó Scolaí’s first novel, the 2007 ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') won two prizes and was described as “one of the great historical novels in the Irish language and among the best books written in the language since the beginning of this century.”<ref name=":12" /> Novelist Alan Titley says, “In ''An Cléireach'' Ó Scolaí creates the Ireland of war in the 17th century more fully than any other Irish writer on the subject of war since ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Ó Thuairisc around 1798 [In ''An Cléireach'' cruthaíonn Ó Scolaí Éire an chogaidh san 17ú haois níos iomláine ná mar a dhein aon scríbhneoir Gaeilge eile ar ábhar cogaidh ó ''L’Attaque'' Eoghain Uí Thuairisc timpeall ar 1798].”<ref name=":11" />{{rp|25, Col. 1a}} Not all the reviews of this first novel were so positive, however; Proinsias O' Drisceoil says for the Irish Times says,<blockquote>This then is a novel in search of a plot, a story that attempts to attain a significance that eludes it.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/a-disaffected-clerk-in-the-confederates-1.943070|title=A disaffected clerk in the confederates|last=O' Drisceoil|first=Proinsias|date=5 July 2008|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref></blockquote> In the ''Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction'' Pádraig Ó Siadhail analyzes rather than reviews ''An Cléireach'': <blockquote>In ''An Cléireach'', Ó Scolaí revisits the trauma of Cromwellian Ireland. The primary narrative device is once again the first-hand account, in this case by Tadhg Ó Dúbháin, a clerk and quartermaster in the Confederate Army in 1650. We sample the hardships, the friendships, the tensions, the rivalries, and the petty jealousies amongst comrades in arms, including remnants of the Gaelic literary class, as the Confederate soldiers, increasingly a rabble more than a cohesive unit, retreat in advance of Cromwell’s forces. ''An Cléireach'' concludes with the narrator and his family in exile in continental Europe. But along the retreat route, and central to the novel, members of the Confederate army camp, rest up, and tell versions of a story about the keeper of the treasured manuscript "Saltair an Easpaig" (The Bishop’s Psalter). Their versions raise issues about memory construction, the limitations of individual perspectives, personal agendas, and how minor changes in the telling of a story can alter our understanding of history, Thus, ''An Cléireach'' complements ''Fontenoy'' in moving beyond more realistic recreation of a historical event or period to interrogate the notion of history as construct.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Fiction|last=Ó Siadhail|first=Pádraig|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2020|isbn=9780198754893|editor-last=Harte|editor-first=Liam|pages=598–99|chapter=Contemporary Irish Fiction}}</ref> </blockquote> Of ''Súil an Daill,'' in ''Nós'', Cathal Seoighe says, "The book deserves a significant place among the collection of high-quality books published in recent years that would make you feel sorry for someone who does not speak Irish [Tá áit shuntasach ag dul don leabhar i measc an chnuasaigh leabhair ar ardchaighdeán a foilsíodh le roinnt blianta anuas a d’fhágfadh trua agat don té atá gan Ghaeilge]."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seoighe|first=Cathal|date=09/26/2022|title=‘Dar leathmhagairle an diabhail, is leabhar den scoth é seo!’ ['According to the devil’s half-wit, this is a great book!’]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/dar-leathmhagairle-an-diabhail-is-leabhar-den-scoth-e-seo/|journal=Nós}}</ref> ''Bódléar'', Ó Scolaí's most recent book, is a “beautiful novel. There is magic and craftsmanship in it. A small miracle of a book and it is highly recommended.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/bodlear-mioruilt-bheag-de-leabhar/|title=Bódléar: Míorúilt bheag de leabhar (Bódléar: A Small Miracle of a Book)|last=Ní Ghairbhí|first=Róisín|date=2024|website=Leabhar Breac|access-date=1 August 2025}}</ref> Éilis Ní Dhuibhne in the ''Irish Times'' says,<blockquote>what a gem! An affectionately gentle satire of the Irish poetic scene during one creatively fluid 19th-century year, the story focuses on a Maigue poet and schoolteacher who goes on a trip to France and returns with camembert, a cafetiere, ‘Fleurs du Mal’, and a mission to convert the local traditionalists to la modernité. Whimsical, hilarious, and subtly learned, it’s absolutely delightful!<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Ní Dhuibhne|first=Éilis|date=30 June 2025|title=Éilís Ní Dhuibhne on the best Irish language books of 2025 so far: Including a history of the Gaeltacht Civil Rights Movements, a gem of a novel by Darach Ó Scolaí and Joe McHugh’s entertaining account of learning Irish|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/review/2025/06/30/eilis-ni-dhuibhne-on-the-best-irish-language-books-of-2025-so-far/|journal=The Irish Times|pages=22}}</ref></blockquote> === Retellings and Translations === ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' ==== ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' [''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''] is a modern edition of an 11th-century epic into modern Irish.<ref name=":3" /> Gearóid Denvir reviewed ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'':<blockquote>Darach Ó Scolaí has ​​achieved a feat in this challenging reworking. He has found a high level of the Irish language to tell his story – as he has done before in his groundbreaking novel An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) and in his other prose works. This book is a decoration of the language, literature and culture of the Irish language, following the path of the old storytellers and writers and presenting material from the tradition to his own generation according to the understandings of his own time. The book will be a classic that will be of great interest to all readers of the Irish language, both ordinary readers, students, scholars and writers, and there should be a copy in every home in the country. [Tá éacht déanta ag Darach Ó Scolaí san athleagan dúshlánach seo. Tá réim ard den teanga Ghaeilge aimsithe aige lena scéal a inseacht – mar a rinne sé cheana ina úrscéal ceannródaíoch An Cléireach (2007, Leabhar Breac) agus i saothair eile phróis dá chuid. Is maisiú ar an teanga agus ar litríocht agus cultúr na Gaeilge an leabhar seo a leanas conair na seanscéalaithe agus na seanscríobhaithe agus ábhar de chuid an traidisiúin á chur i láthair a ghlúine féin aige de réir thuiscintí a linne féin. Clasaic a bheas sa leabhar a gcuirfidh léitheoirí uilig na Gaeilge, idir ghnáthléitheoirí, mhic léinn, scoláirí agus scríbhneoirí spéis thar na bearta ann, agus ba cheart cóip a bheith i chuile theach sa tír.]<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Denvir|first=Gearóid|date=April 2018|title=Táin Bó Cuailgne|url=https://comhar.ie/iris/78/4/leirmheas/|journal=Comhar|via=JSTOR}}</ref> </blockquote>Cathal Poirtéir says, "The freshness and richness of Ó Scolaí’s version are a joy …. The author delights us with the linguistic and stylistic richness of the ancient epic in a modern-Irish version that reflects the original’s spirit and language."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poirtéir|first=Cathal|date=May/June 2018|title=Leabhair Idir Lámha|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26564180|journal=Books Ireland|pages=46–47|via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{rp|47}} Novelist and academic Alan Titley calls Ó Scolaí's "a wonderful gutsy telling" of ''Táin Bó Cuailnge''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/2023/03/11/the-tain-retold-maeve-and-ailills-spat-could-be-out-of-a-soap-opera/|title=The Táin retold: ‘Maeve and Ailill’s spat could be out of a soap opera’|last=Titley|first=Alan|date=11 March 2023|work=The Irish Times|access-date=16 October 2025}}</ref> ==== ''Deirdre'' ==== Marie Whelton, in "Léann Teanga" ("Language Studies"), in the 2024 ''An Reiviú'' says,<blockquote>this version [of ''Deirdre''] by Darach Ó Scolaí succeeds in skillfully capturing and portraying the complexity of gender and power issues in the ‘Deirdre’ tradition [éiríonn leis an leagan seo le Darach Ó Scolaí castacht cheisteanna na hinscne agus na cumhachta i dtraidisiún scéal Dheirdre a ghabháil agus a léiriú go sciliúil]. … There is no doubt that this new version greatly contributes to the legacy of the story and that it revives that legacy thoughtfully and artistically [Níl amhras faoi ach go gcuireann an leagan úr seo go mór le hoidhreacht an scéil agus go ndéanann sé an oidhreacht sin a athbheochan go tuisceanach agus go healaíonta.].<ref name=":16">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tara.tcd.ie/tara8/server/api/core/bitstreams/3c20175a-7631-44b2-8b0f-f454edd712b4/content|title=An Artistic Retelling of Deirdre's Tale and the Defeat of Conor Review of Deirdre or the Ship of Mac Uisnigh by Darach Ó Scolaí [Athinsint Ealaíonta ar Oidhe Dheirdre agus ar Ansmacht Chonchúir Léirmheas ar Deirdre nó Loingeas Mhac Uisnigh le Darach Ó Scolaí]|last=Whelton|first=Marie|date=2024|website=The Review [An Reiviú], Language Studies [Léann Teanga]|access-date=25 September 2025}}</ref></blockquote> === Works for Young Readers === Meadhbh Ní Eadhra said of ''Bodach an Chóta Lachna'' that it was "Beautiful Irish, but easy to understand for young readers."<ref>Ní Eadhra, Meadhbh. In ''Gaelscéal'', qtd. in "Bodach an Chóta Lachna" https://leabharbreac.com/en/shop/oige-en/7-8/bodach-an-chota-lachna/.</ref> == Awards and Honors == Ó Scolaí's works are regularly nominated and make the short list for prizes, an honor in itself, but they are generally not listed here unless they are named as the first-place winner in their category. === Oireachtas Prize === The Oireachtas Prize is the literary prize awarded by [[wikipedia:Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge|Oireachtas na Gaeilge]], the annual arts festival dedicated to Irish language, arts and culture. Darach Ó Scolaí has won the Oireachtas Prize for Literary Fiction three times, once for ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'') in 2007, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') in 2021 and for ''Bódléar'' in 2024. * 2007, for ''An Cléireach'' (trans., ''The Clerk'') — “(a special prize commemorating the 400th anniversary of the foundation of Coláiste na nGael in Louvain, awarded under the auspices of the Franciscan Province of Ireland). The prize of €10,000 was the largest prize ever awarded to an Irish language novel [(duais speisialta chomórtha 400 bliain bhunú Choláiste na nGael i Lobháin a bronnadh faoi urraíocht Phroibhinse Phroinsiasach na hÉireann). Ba é an duais €10,000 sin an duais ba mhó a bronnadh riamh ar úrscéal Gaeilge].”<ref name=":18" /> * 2021, for ''Súil an Daill'' (''The Eye of the Blind'') * 2024, for ''Bódléar'' === Ó Shúilleabháin Award, Irish language “Book of the Year” === The first prize of this award includes €5,000 to the publisher and €2,500 to the author of the winning work.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|date=15 August 2023|title=20 saothar san iomaíocht do ‘Leabhair Ghaeilge na Bliana 2023’|url=https://tuairisc.ie/20-saothar-san-iomaiocht-do-leabhair-ghaeilge-na-bliana-2023/|journal=Tuairisc}}</ref> * ''An Cléireach'' (''The Clerk'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|title=Eagrán / Edition 19 - 04 11 2008|date=4/11/2008|website=Internet Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525011340/http:/www.gaelport.com/uploads/documents/edition19.html|archive-date=25 May 2013|access-date=25 August 2025}}</ref> * ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', 2018. * ''Bódléar'', 2025. ==== De Bhaldraithe Award ==== The Gradam de Bhaldraithe is awarded to the best work in translation.<ref name=":10" /> * ''Cuairt San Nioclás,'' a translation of Clement Clarke Moore's ''A Visit from St. Nicholas'', or "'Twas the Night Before Christmas."<ref name=":10" /> ==== Other ==== * Walter Macken Prize, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005 * Bháiteir Uí Mhaicín Memorial Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2005<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/gaeilge/tuarascail/duais-oireachtais-1.501571|title=Oireachtas Prize: Over €50,000 was awarded to writers in the Oireachtas Literary Competitions at an event in Dublin last night. Winners… [Duais Oireachtais: Bronnadh breis agus €50,000 ar scríbhneoirí i gComórtais Liteartha an Oireachtais ar ócáid i mBaile Átha Cliath aréir. Bhuaigh…]|work=5 October 2005|access-date=15 October 2025}}</ref> * BBC Stewart Parker Award, for ''Coinneáil Orainn'' (trans., ''We'll Keep Going''), 2006 * The Aodán Mac Póilín Commemorative Prize, for ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' (trans., ''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''), 2017 == External Links == * Leabhar Breac website: https://leabharbreac.com/en/ * Leabhar Breac Facebook pages: * Rosg website: [http://www.rosg.ie/en/ <nowiki>http://ww</nowiki>w.rosg.ie/en/] * Art on the Island (Ealaín ar Oileán) website, archived at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20130601000520/http://ealainaroilean.ie/ 31 March 2012, 1 June 2013 and 8 January 2014 * Darach Ó Scolaí's website Archived 25 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine: https://web.archive.org/web/20150925103456/http://darachoscolai.ie/ * Youtube video of [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OlP2AmSBzXc Breandán Ó Cróinin introducing Deirdre at the book launch] in the pub Tigh Mholly (Molly’s House). == Primordial Ooze == * Known for his sensitivity to language and voices. * Finish scanning through JSTOR * Scan through Irish Times, 56 hits * Check Goodreads * Check YouTube (In the spring of 2013, the arts programme Imeall interviewed the author on TG4.) * Check both Wikipedias for pages on the origins of the retold tales (like Deirdre) and link to this article * Propose link from University of Galway page once Darach’s is up * Write Irish National Biography (<nowiki>https://www.dib.ie</nowiki>) to propose an article about Darach once the Wikip article is done? See what they say. * Link to Ó Scolaí from the Wikipedia * Make sure links '''to''' Wikipedia in the actual encyclopedia work right === Not Placed Yet === * "So here are the books that Irish people love the most! [Mar sin seo iad na leabhair is gile leis na Gaeil!]" — "32. An Cléireach – Darach Ó Scolaí (2)" [18 books got 2 votes, and then they're alphabetized by author's last name, so the 32 of 34 doesn't signify the specificity it seems to]<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Ó Murchú|first=Eoin P.|date=9 June 2017|title=Na 30 leabhar Gaeilge is fearr leis na Gaeil. [The 30 best Irish books for Irish people]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/leabhair/an-30-leabhar-gaeilge-is-fearr-leis-na-gaeil/|journal=Nós}}</ref> * "Below is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers.Here is a list of those 111 works – a list that shows a great deal of diversity in the reading habits of Irish speakers [Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí.Anseo thíos tá liosta den 111 saothar sin – liosta a léiríonn éagsúlacht an-mhór i nósanna léitheoireachta Gaeilgeoirí]." "Corto Maltese – Hugo Pratt (aistrithe ag Darach Ó Scolaí)"<ref name=":14" /> * "Ceann eile de bhuaicphointí na hÉigse a bheidh sa seisiún le Darach Ó Scolaí, duine d’úrscéalaithe móra na Gaeilge, agus duine de chomhbhunaitheoirí teach foilsitheoireachta Leabhar Breac. [Another highlight of the Éigse will be the session with Darach Ó Scolaí, one of the great Irish language novelists, and one of the co-founders of the publishing house Leabhar Breac.]"<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Nós|date=4 May 2023|title=Éigse na Bruiséile le filleadh i mí na Bealtaine. [Éigse na Bruséile to return in May]|url=https://nos.ie/cultur/eigse-na-bruiseile-le-filleadh-i-mi-na-bealtaine/|journal=Nós}}</ref> === Things Taken Out for Now === “’The play is a comedy about language, lies, bureaucracy and Gaeltacht grants, in the tradition of Myles na Gcopaleen,’ according to Norma-Jean Kenny in the ''Galway Advertizer'', ‘in which the author comments and criticizes the institutions of the Irish language in Ireland without ceasing.’" Supposedly a quotation by Gearóid Denvir reviewing ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'' for ''Comhar'' (but I don't find it in the article): This book has long been needed by Irish language readers and there is no doubt that it will become a classic in time and surpass Thomas Kinsella’s English version. This version remains faithful to the language of the original while at the same time finding an appropriate language in today’s Irish. Ó Scolaí masterfully overcomes the difficulties of the original’s rhetorical difficulties and the versions of the original poetic texts are extremely effective.[supposedly <ref name=":15" />] “The biggest prize ever awarded for a novel in Irish was presented at a special ceremony in the National Concert Hall in Dublin, today (Thursday, 4 October 2007). Darach Ó Scolaí, writer, artist & playwright from Casla, Co. Galway, was awarded €10,000 for his literary novel, ‘An Ardscoil’. This work, under the new title ‘An Cléireach’, will be launched at Oireachtas na Samhna in Westport in November. This is the first novel from his pen, a story set in the late seventeenth century. This competition was sponsored by the Franciscan Province of Ireland.” (archive, Oireachtas na Gaeilge site, 04 October, 2007) ''Súil an Daill'' (trans., ''The Eye of the Blind''), Leabhar Breac, 2021. number 2 in ''Comhar'' literary magazine’s list of best books of 2021. '''{6}.''' *William Shakespeare, ''Romeo agus Juliet'' (trans. of ''Romeo and Juliet''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Jonathan Swift, ''Camchuairt Ghuilivéir'' (trans. of ''Gulliver's Travels''), Leabhar Breac, 2016. *Hugo Pratt, ''Corto Maltese'' '''''Flag of Bones (Bratach na gCnámh) Series''''' Leabhar Breac published the Bratach na gCnámh series of books for young readers. Written in French by Alain Surget, illustrated by Annette Marnat and translated by Darach Ó Scolaí, this series uses the history of Caribbean Sea pirates<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/alain-surget/|title=Alain Surget Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-09-30}}</ref>: *Alain Surget, ''Éalú as Páras'' (''Escape from Paris''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Oilean na Siorcanna'' (''Shark Island''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''Long na dTaibhsi'' (''Ship of the Ghosts''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2011. * Alain Surget, ''San Ochtapas Dubh'' (''In the Black Octopus''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * Alain Surget, ''San Ionsai ar Veracruz'' (''The Attack on Veracruz''), Annette Marnat (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. '''''For "First Readers" (children to 6 years old or so)''''' These books were written originally in Catalan by Spanish author Enric Lluch Girbés and translated into Irish by Ó ScolaÍ: *Enric Lluch, ''Ag Péinteáil an Tí'' (''Painting the House''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Colúr Bacach'' (''The Lazy Dove''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''An Phluais'' (''The Cave''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Madra Dhaideo'' (''Grandpa's Dog''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. *Enric Lluch, ''Fiacail Mháire'' (''Mary's Tooth''), Anna Clariana (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2017. '''''Bruno Heitz''''' Leabhar Breac published a series of 3 Heitz books for small children. Published originally in French, this series of three comic books is about a blind mole named Cáitín Chaoch in Irish (and ''Louisette la taupe'' in French).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leabharbreac.com/en/product-category/bruno-heitz-en/|title=Bruno Heitz Archives|website=Leabhar Breac|language=en-US|access-date=2025-10-02}}</ref> Ó Scolaí translated these: *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Práinneach'' (''Urgent''), Leabhar Breac, 2020 *Bruno Heitz (author and illustr.), ''Preab san Aer'' (''Bounce in the Air''), Leabhar Breac, 2020. '''''Books for Toddlers''''' Leabhar Breac has published 14 books written by French author Orianne Lallemand's and illustrated by Eleonore Thuillier, about Lallemmand's popular character Loup, Wolf. These are translated by Ó Scolaí: *Orianne Lallemand, ''An Mac Tire a Raibh Faitios an Domhain Air'' (trans. of ''The Son Who Saw the World in His Eyes''), Eleonore Thuillier  Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. *Orianne Lallemand, ''Macan agus an Goban'' (trans. of ''Macan and the Goblin''), Eleonore Thuillier (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2018. * Orianne Lallemand, ''A Mac Tíre a Chuaigh go Tóin na Farraige'' (trans. of ''The Wolf Who Went to the Bottom of the Sea''), Éléanore Thuillier  (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2019. '''''Board Books (for babies)''''' J. C. (Joan Carles) Girbés Aparisi is a Catalan author and editor. These books were written in Catalan and translated by Ó Scolai. *J. C. Girbés, ''An Phicnic'' (''The Picnic''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. * J. C. Girbés, ''An Chóisir'' (''The Party''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2013. *J. C. Girbés, ''Lá Mór Fada'' (''A Long Day''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. *J. C. Girbés, ''Tabhair Leat do Leabhar'' (''Bring Your Book''), Silvia Ortega (Illustr.), Leabhar Breac, 2014. ==== Gradam Réics Carló ==== The Réics Carló prize is awarded for the best book in the Irish language for young readers. It is named for one of the characters of 20th-century writer [[wikipedia:Cathal_Ó_Sándair|Cathal Ó Sándair (Charles Saunders)]]. * ''An Bradán Feasa'' was “shortlisted for the Réics Carlo award 2010.”<ref name=":9" /> == References == {{reflist}} afmyy7qg2v7wyugioo4w3dqmzau6osy 0 265997 2842737 2813384 2026-10-26T23:14:58Z KyleWii 3113193 2842737 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ {{AP course revamp notice}} {{secondary}} {{physics}} {{stub}} {{underconstruction|<br> '''This course is still under construction. Feel free to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|edit]] this page, but please read [[AP Physics]] before you edit.''' <br>}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} == Welcome == Welcome to AP Physics 1! This course requires an algebra-backed background. For more information regarding prerequisites, and AP Physics, check out the [[AP Physics]] page. Following this section is an area outlining each unit of the course. Ideally, you should start at the beginning and work your way down; however, you can also jump to sections of particular interest. Happy learning! {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} == Outline == * [[/Kinematics|Unit 1: Kinematics]] * [[/Dynamics|Unit 2: Dynamics]] * [[/Circular Motion and Gravitation|Unit 3: Circular Motion and Gravitation]] * [[/Energy|Unit 4: Energy]] * [[/Momentum|Unit 5: Momentum]] * [[/Simple Harmonic Motion|Unit 6: Simple Harmonic Motion]] * [[/Solution Manual|Solution Manual]] * [[/Hints Manual|Hints Manual]] == See Also == * [https://apstudents.collegeboard.org/courses/ap-physics-1-algebra-based College Board: AP Physics 1] {{RoundBoxBottom}} 9h3wx3546rts6f1kp3kq6ha6rj7m83o 0 269370 2842679 2842164 2026-10-26T17:09:31Z James500 297601 /* Japan */ Add 2842679 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} See also [[Universal Bibliography/Geography|Geography]]. See [[w:Category:Bibliographies of countries or regions]] and [[w:Category:Works about countries]]. This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of countries (including former countries). ==Countries== *Bateman and Egan (eds). The Encyclopedia of World Geography: A Country by Country Guide. 1993. Revised 1997. *Peter Stalker. Handbook of the World. 2000. A Guide to Countries of the World. (Oxford Guide to Countries of the World. 2nd Ed: 2004, 2nd Revised Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GtztAAAAMAAJ], 3rd Ed: 2010 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gvKvfxkbZ1AC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Countries of the World and Their Leaders Yearbook. Gale. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5etKAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p41OAAAAIAAJ] *Hutchinson Guide to Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgpjUe4kN_IC] *The World Guide: Global Reference, Country by Country. 11th Ed: 2007 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EoWoLgAACAAJ] *Spence. The World Today: A Nation-by-Nation Guide. Cassell. 1994. 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ub8qOQAACAAJ] *Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I0oYAQAAMAAJ] *Kurian. Encyclopedia of the World's Nations. Facts on File. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y1EnAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lz0RAQAAMAAJ] *Michael O'Mara. Facts about the World's Nations. 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mygYAAAAIAAJ] *Status of the World's Nations. 1965 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sftEyRbAXMUC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kw2U_Cg2gKYC&pg=PP3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *[[s:Author:John Alexander Hammerton|Hammerton, John Alexander]] (ed). Countries of the World. Published at the Fleetway House. 6 vols. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e6IaAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K5oaAQAAMAAJ] *[[s:Author:Robert Brown (1842-1895)|Brown, Robert]]. The Countries of the World. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nO0DAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A Morely Dell. The Countries of the World. (Harrap's New Geographical Series). 1932. (School certificate). Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oSS9PB_Jf7AC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BicVAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5qBOAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YbwcAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sc1AAAAAIAAJ] General series: *National Geographic Countries of the World [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IT2wfzVIPykC] *Countries of the World. Evans Brothers. (GCSE) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a3sZvWc7E1EC&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *One Europe. Longman. [https://search.worldcat.org/en/title/west-germany-adapted-by-lj-russon-from-the-original-german-by-sylvia-lof-ingrid-mallberg-dietrich-rosenthal/oclc/561591761] *Collier's Nations of the World. The Nations of the World: An Historical Series. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VJY-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PP8#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Collier's History of Nations. The History of Nations. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fmSUfTY5E80C] *The Story of the Nations. T Fisher Unwin. *The World and Its Peoples. (The Illustrated Library of the World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York. *World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oms5xjI7ba0C&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==England== ===Counties=== See [[s:Portal:Counties]] * Harrison, "County Bibliography" (1886) 3 Library Chronicle [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wz9FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false 49] General series *Victoria County History *Oxford County Histories *Pinnock's County Histories *Shire County Guides. Shire Publications. *Cambridge County Geographies *Pike's New Century Series *[[s:Page:County Churches of Cornwall.djvu/6|County Churches]]. G Allen. Avon *Moore. Avon Local History Handbook. Phillimore. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h0kjAAAAMAAJ] Bibliography, p 102 Bedfordshire *Conisbee, Lewis Ralph. A Bedfordshire Bibliography. Bedfordshire Historical Record Society. Bedford. 1962. Supplements 1967, 1971, 1978. Third supplement by Threadgill. Review: 6 Archives 52 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oOMZAAAAYAAJ]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MjspAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PejgAAAAMAAJ] *Godber. History of Bedfordshire. 1969. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jdvwPQAACAAJ] *Pinnock. The History and Topography of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9bJYAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Parry. Select Illustrations, Historical and Topographical, of Bedfordshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UTUJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Blyth. The History of Bedford and Visitor's Guide. 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IuIGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Cambridge County Geographies [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kTc8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Buckinghamshire *Reed. A History of Buckinghamshire. 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BtkWAQAAIAAJ] Cambridgeshire *Carter. History of the County of Cambridge [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jXpbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Babington. Ancient Cambridgeshire [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DPrCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Devon *Ravenhill and Rowe. Devon Maps and Map-makers [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tjf2yAEACAAJ] *Wright. A Plea for a Devonshire Bibliography. 1885 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8ZUDAAAAQAAJ] Derbyshire *Woore. A Catalogue of Local Maps of Derbyshire, C.1528-1800. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oWmCMwEACAAJ] *O'Neal. A Bibliography of Derbyshire Lead Mining. 1961 Essex *Cunnington. Catalogue of Books, Maps and Manuscripts, relating to or connected with the County of Essex. 1902 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=oIcqpibGE4MC] *"The Bibliography of Essex" (1882) 1 Antiquarian Magazine & Bibliographer [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false 72]. See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dEkEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA283#v=onepage&q&f=false p 283]. *"The Bibliography of Essex" (1891) 5 The Essex Naturalist 30 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iIo1AQAAMAAJ] *Moon. Essex Literature. 1900. Review: 61 Literary World 438 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2T0ZAAAAYAAJ] See also [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1Y4UAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=C_pEAAAAMAAJ] *Fenn and Lowery, "An Essex Bibliography", Journal of the South West Essex Technical College, vols 2 & 3 *Victoria County History bibliography. 1959 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2EJAQAAIAAJ] *O'Leary, John Gerard. A Supplement to the Essex Bibliography. Dagenham. 1962. *A Bibliography of Essex Archaeology & History *Essex and Dagenham: A Catalogue of Books, Pamphlets and Maps. Dagenham. 1961 *Essex Archaeology and History: The Transactions of the Essex Society for Archaeological and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CtFAAAAAYAAJ] *Essex Naturalist: Being the Journal of the Essex Field Club *Wright. The History and Topography of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SgQVAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ogborne, The History of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IeVSAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Suckling. Memorials of the Antiquities and Architecture, Family History and Heraldry of the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bcw_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hunter, The Essex Landscape: A Study of Its Form and History [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=w9kWAQAAIAAJ] *Cambridge County Geography [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GPHa_X_0qo0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Sokoll. Essex  Pauper Letters, 1731-1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rCLia7XlqtMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Morant. The History and Antiquities of Colchester in the County of Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DDgtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Wallen. The History and Antiquities of the Round Church at Little Maplestead, Essex [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FPYVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Kent *Smith. Bibliotheca Cantiana. 1837. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1dJDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP11#v=onepage&q&f=false] Leicestershire *Kirkby, C V (compiler). Catalogue of the books, pamphlets, &c., relating to Leicestershire in the Central Reference Library. Leicester Free Public Libraries. 1893. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3boqAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UcHnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA728#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1963-65 (1966) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-OhVAAAAYAAJ 40] Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society: Transactions (1964/5) 92. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1961-63. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *Leicestershire and Rutland Bibliography, 1960-61. Available as pdf from University of Leicester. *A Bibliography of the Small Towns in Leicestershire and Rutland, 1600–1850. (Dissertation). [https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/educational_resource/A_bibliography_of_the_small_towns_in_Leicestershire_and_Rutland_1600_1850/9414200] *Loughborough's Heritage: A Bibliography of the Holdings of Leicestershire Libraries and Information Service and Record Office. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Bwx2zgEACAAJ] *Keith Ambrose and Frank Williams, "Bibliography of the Geology of Leicestershire and Rutland: Part 2: 1971-2003" (2004) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U-tQAQAAIAAJ 16] The Mercian Geologist 5. Available as pdf from East Midlands Geological Society. *Parsons and Brandwood. A Bibliography of Leicestershire Churches. 1978. *Education in Leicestershire: A Bibliography. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X6EfzQEACAAJ] Sussex *Brent, Fletcher and McCann. Sussex in the 16th and 17th Centuries: A Bibliography. 2nd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I7UtAAAAYAAJ] *Farrant. Sussex in the 18th and 19th Centuries: A Bibliography. 1st Ed: 1973, 2nd Ed: 1977 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MLUtAAAAYAAJ], 3rd Ed: 1979 ==France== Bibliography: *Bibliographie de la France. Commentary: Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, vol 37, supplement 2, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=10rgjNvOV8oC&pg=PA145#v=onepage&q&f=false p 145]; The Bookseller, 6 January 1881, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4dsiAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA10#v=onepage&q&f=false p 10]; Stein, Manuel de bibliographie générale, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lJYPyKjV1qYC&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q&f=false p 23]. *Girault de Saint-Fargeau. Bibliographie historique et topographique de la France. 1845 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kClB9CQNZoMC&pg=PP9#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Catalogue d'une collection d'ouvrages sur l'histoire des provinces de la France. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qQBX5WZouzAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Landscape: *Beaujeu-Garnier. France. (The World's Landscapes). 1975. [https://books.google.com/books?id=nwxDAQAAIAAJ] Agenais: *Andrieu. Bibliographie générale de l’Agenais et des parties du Condomois et du Bazadais. 1886 to 1891. Reprinted 1969. Alsace: *Ristelhuber. Bibliographie alsacienne. 1869 to 1873 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0mhLAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Bibliographie alsacienne: Revue critique des publications concernant l'Alsace. 1918 to 1936 *Ritter. Répertoire bibliographique des livres imprimés en Alsace aux XVe et XVIe siècles [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DewaAQAAMAAJ] Angoumois: *Castaigne. Essai d'une bibliothèque historique de l'Angoumois, ou Catalogue raisonné des principaux ouvrages qui traitent des différentes branches de l'histoire de cette province. 1847 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R-UanmmlvAEC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anjou: *Braguier and Braguier. Archéologie en Anjou: bibliographie. 1984 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LvsmAQAAIAAJ] Auvergne: *Gonot. Catalogue des ouvrages imprimés et manuscrits concernant l'Auvergne, extrait du catalogue général de la Bibliotlèque de Clermont-Fd (Puy-de-Dome). 1849. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yCFtbObRCbUC&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Catalogue des livres et estampes concernant l'ancienne Province d'Auvergne (Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal, Haute-Loire) réunis par feu M. G. Desbouis. 1865. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ui4S8_D0N74C&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] Béarn *"Bibliographie Béarnaise", Revue de Pau et du Béarn [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FuZnAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FQYqvPo9D9IC&pg=PA158#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RL9VAAAAYAAJ] Brittany *Sacher. Bibliographie de la Bretagne, ou Catalogue général des ouvrages historiques, littéraires et scientifiques parus sur la Bretagne, avec la liste des revues publiées en cette province, les prix approximatifs des volumes rares, etc. 1881 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiede00sach] Burgundy: *Milsand. Bibliographie bourguignonne; ou, Catalogue méthodique d'ouvrages relatifs à la Bourgogne: Sciences - Arts - Histoire. 1885 [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00milsgoog] [https://archive.org/details/bibliographiebo00sciegoog] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CxIIAAAAQAAJ] *Catalogue des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque royale des ducs de Bourgogne. 1842 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FX5MAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Companion Guide to Burgundy [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NraRP0AkDT0C&pg=PP3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lecat. The Golden Book of Burgundy. (The Golden Book) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FyzR9qU1Zl4C&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Gwynn. Burgundy: With Chapters on the Jura and Savoy. (Kitbag Travel Books). 1935 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ny1LAAAAMAAJ] *Bazin. Wonderful Burgundy. 1988. 1997 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yt1CRdICWCUC] *Bailey. Burgundy. (Insight Guides). 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Q69a1dMW2NQC] *Dunlop. Burgundy. Hamilton.1990 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S_1OAAAAMAAJ] Champagne: *Lhermitte. Ouvrages sur la Champagne: contribution à la bibliographie champenoise. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jbPfAAAAMAAJ] Dauphiné: *Mélanges biographiques et bibliographiques relatifs à l'histoire littéraire du Dauphiné par Colomb de Batines et Ollivier Jules. 1837 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2F5MAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Lorraine: *Bibliographie lorraine. Académie nationale de Metz [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=n-DfAAAAMAAJ] Maine: *Desportes. Bibliographie du Maine, précédée de la description topographique et hydrographique du diocése du Mans, Sarthe et Mayenne. 1844. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hSk-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Normandy: *Frère. Manuel du bibliographe Normand ou dictionnaire bibliographique et historique. 1858 to 1860. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dp6geJClg1YC&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1] ==Japan== Bibliography and literature *Hideo Kaneko. "Japanese Literature and Bibliography". Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Marcel Dekker. 1977. vol 21. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&pg=PA131#v=onepage&q&f=false 131] to 176. Bibliography *Jozef Rogala. A Collector's Guide to Books on Japan in English: An Annotated List of Over 2500 Titles with Subject Index. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7KI9ao-w2FEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ria Koopmans-de Bruijn. Area Bibliography of Japan. (Scarecrow Area Bibliographies). Scarecrow Press. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hlx2OMjgUi0C&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Frank Joseph Shulman. Japan. (World Bibliographical Series, vol 103). Clio Press. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LsoUAQAAIAAJ] *Eibun Nihon Kankei Tosho Mokuroku, 1945-1981. (Japanese: 英文日本関係図書目録, 1945-1981). (English: Catalogue of Books in English on Japan, 1945-1981). Japan Foundation. Tokyo. 1986. *Japan: analytical bibliography: with supplementary research aids: and selected data on Okinawa . . . Department of the Army. Washington. 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h4d4nYxrxtMC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Books on Japan in Western Languages. The International Christian University Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F2bQAAAAMAAJ] *Books on Japan: A List of Acquisitions, 1955-1970. International House of Japan Library. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8sWAQAAIAAJ] *Fukuda. Union Catalog of Books on Japan in Western Languages. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HKYyAQAAIAAJ] *A Classified List of Books in Western Languages Relating to Japan. University of Tokyo Press. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U8MUAQAAIAAJ] *Katsuji Yabuki (ed). Japan Bibliographic Annual. Published by the Hokuseido Press for the Japan Writers Society. 1956 and 1957. **Japan Bibliographic Annual 1956. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9XLQAAAAMAAJ] **Japan Bibliographic Annual 1957. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vesSAAAAIAAJ]. Reviews: (1957) 13 Monumenta Nipponica 166 (April-July) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8S1yb-iwrOwC] (1957) 25 The Oriental Economist 212 (April) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QELoAAAAMAAJ] *Haring. Books on Japan: A Reference List. 1955. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RbDoAAAAMAAJ] *Borton. A Selected List of Books and Articles on Japan in English, French, and German. 1940: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YYIsAAAAYAAJ]. Revised and enlarged. Harvard University Press. 1954: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=F8O2VwJUPUkC]. **A Selected List of Books on Japan in Western Languages (1945-1960). (Studies on Asia Abroad, vol 1). The Information Centre of Asian Studies, The Toyo Bunko. 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i1_QAAAAMAAJ] *Oskar Nachod. Bibliography of the Japanese Empire 1906-1926. 1928. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0001oska/page/n8/mode/1up vol 1]. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002oska/page/n6/mode/1up vol 2]. *Fr. von Wenckstern. A Bibliography of the Japanese Empire: being a Classified List of All Books, Essays and Maps in European Languages relating to Dai Nihon (Great Japan) published in Europe, America and in the East from 1859-93 . . . 1895. vol 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dcVAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=v7lO4ddqDywC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Volume 2, from 1894 to the middle of 1906. 1907. [https://archive.org/details/bibliographyofja0002frvo/page/n6/mode/1up] *Hyman Kublin. What Shall I Read on Japan? An Introductory Guide. Japan Society, New York. 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yRRUAAAAYAAJ] Japanese studies *An Introductory Bibliography for Japanese Studies. The Japan Foundation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=53O6AAAAIAAJ] *Richard Perren. Japanese Studies from Pre-History to 1990: A Bibliographical Guide. 1992. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CN9RAQAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. "Bibliographies" at pp 1 to 3. *K.B.S. Bibliography of Standard Reference Books for Japanese Studies, with Descriptive Notes. University of Tokyo Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=95wbAAAAMAAJ] *[[w:en:Monumenta Nipponica|Monumenta Nipponica]] *[[w:en:Japan Forum|Japan Forum]]. British Association for Japanese Studies. [https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/rjfo20] *Japanese Studies. Japanese Studies Association of Australia. ISSN 1037-1397. [https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/cjst20] *[[w:en:The Journal of Japanese Studies|The Journal of Japanese Studies]]. University of California Press. *Nichibunken Newsletter. [[w:en:International Research Center for Japanese Studies|International Research Center for Japanese Studies]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5TnjAAAAMAAJ] [https://www.nichibun.ac.jp/en/publications/data/news/] [https://newsletter.nichibun.ac.jp/en/] History and culture *John W Dower. Japanese History & Culture from Ancient to Modern Times: Seven Basic Bibliographies. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NX67AAAAIAAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. "Bibliographies & Research Guides" at chapter 6. Research guides *Mindy L Kotler. Information Gathering on Japan: A Primer. Search Associates. 1988. ISBN 9780962546006. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/zh-cn/title/Information-gathering-on-Japan-Joho-:-a-primer/oclc/20530148]. Review: (1989) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NZLiAAAAMAAJ 27] Choice 82 Encyclopedias See also [[w:ja:Japanese encyclopedias]] *Louis Frédéric. [[w:Japan Encyclopedia|Japan Encyclopedia]]. Translated by Käthe Roth. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Louis Frédéric. Le Japon: Dictionnaire et Civilisation. Robert Lafont. Paris. 1996. ISBN 2-221-06764-9. *Japan: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Kodansha. 1993. **Japan: Profile of a Nation. Kodansha. 1995. Revised Edition. 1999. *[[w:Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan|Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan]]. 1983. Supplement. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WvApAQAAMAAJ] *Dorothy Perkins. Encyclopedia of Japan: Japanese History and Culture, from Abacus to Zori. Facts on File. A Roundtable Press Book. 1991. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JLKGAAAAIAAJ] *Pictorial Encyclopedia of Modern Japan. Gakken. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0FgKAQAAIAAJ] *Boye Layfayette De Mente. Japan Encyclopedia. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=f9c7AAAAMAAJ] **Boye De Mente. Everything Japanese. [The Authoritave Reference on Japan Today]. 1989. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Duku89bARgoC] Biographical dictionaries *Wispelway. Japanese Biographical Index [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4UkhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Seiichi Iwao. Biographical Dictionary of Japanese History. Kodansha International. 1978.[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TkQOAQAAMAAJ] *Senʼichi Hisamatsu. Biographical Dictionary of Japanese Literature. Kodansha International. 1976. [https://books.google.com/books?id=X3lkAAAAMAAJ] *Yutaka Tazawa (ed). Biographical Dictionary of Japanese Art. Kodansha International. 1981. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7ozrAAAAMAAJ] *Japan Biographical Encyclopedia & Who's Who. 1958. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lV_VAAAAMAAJ 25] Contemporary Japan 280 **Japan Biographical Encyclopedia & Who's Who (2nd Edition) 1961. The Japan Biographical Research Department, The Rengo Press Ltd. Preface dated October 1960. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-SZSAAAAMAAJ] ***1961 Supplement. December 1961. *Shunjiro Kurita. Who's Who in Japan. [https://archive.org/details/WhosWhoInJapan1913/page/n24/mode/1up 2nd Ed]. Reference books *Nihon No Sanko Tosho. Volume 1: 1965. Volume 2: 1972. **Guide to Japanese Reference Books. American Library Association. Chicago. 1966: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0rflAAAAMAAJ]. Supplement. 1979: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j05_F9OHzkQC]. Commentary: Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, vol 21, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&pg=PA149#v=onepage&q&f=false p 149]. Media *[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15217593 Japan media guide]. News. BBC. 20 March 2023. *Masaaki Kasagi. Mass Media in Japan. (Orientation seminars on Japan, number 14). 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=odkgAAAAIAAJ] *Routledge Handbook of Japanese Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zilKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Publishers *[https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/international/international-book-news/article/99729-get-to-know-these-japanese-publishing-companies.html Get to Know These Japanese Publishing Companies]. Publishers Weekly. 20 February 2026. Press and journalism *[https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2025/japan Japan]. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. 17 June 2025. *Marjane Aalam and Philippe Régnier. The Japanese Press and Information System. The Graduate Institute of International Studies. Geneva. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RTcbAQAAIAAJ] *The Japanese Press: Past and Present. Japan Newspaper Publishers' and Editors' Association. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5tcQAAAAIAAJ 1949]. *Anthony Rausch. Japanese Journalism and the Japanese Newspaper: A Supplemental Reader. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mZrToQEACAAJ] *Frank L Martin. The Journalism of Japan. 1918. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ruYzAQAAMAAJ] *William De Lange. A History of Japanese Journalism. Japan Library. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Rd5tb0cuz8QC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kanesada Hanazono. The Development of Japanese Journalism. Osaka. 1924. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=z99ZAAAAMAAJ] *Kanesada Hanazono. Journalism in Japan and Its Early Pioneers. 1926. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IGTFfLc4bq0C] *César Castellvi. A Sociology of Journalism in Japan: The Last Empire of the Press. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a2z8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q&f=false] *"Japan". Christopher H Sterling (ed). Encyclopedia of Journalism. A Sage Reference Publication. 2009. ISBN 9780761929574. vol 3. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZQhDq8fPj2IC&pg=PA809#v=onepage&q&f=false 809] to 815. Press annuals *The Japanese Press. (Nihon Shinbun Kyokai). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AfvyAAAAMAAJ 1979] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Au3yAAAAMAAJ 1998] Summaries of the press *Daily Summary of Japanese Press Foreign correspondents *Foreign Correspondents in Japan: Reporting a Half Century of Upheavals, from 1945 to the Present. Tuttle. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YI3TAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals *G Raymond Nunn (comp). Japanese Periodicals and Newspapers in Western Languages: An International Union List. Mansell. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jEROAQAAIAAJ] *Japan Periodicals. Keizai Koho Center. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ATm0AAAAIAAJ]. Japan Periodicals, 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PkMyAAAAMAAJ] *Japanese Periodicals Index **Humanities and Social Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nXX_RpPGf3AC] **Natural Sciences [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FCJIAAAAYAAJ] *Current Japanese Periodicals [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FjO5AAAAIAAJ] *Check-list of Japanese Periodicals Held in British University and Research Libraries. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VZgsAAAAYAAJ] *Union List of Current Japanese Periodicals in the East Asian Libraries of Columbia, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale Universities. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yw7kAAAAMAAJ] *List of Japanese Periodicals in the Library of the School of Oriental & African Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RREjAQAAIAAJ] *Gianni Simone. [https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2011/04/26/issues/english-mags-approach-milestone-crossroads/ English mags approach milestone, crossroads]. The Japan Times. 26 April 2011. *Japan Report (1955 onwards) (Consulate General of Japan, Japan Information Center). Vol 39 published in 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MX4BN_frv4IC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] editions:jYuMSMIQC-AC **Japan Information *Japan Now [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nul7DRQaexMC&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan Quarterly. (Asahi Shimbun). 1954 to 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nZMMAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_RwVAAAAMAAJ] 189 issues. *Japan Illustrated: The Japan Times Quarterly [Pictorial] Magazine (October 1963 to Summer 1977) 15 vols [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=D7UThOmE8T4C] *[[w:Japan Spotlight|Japan Spotlight]]. Economy, Culture & History: Japan Spotlight: Bimonthly. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i7C0AAAAIAAJ] *Focus Japan. (Japan External Trade Organization, JETRO). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2fG2hsEZpRkC] *The Japan Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2V3hAAAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CJwoAQAAMAAJ] *Japan Magazine. Muromachi Publicity Corporation. (vols 1 to 5: 1957 to 1963). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Swd18PnVeUgC] *The Japan Magazine: A Representative Monthly of Things Japanese [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ubGKo-p6O_0C] [https://archive.org/details/jm-1914-v4.9-5.2/mode/1up] *Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society, London [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B75nnph5qHgC&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Bulletin. [Bulletin of the Japan Society, London.] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Pd9KvyhnpjMC] **The Japan Society of London Bulletin [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XxlxAAAAMAAJ] *About Japan. Japan Society, New York. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Nf5OAQAAIAAJ] **News Bulletin [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_QcA3AQAAIAAJ/page/n2/mode/1up] *[[w:en:Metropolis (free magazine)|Metropolis]] (metropolisjapan.com) *[[w:en:Tokyo Weekender|Tokyo Weekender]] (トーキョー・ウィークエンダー) [https://www.tokyoweekender.com/japan-life/news-and-opinion/nhk-world-features-the-tokyo-weekender-magazine/] *The Japan Gazette [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WSopAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Tokio Times [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UDfiFBu0vB4C&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *[[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]]. (Look Japan Ltd). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QnO6AAAAIAAJ]. Commentary: Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ve4dAQAAMAAJ] *[[w:en:Japan Echo|Japan Echo]]. 1974 to 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cmq6AAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fpmEPpl-85UC] *PHP Intersect. (Where Japan Meets Asia and the World). PHP Institute. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i74TAQAAMAAJ] **Intersect Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sL8TAQAAMAAJ] *Japan Digest [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8AcOAQAAMAAJ] *Speaking of Japan [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7S0AAAAIAAJ]. [Speeches.] *The Hansei Zasshi: A Monthly Magazine [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6qBhfHZo7Q0C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false][https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dyIsvnYjpwEC&pg=PP6#v=onepage&q&f=false] **The Orient. 1899 onwards [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nS1omYYnnd4C&pg=PP5#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Today's Japan. Orient/West Incorporated. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2ASAAAAMAAJ] *Japan Review: Bulletin of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GggOAQAAMAAJ] *[https://www.bloomberg.com/account/newsletters/next-japan Next Japan]. Bloomberg. *Niponica. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X2scKgfQS5oC] Newspapers See also [[w:List of newspapers in Japan]] *Haruhara Akihiko, "English-language newspapers in Japan" (1994) 41 Japan Quarterly [https://www.proquest.com/openview/8e2b760f2a2fa37ba164ea675c095353/1 474] (Issue 4: October 1994) *James Charles Tanner. English Language Newspapers in Bakumatsu Japan. 1977. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Bn2zgzZy_3oC] *[https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2009/03/03/reference/newspapers-here-soldiering-on/ Newspapers here soldiering on]. The Japan Times. 3 March 2009. *[[w:The Japan Times|The Japan Times]] **The Japan Times: Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KoQ-AQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yYQ-AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Japan Daily Mail *Japan Weekly Mail *The Japan Chronicle **Weekly Edition [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vXdRAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Japan News. (The Japan News by The Yomiuri Shimbun) **Yomiuri Japan News (from 1955) **The Yomiuri (from 1958) **The Daily Yomiuri (from 1970) *The Asahi Shimbun: Asia & Japan Watch. [https://www.asahi.com/sp/ajw/] **Asahi Evening News (from 1954) ***Tokyo Evening News (1952 to 1954) [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000145073] *The Mainichi. [https://mainichi.jp/english/] **Mainichi Daily News (1922 to 2001) [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/27/business/worldbusiness/IHT-tech-briefstop-the-presses.html] [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000144910] Sports newspapers; sports dailies *Louise do Rosario, "News-stand stars" in "Japan" (1992) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T_GzAAAAIAAJ 155] [[w:en:Far Eastern Economic Review|Far Eastern Economic Review]], 24 to 31 December 1992, p 21 *[[w:ja:岡崎満義|Mitsuyoshi Okazaki]], "Unsportsmanlike Journalism: Japan's sports dailies may be popular, but are they sporting?" in "Sport", [[w:en:Look Japan|Look Japan]], [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lD3tAAAAMAAJ January 1995], p 39 News *[[w:en:Japan Today|Japan Today]] (ジャパントゥデイ). GPlusMedia. Gakken Holdings. Annuals and year books *This is Japan. Asahi Shimbun. 1954 to 1971. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2X9DAQAAIAAJ]. Commentary: A Victorian Sailor's Grave in the Seto Inland Sea, p 244 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OegkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA244#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Japan Year Book. The Japan Year Book Office. 1905 onwards. [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_arFPAAAAMAAJ/page/n10/mode/1up 1906]. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553496/page/n27/mode/1up 1915]. *The "Japan Gazette" Japan Year Book. The Japan Gazette. [https://archive.org/details/japan-year-book-1913-1914/page/n15/mode/1up 1913-14] *The Japan Times Year Book *New Japan. Mainichi Newspapers. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gRFCAQAAIAAJ] Almanacs *Asahi Shimbun Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SEEEAQAAIAAJ 1995]. *Japan Almanac. (The Mainichi Newspapers). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ufAIAQAAIAAJ 1972]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X4eXWRkbtFsC 1973]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7rMrAAAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=krMrAAAAIAAJ] *[[w:Boyé Lafayette De Mente|Boye De Mente]]. Passport's Japan Almanac. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=741wAAAAMAAJ] General *Japan: A Country Study. (Area Handbook series). 4th Ed: 1983: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HkM5N3JNc5IC]. 5th Ed: 1992: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ze-wupXxpvEC] *Area Handbook for Japan. 2nd Ed: 1964: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WucdAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 3rd Ed: 1974: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LG2aoq1U_eoC&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] (DA Pam 550-30). *Colin Simpson. Picture of Japan. **Japan: An Intimate View. A S Barnes. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3hkeAAAAMAAJ] **This is Japan. Angus & Robertson. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HJEJAQAAIAAJ] *Japan. (The World and Its Peoples). Greystone Press, New York. 1964. Volume 1: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yysUAQAAMAAJ]. Volume 2 "Japan Korea", including Korea: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uQAUAQAAMAAJ]. See pp 1 to 375 for Japan, and pp 376 to 379 for Ryukyu and Bonin Islands. *Japan. (World and its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, volume 8). Marshall Cavendish. 2008. ISBN 9780761476412. *Edward Seidensticker. This Country, Japan. Kodansha International. 1979. ISBN 9780870112294. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=88wwAQAAIAAJ] *Hall and Beardsley. Twelve Doors to Japan. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1965. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0KpxAAAAMAAJ] *"Japan". Louis Barron (ed). "Asia & Australasia". Moshe Y Sachs (ed and pub). Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations. Worldmark Press, Inc. Harper & Row New York. 1963. pp 145 to 160. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=I0oYAQAAMAAJ] **"Japan". Asia & Oceania. 7th Ed: 1988. ISBN 0-471 62406-3. vol 4. pp 153 to 168. **"Japan". Asia & Oceania. 8th Ed: 1995. Gale Research Inc. ISBN 0-8103-9882-6. vol 4. pp 203 to 220. *James E Hoare. "Japan". East and Southeast Asia. The World Today Series 2023–2024. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3GfQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA107#v=onepage&q&f=false 107] to 133. *Japan. (Library of Nations). Time Life Books. 1985. ISBN 0809453347. ISBN 0705408485. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P1NJwcWAnboC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ui2CvuyM4JkC] Handbooks *Patrick Heenan (ed). The Japan Handbook. (Regional Handbooks of Economic Development). 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IMG2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Introduction *Introducing Japan Through Books: A Selected Bibliography. Public Information Bureau, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FvsyAQAAIAAJ]. 2nd Ed: 1973: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Vj0XAQAAMAAJ]. *Donald Ritchie. Introducing Japan. 1st Ed: 1978. Revised Ed: 1986. 6th printing: 1989: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FE-nxxoKayQC]. 2nd Revised Ed: 1990. 2nd printing: 1991: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hz4UAQAAIAAJ]. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FMvT6m4SgIQC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Herschel Webb. An Introduction to Japan. Columbia University Press. 2nd Ed: 1957: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YQ8MAQAAIAAJ]. *Introducing Modern Japan. A publication of the Japan Information and Culture Center, Embassy of Japan. Today and yesterday *Ray Downs. Japan Yesterday and Today. Praeger Publishers. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PwKxAAAAIAAJ] Today *Roger Buckley. Japan Today. Cambridge University Press. 3rd Ed [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=thyqBtJp2DcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Contemporary *Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Japan. 2021. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yfH3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2011#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Duncan McCargo. Contemporary Japan. 3rd Ed: 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8I5KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jeff Kingston. Contemporary Japan: History, Politics, and Social Change since the 1980s. 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=enJQZA3R4FMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [Series] *Routledge Contemporary Japan Series Modern *Hugh Cortazzi. Modern Japan: A Concise Survey. Palgrave Macmillan. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cf--DAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] The Japanese *Peter Tasker. The Japanese: Portrait of a Nation. 1989 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1N8ld78wwQC] **The Japanese: A Major Exploration of Modern Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CW-6AAAAIAAJ] **Inside Japan: Wealth, Work and Power in the New Japanese Empire. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OJuAAAAMAAJ] *Edwin O Reischauer. The Japanese. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zrEqAAAAYAAJ] *Edwin O Reischauer and Marius B Jansen. The Japanese Today: Change and Continuity. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BTPNlLIy2soC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Japaneseness *Ray T. Donahue (ed). Exploring Japaneseness: On Japanese Enactments of Culture and Consciousness. Ablex Publishing. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V_NwAAAAMAAJ] *Yoji Yamakuse. Japaneseness: A Guide to Values and Virtues. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tB0iDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Travel books *DK Eyewitness Travel: Japan. Reprinted with revisions. 2015: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g2NaBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2017: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vg15DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Dodd and Richmond. The Rough Guide to Japan. 2nd Ed: 2001: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pRGq95ytWZoC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Frommer's Japan. 5th Ed: 2000: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QC8mVyvPa8C]. *Fodor's Japan YYYY. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aH2Ow27HUQ0C 1986]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3gTTf6nbv20C 1987]. 1988. **Fodor's YY Japan. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9QMHllzldlYC 91]. 92. 93. **Fodor's Japan. 13th Ed: 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cZxZAAAAYAAJ] *The New Official Guide: Japan. Japan Travel Bureau. 1966. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HoxxAAAAMAAJ] *Here is Japan. Asahi Broadcasting Corporation. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8QXRCTMNG7MC] *Japan. (Nagel Travel Guide Series, vol 32). 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QsbXAAAAMAAJ] *Clark. All the Best in Japan: with Manila, Hong Kong, and Macao. ("All the Best" series). 1959. Reprinted 1964. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yUq4YaaryrwC]. Reviews: [https://archive.dartmouthalumnimagazine.com/article/1958/6/1/all-the-best-in-japan] (1958) 110 Travel 51 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UVwXAQAAMAAJ] 3 Bulletin of the Japan Society, London, No 11: June 1960, p 25 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2oy74hRRXk4C] **All the Best in Japan and the Orient. 1967. Night *Taizo Fujimoto. The Nightside of Japan. T Werner Laurie. Essex Street, Strand, London. 1914. [https://archive.org/details/nightsideofjapan00fujirich/page/n6/mode/1up] Exhibitions *Patricia Morison. "Fun and games with Japanese angst". The Financial Times. Weekend 21/22 September 1991. No 31562. Section II: "Weekend FT". Weekend 21/22 September 1991. Page xx. ["Visions of Japan" exhibition, Victoria and Albert Musuem, ending 5 January 1992.] Languages See [[Universal Bibliography/Languages/Japanese|Japanese]] Literature See [[Universal Bibliography/Literature#Japanese|Japanese literature]] Music See [[Universal Bibliography/Music#Japanese and Japan|Music of Japan]] Cinema See [[Universal Bibliography/Cinema#Japanese|Cinema of Japan]] Television See [[Universal Bibliography/Television#Japanese|Japanese television]] Architecture See [[Universal Bibliography/Architecture|Japanese architecture]] Culture See [[Universal Bibliography/Culture#Japanese|Culture of Japan]] Economy *MERI's Monthly Circular: Survey of Economic Conditions in Japan (1923 to 2025) Mitsubishi Economic Research Institute [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4QDtAAAAMAAJ] [https://www.meri.or.jp/en/mc.html] ==Korea== *Korea Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O6XfBexsp6gC] Bibliography and literature *Thomas H Kang. "Korean Literature and Bibliography". Kent, Lancour and Daily (eds). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Marcel Dekker. 1977. vol 21. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H1pNvzr_n98C&pg=PA176#v=onepage&q&f=false 176] to 240. [[Category:Countries]] bpst2qegmykr1hl77gosfstysy7vj0h 0 269888 2842678 2469438 2026-10-26T17:07:08Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2842678 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of architecture. See [[s:Portal:Architecture]], [[w:Category:Works about architecture]] and [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias: architecture and architects]] Metabibliography *Kamen, Ruth H. British and Irish Architectural History: A Bibliography and Guide to Sources of Information. Architectural Press. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MvJUAAAAMAAJ] *Houses from Books *Catalogue of the Books Relating to Architecture, Construction and Decoration. Boston Public Library. 1894. *The Burnham Index to Architectural Literature. Garland Publishing. 1989. *Wayne, Kathryn M. Architecture Sourcebook: A Guide to Resources on the Practice of Architecture. Omnigraphics. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MnPYnQEACAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=f_pUAAAAMAAJ] *Shillaber, Caroline. "Architectural Literature". Kent and Lancour (eds). Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Marcel Dekker. 1968. Volume 1. Page [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=w6mBHs3VfCkC&pg=PA470#v=onepage&q&f=false 470] to 491. *Books on Architecture: A Selected Bibliography. Vance Bibliographies. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-ABMAQAAIAAJ] *Bizios. Architecture Reading Lists and Course Outlines. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1ndQAAAAMAAJ] See also the catalogues of Weinreb Architectural Books [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YwhMAQAAIAAJ] *Ehresmann, Donald L. Architecture: A Bibliographic Guide to Basic Reference Works, Histories, and Handbooks. Libraries Unlimited. 1984. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hFEyAQAAIAAJ] *Placzek (ed). Avery's Choice: Five Centuries of Great Architectural Books : One Hundred Years of an Architectural Library, 1890-1990. G K Hall. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aR9UAAAAMAAJ] *The Sources of Classicism: Five Centuries of Architectural Books from the Collections of the Humanities Research Center. The University of Texas at Austin. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sZnTlYaByoIC] *Catalog of the Avery Memorial Architectural Library of Columbia University [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PDggAQAAMAAJ] *A Checklist of Architectural Books in the Special Collections of the Library of Virginia [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WXtOAAAAYAAJ] *British Architectural Library. Royal Institute of British Architects. Early Printed Books, 1478-1840. K G Saur. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1flLAQAAIAAJ] *Hart and Thwaite. Paper Palaces: Architectural Works from the Collections of Cambridge University Library. Cambridge University Press. 1997. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RuFIAQAAIAAJ] *The American Association of Architectural Bibliographers: Papers. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=O_9TAAAAMAAJ] *Harris and Savage. British Architectural Books and Writers: 1556-1785. Cambridge University Press. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LDNxQgAACAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VElQAQAAIAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-bMPAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H0AmAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=THUsAAAAYAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XlfhAAAAMAAJ] *Colin Amery, "British Architectural Books of the Last Five Years", British Book News, September 1973, pp 569 to 572 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3i9QAAAAIAAJ] *Hitchcock, Henry Russell. American Architectural Books: A List of Books, Portfolios, and Pamphlets on Architecture and Related Subjects Published in America Before 1895. 1946. 1962. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IzNUAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=s0caAAAAMAAJ] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ocJGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA13#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hafertepe and O'Gorman. American Architects and Their Books to 1848. University of Massachusetts Press. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=asFPAAAAMAAJ] *Schimmelman, Janice Gayle. Architectural Treatises and Building Handbooks: Available in American Libraries and Bookstores Through 1800. American Antiquarian Society. 1986. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yTVUAAAAMAAJ] *Roos, John Frank. Bibliography of Early American Architecture: Writings on Architecture Constructed Before 1860 in Eastern and Central United States. University of Illinois Press. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3CxUAAAAMAAJ] *Marshall. American Folk Architecture: A Selected Bibliography. American Folklife Center, Library of Congress. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=k94lRROTepsC] *French Architecture: A Selection of Books from the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Including Some Reprints and Reference Works Relating to Earlier Periods. Weinreb Architectural Books. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9PdLAQAAIAAJ] Series of bibliographies: *Architecture Series. Vance Bibliographies. Reviews: (1987) 12 Art Libraries Journal [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bcVWAAAAMAAJ] [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/art-libraries-journal/article/architecture-series-bibliography-ed-by-judith-vance-monticello-il-vance-bibliographies-post-office-box-229-monticello-illinois-61856-usa-no-1-1978-approx-220-bibliographies-per-year-approx-1000-per-year/C84B9AFA90BBB9CBE910B02A7A5383CC] Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_ETq_s7Cy9UC&pg=PA459#v=onepage&q&f=false] Periodicals: See [[Universal Bibliography/Periodicals#Architecture|Periodicals, Architecture]] for bibliographies *Architect and Building Gazette (1849-1850) (formerly Architect and Building Operative) *Technology Architectural Review (1887-1890) *Architectural Review (1890-1921) Boston. Commentary: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LgEfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA254#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Architectural Record (1891-1938) *Academy Architecture and Architectural Review (1889-1931) (formerly Academy Architecture and Annual Architectural Review) *[[w:Architects' Journal|Architects' Journal]] (1895 onwards) *[[w:Architectural Review|Architectural Review]] (1896 onwards) London *Architecture (1896-1898) General: *Ballantyne, Andrew. Architecture: A Very Short Introduction. OUP. 2002. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QU-BdoIr1zMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ching and Eckler. Introduction to Architecture. John Wiley & Sons. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Z6-EODTVTF0C&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Snyder, Catanese and McGinty (eds). Introduction to Architecture. McGraw-Hill. 1979. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=kE1QAAAAMAAJ] *Gardiner, Stephen. Introduction to Architecture. Equinox. 1983. Leisure Books. 1983. Chancellor Press. 1993. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EVxRAAAAYAAJ 178] Architects Journal 88 *Vaidya. Introduction to Architecture. Technical & Commercial Book Company. 1961. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Z-FPAAAAMAAJ] *Conway and Roenisch. Understanding Architecture: An Introduction to Architecture and Architectural History. Routledge. 1994. 2015. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=il-mBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Farrelly, Lorraine.The Fundamentals of Architecture. 2007. 2nd Ed: 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZT0pDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Makstutis, Geoffrey. Architecture. (Portfolio). Laurence King Publishing. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=riHyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *McCarter and Pallasma. Understanding Architecture. Phaidon Press. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HeOUuAAACAAJ] *Gardiner, Stephen. Inside Architecture. Prentice Hall. 1983. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=l_pPAAAAMAAJ] *Whitley. An Introduction to Architecture: Teaching Architecture to Upper Elementary Students. University of Georgia. 1998. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QllHvwEACAAJ] Styles: *Hopkins, Owen. Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide. Laurence King Publishing. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4CHyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Pothorn, Herbert. A Guide to Architectural Styles. Phaidon. 1983 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5L8yAQAAIAAJ]. Architectural Styles: An Historical Guide to World Design. Facts on File. 1982. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mz0NAQAAIAAJ] *Pothorn, Herbert. Architectural Styles. Viking Press. 1970. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qTZUAAAAMAAJ] *Rosengarten. A Handbook of Architectural Styles. Translated by Collett-Sandars. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hd8yAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Melvin. Isms: Understanding Architectural Styles. Universe. 2006. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=g0A4AQAAIAAJ] *Perrot. The Groundwork of Architecture: Or, The Study of how Architectural Styles are Affected by Structural Engineering. 1921. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QxItAAAAYAAJ] *Yorke, Trevor. British Architectural Styles: An Easy Reference Guide. Countryside Books. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FSMjAQAAIAAJ] *Durant. The Handbook of British Architectural Styles [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2BRNAAAAYAAJ] *Ricketts, Maitland and Hucker. A Guide to Canadian Architectural Styles. Broadview Press. 1992. 2nd Ed: 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=peFPAAAAMAAJ] Design: *Gänshirt. Tools for Ideas: Introduction to Architectural Design. Birkhäuser. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8lFzjSEpHcgC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Fletcher, Donald Atkinson. Introduction to Architectural Design. 1947. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LQpDAQAAIAAJ] *Anderson, Jane. Architectural Design. (Basics Architecture 03). AVA Publishing. 2010. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BGx-NlmsiEAC&pg=PP3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Jefferis and Madsen. Architectural Drafting & Design. 1986. 2nd Ed: 1991. 3rd Ed: 1996. 4th Ed: 2001. 5th Ed: 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QbdMOM89qv0C&pg=PP15#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Burden, Ernest. Elements of Architectural Design: A Photographic Sourcebook. John Wiley & Sons. 2nd Ed: 2000. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eFLsAtFfxugC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Plowright, Philip D. Revealing Architectural Design: Methods, Frameworks and Tools. Routledge. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1h_HBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Thompson, Arthur. Architectural Design Procedures. Arnold. Architectural Press. 2nd Ed: 1999. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FVS2-Mvnk10C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Materials for design, design in particular materials *Bell and Rand. Materials for Architectural Design. Laurence King Publishing. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7-bVBlglACkC&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Lawson and Trebilcock. Architectural Design in Steel. Spon Press. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2PF4AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Boake, Terri Meyer. Understanding Steel Design: An Architectural Design Manual. Birkhäuser. Basel. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pfDTAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Bennett, Thomas Penberthy. Architectural Design in Concrete. Oxford University Press, American Branch. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j5RrAAAAMAAJ] *Architectural Design of Concrete Bridges: Concrete for Permanence. Portland Cement Association.1937. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MV4EAAAAMAAJ] Steel: *Blanc, McEnvoy, and Plank (eds). Architecture and Construction in Steel. E & F N Spon. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0cqkvQ-NCacC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Concrete: *Bennett, David. Architectural Insitu Concrete. RIBA Publishing. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vpg7GQAACAAJ] *West, Mark. The Fabric Formwork Book: Methods for Building New Architectural and Structural Forms in Concrete. Routledge. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1At6DQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Phillips and Yamashita. Detail in Contemporary Concrete Architecture. Laurence King Publishing. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tiHyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] ==Japanese== *Arthur Drexler. The Architecture of Japan. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. 1955. [https://books.google.com/books?id=hvJPAAAAMAAJ] *William Alex. Japanese Architecture. George Braziller. New York. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QO9PAAAAMAAJ] *David and Michiko Young. The Art of Japanese Architecture. Tuttle Publishing. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qFXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Bruno Taut. Fundamentals of Japanese Architecture. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. January 1936. [https://books.google.com/books?id=MnhNAAAAMAAJ] *Jiro Harada. The Lesson of Japanese Architecture. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bZcfAAAAIAAJ] *Dana Buntrock. Japanese Architecture as a Collaborative Process: Opportunities in a Flexible Construction Culture. Spon Press. 2001. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jte20XGX9S8C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Ralph Adams Cram. Impressions of Japanese Architecture and the Allied Arts. 1905. [https://archive.org/details/bwb_S0-ASY-966/page/n10/mode/1up] Periodicals *The Japan Architect [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=EWM-gkNVKv4C]. Shinkenchiku-Sha. Introduction *David and Michiko Young. Introduction to Japanese Architecture. Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NgfQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Guide *A Guide to Japanese Architecture. Rev Ed. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3eJPAAAAMAAJ] *Guide Book to Japanese Architecture [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YJZQAAAAMAAJ] History *A L Sadler. Japanese Architecture: A Short History. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ff_QAgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Historic and retro *[https://mainichi.jp/english/retro-japan/ Retro Japan]. The Mainichi. Lost *Naomi Pollock. Vanishing Japan. Thames & Hudson. 2026. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Tgee0QEACAAJ]. Review: [https://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2026/10/24/books/naomi-pollock-lost-architecture-japan-book-vanishing/ ‘Vanishing Japan’ asks what is lost when buildings fall], The Japan Times, 24 October 2026. Traditional *Mira Locher. Traditional Japanese Architecture: An Exploration of Elements and Forms. Tuttle [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=njnRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT10#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Kazuo Nishi and Kazuo Hozumi. What is Japanese Architecture? Kodansha International. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=efVPAAAAMAAJ] What is Japanese Architecture? A Survey of Traditional Japanese Architecture. Modern *Hiroshi Watanabe. Amazing Architecture from Japan. Weatherhill. Tokyo and New York. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tQdQAAAAMAAJ] Contemporary *James Steele. Contemporary Japanese Architecture: Tracing the Next Generation. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6C0lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Botond Bognar. Contemporary Japanese Architecture. Its Development and Challenge. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. New York. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=68FIAQAAIAAJ] *Noboru Kawazoe. Contemporary Japanese Architecture. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. 1968. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y6nWAAAAMAAJ] New *Botond Bognar. The New Japanese Architecture. Rizzoli International Publications. New York. 1990. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xoxQAAAAMAAJ] *Udo Kultermann. New Japanese Architecture. Frederick A Praeger. New York. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UAZQAAAAMAAJ] New wave *Kisho Kurokawa. New Wave Japanese Architecture. Academy Editions. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-tBVAAAAMAAJ] Form and space *Norman F Carver. Form & Space in Japanese Architecture. Documan Press Ltd. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvBPAAAAMAAJ] *Mitsuo Inoue. Space in Japanese Architecture. Translated by Hiroshi Watanabe. John Weatherhill. Tokyo and New York. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-yHqAAAAMAAJ] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7Y8MAQAAMAAJ 33] Japan Quarterly 333 [[Category:Architecture]] lqv0r6buoef3ufmz76tqjf84kuhhkjj 0 276197 2842814 2672469 2026-10-27T11:03:24Z Jtneill 10242 File:Carl Ransom Rogers.jpg 2842814 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Images== <gallery> File:USA 10090 x10105 Antelope Canyon Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg <!-- ile:Paul Signac Le Pin Saint Tropez.jpg --> File:Water drop 001.jpg File:OPP logo 1 percent.svg <!-- File:Smiling girl.jpg --> File:Carl Ransom Rogers.jpg File:WebKit logo.svg </gallery> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Growth psychology]] arfnafhkuxz7t6mcxfuxjx5ny8zvb0g 0 285380 2842647 2842287 2026-10-26T13:15:25Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2842647 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261020.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> 3ki03q2xkqdeaiirmv51siwyrwn6nt0 2842649 2842647 2026-10-26T13:17:25Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2842649 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261021.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> djj0lvazpjuvg7whe009051e4lh11a0 2842651 2842649 2026-10-26T13:18:37Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2842651 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261022.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> j7z0q6ebgypk7u24k8chv0yzr1ollh0 2842782 2842651 2026-10-27T06:22:03Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2842782 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261023.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> ggyjxxt2l3el9qgolaj6taeuxfqvrjs 2842784 2842782 2026-10-27T06:23:07Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2842784 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261024.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> d7zestwf51x6ex4jhvopn48s89jsy4n 2842786 2842784 2026-10-27T06:23:52Z Young1lim 21186 /* Applications */ 2842786 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Pointers ([[Media:C04.S1.Pointer.1A.20240524.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Arrays ([[Media:C04.S2.Array.1A.20240514.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.S3.ArrayPointer.1A.20240208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20221130.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.1111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Address-of and de-reference operators ([[Media:C04.SA0.PtrOperator.1A.20261026.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA1.AppPointer.1A.20241121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.SA2.AppArray.1A.20240715.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.SA3.AppArrayPointer.1A.20240210.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming language]] </br> ftlojjku7f4pd4o18e749zvjt8i3nn1 2 289273 2842687 2842601 2026-10-26T18:50:43Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2842687 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.{{Sfn|Adam Becker|What Is Real?|p=282}} </blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at its sphere-like core, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} ni3jsx2304xigkfk4zdvzsv78iap5di 2842688 2842687 2026-10-26T18:51:59Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2842688 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.{{Sfn|Adam Becker|2018|loc=What Is Real?|p=282}} </blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at its sphere-like core, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} e52ngyz991gqypm4edoank1e1nh12vi 2842689 2842688 2026-10-26T18:52:46Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2842689 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.{{Sfn|Adam Becker|2018|loc=What Is Real?}} </blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at its sphere-like core, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} hboogmo56qlhhrotnsci84dwk8njq2r 2842692 2842689 2026-10-26T19:04:17Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2842692 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.{{Sfn|Adam Becker|2018|loc=What Is Real?}} </blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere surface could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at its sphere-like core, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} ara0vp2gebxisswe5dg4anfjp629h8l 2842693 2842692 2026-10-26T19:06:27Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2842693 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.{{Sfn|Adam Becker|2018|loc=What Is Real?}} </blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at its sphere-like core, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} hboogmo56qlhhrotnsci84dwk8njq2r 2842694 2842693 2026-10-26T19:10:40Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2842694 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>first=Adam,last =Becker,year=2018,totle=What Is Real?</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at its sphere-like core, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} madfxp34wqkwevpgh2ynnyqejwfvb91 2842695 2842694 2026-10-26T19:13:42Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2842695 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real?}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at its sphere-like core, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} sxx8n781ssu93zc8jnc5kgj3iu77xb3 2842696 2842695 2026-10-26T19:33:28Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2842696 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real?}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at center, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} sneaxqwpqxenlugi20jm2cb4lxi8j29 2842698 2842696 2026-10-26T19:54:35Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2842698 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real?:The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics|publisher=Basic Books}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at center, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} aouxns2sqbanjhrqd9raz5f2qhklcwj 2842699 2842698 2026-10-26T19:55:24Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2842699 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real? The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics|publisher=Basic Books}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at center, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} ebyn2g2d5i7w7ufkplwmg5cghczwine 2842700 2842699 2026-10-26T19:58:34Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2842700 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real? The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at center, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} 2n7r3se4qm86p90yjazgoylx3a5ivxh 2842702 2842700 2026-10-26T20:49:12Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* A theory of the Euclidean cosmos */ 2842702 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving linearly at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real? The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at center, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every free-falling object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} cmpx9ue73a9fdztv8igwp0cmkxb65ls 2842706 2842702 2026-10-26T21:03:05Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* Summary */ 2842706 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving at the speed of light <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real? The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at center, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every free-falling object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} 4ubvgoezea2nd3mpi3iomw0vizhihax 2842707 2842706 2026-10-26T21:03:41Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* Summary */ 2842707 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including us and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real? The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at center, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every free-falling object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} hnpumwup2xwfnj6z6iure5znqtwylab 2842708 2842707 2026-10-26T21:04:14Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* Summary */ 2842708 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including ourselves and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real? The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at center, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every free-falling object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} gfoaaeiaf8rkzju13h8fu9na7nqjz59 2842709 2842708 2026-10-26T21:04:49Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* Summary */ 2842709 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including ourselves and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space, embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real? The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at center, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every free-falling object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} cjglvjnxxsylbjoczoejnx1kj375dj6 2842738 2842709 2026-10-26T23:16:08Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* Revolutions */ 2842738 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including ourselves and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space, embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real? The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at center, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every free-falling object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no immediate way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:Three-dimensional sphere|three-dimensional sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} bl86byyx8re55tq2d6hy0hij9z996bx 2842741 2842738 2026-10-26T23:24:02Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 2842741 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including ourselves and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space, embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real? The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at center, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every free-falling object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no immediate way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture.<ref name=Einstein1923/> He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice." Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} kd1n65enxddhpz7wvqh8f9hq8twtpux 2842749 2842741 2026-10-27T01:29:57Z Dc.samizdat 2856930 /* Origins of the theory */ 2842749 wikitext text/x-wiki {{align|center|David Brooks Christie}} {{align|center|dc@samizdat.org}} {{align|center|Draft in progress}} {{align|center|June 2023 - October 2026}} <blockquote>'''Abstract:''' The physical universe is properly visualized as real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are 4-polytopes, small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are 4-balls of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. We ourselves and the objects we observe near us are only 3-dimensional, but nonetheless we can see into four dimensions of space. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. Light from them reaches us directly, on straight lines through 4-space. This view of the observed universe is compatible with special and general relativity, and with quantum mechanics. It furnishes those theories with an explanatory geometric model.</blockquote> == Summary == We observe that: * Physical space is Euclidean with four perpendicular dimensions. * Atoms are [[W:4-polytope|4-polytopes]]. * The sun is a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]] that is round in four dimensions. * Everything of intermediate size between an atom and a star, including ourselves and our planet, lies in a 3-dimensional manifold of ordinary space, embedded in Euclidean 4-space. * Our entire 3-space manifold is moving at the speed of light <math>c</math> in Euclidean 4-space. * Special relativity describes the linear motion of objects and light signals in Euclidean 4-space. * General relativity describes the rotational motion of objects with mass in Euclidean 4-space. * Quantum mechanics describes the symmetry group actions of elementary geometric objects (4-polytopes) in Euclidean 4-space. == A theory of the Euclidean cosmos == <blockquote>If we are to have any hope of understanding the universe, we must dare to imagine a world that is not bounded by our limited perspective.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Adam|last =Becker|year=2018|title=What Is Real? The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics}}</ref></blockquote> The physical universe is properly visualized as [[w:Four-dimensional_space|real Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>]] of four orthogonal spatial dimensions. Space itself has a fourth perpendicular dimension, of which we are unaware in ordinary life. Atoms are [[w:4-polytope|4-polytopes]], small round 4-dimensional objects, and stars are [[W:4-ball|4-balls]] of atomic plasma, large round 4-dimensional objects. Objects intermediate in size between atoms and stars, including molecules, people, and planets (at their surfaces), are so flat as to be essentially 3-dimensional, having only the thickness of an atom in the orthogonal fourth dimension. All objects with mass move inertially through Euclidean 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math> as long as they exist, and acceleration only varies their direction. Objects moving in the same direction are in the same inertial reference frame. Their direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> is their proper time dimension, simply because their direction and velocity of motion through time is the same as their direction and velocity of motion through space. A typical galaxy such as ours occupies a 4-ball of mostly empty space, with stars and other objects distributed non-uniformly within it. The galaxy's orbital center may be nothing: a smaller 4-ball of empty space they surround. The stars in our spiral galaxy appear from our accustomed point of view to occupy a disk-like region of 3-dimensional space, with a denser ball-like center, but they are not so confined: they are distributed within a region of 4-dimensional space. The disk and ball have thickness not only in the third dimension, but in the fourth spatial dimension as well. Light from stars and galaxies reaches us on straight lines through Euclidean 4-space, so from our viewpoint, in what we have always imagined to be a 3-space universe, we look into the surrounding 4-space. Although we are physically confined within a 3-dimensional hyperplane by the inertia of our motion through 4-space at constant velocity <math>c</math>, light signals are not so confined, so we observe all the cosmological objects surrounding us, both in and above or below our hyperplane, without perceiving their separation in our fourth orthogonal dimension, the direction of our motion. Several objects which appear to us to be located at almost the same point in our sky may actually lie in directions many degrees apart, since the entire hyperspherical sky is projected onto an ordinary sphere in our view of it. We may perceive a galaxy as elliptical when it is actually spherical, because that is how its image projects from its 4-ball shape into a 3-ball region in our hyperplane, where we measure it with our 3-dimensional bodies. More generally, orbits are circular in 4-space, but elliptical in the 3-space of their elliptic hyperplane. The galaxy as a whole, or more properly its orbital barycenter, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three dimensions of our ordinary proper 3-space. Stars within the galaxy are translating with it at the same velocity <math>c</math> in the same direction, but on spiral trajectories as they pursue their various orbits within the galaxy. The galaxy as a whole occupies a 4-ball within its proper inertial reference frame (that is, in the moving frame of reference in which the galaxy considers itself to be a stationary rotating 4-ball). Over time, the galaxy 4-ball occupies a 4-dimensional cylinder and progresses along the cylinder's axis at velocity <math>c</math>. In this more universal inertial reference frame, the stars in the galaxy follow helical geodesic paths through the 4-cylinder; their trajectories are screw-translations through 4-space, the compound of a simple rotation and a completely orthogonal linear translation. The gravitational force and the inertial tendency to follow a geodesic are the same phenomenon, by the equivalence principle. That said, they can be distinguished, and the galaxy is held together primarily by gravity as inertia, not by gravity as attraction to a central mass toward which objects fall in orbit. There is not enough mass in the galaxy to hold it together by attraction, there is just enough to bend the stars' trajectories toward each other, in helical orbits around the galaxy's barycentric axis of motion. It is the tremendous inertial force of stars in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> that holds the cylinder of motion together, not some invisible dark matter. The observed universe as a whole appears to be a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] expanding radially from a central origin point at velocity <math>c</math>, the invariant velocity of mass-carrying objects through 4-space, also the propagation speed of light relative to any moving 3-space manifold, as measured by all observers. A 3-sphere is a hypersphere in Euclidean 4-space, but the enclosing surface of a 3-sphere is a curved, finite 3-space, dimensionally analogous to the surface of the earth which is a curved, finite 2-space. This 3-sphere could be the domain of our visible cosmos, but of course we do not know for certain that all the cosmological objects we observe lie near the surface of our expanding 3-sphere, since it is only our assumption that they must all have originated in the same big bang long ago. Possibly some of the more distant objects we observe did not, and lie elsewhere, outside our big-bang's 3-sphere of outflying matter or even inside its 3-sphere, below its surface. We cannot assume that all objects in the 4-space universe lie near the surface of the same expanding 3-sphere. For all observers, the conjectured big-bang of their origin corresponds not only to a now-distant point in their proper time past, it also corresponds to a distinct now-distant point in 4-dimensional space: the same point in the same Euclidean 4-space for all observers with the same origin. Our big bang had a distinct origin point in real space as well as in real time. More generally, time and Euclidean 4-space can be measured independently, just as time and Euclidean 3-space were measured classically, without the necessity to combine them as spacetime. The same inertial force which holds the galactic cylinder of motion together also confines us physically to an exceedingly thin three-dimensional surface manifold moving through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. All objects in our solar system too small to have their own gravity lie entirely within this thinest three-dimensional manifold, and have only the thickness of an atom in their direction-of-motion fourth dimension. That is why we are 3-dimensional objects ourselves, and why we cannot construct more than three perpendiculars through a single point in our local 3-dimensional space. A spherical region of 4-space is called a [[W:4-ball|4-ball]]. The enclosing surface of a 4-ball of any size is a finite, curved (non-Euclidean) 3-dimensional space called a [[w:3-sphere|3-sphere]]. Our entire big-bang-origin universe appears to be the largest 3-sphere we observe, but each of the cosmological objects within it (including our galaxy and our sun) is bounded by a smaller 3-sphere lying (we assume) on the largest 3-sphere embedded in its surface, like a soap bubble on the surface of a larger soap bubble. All the 3-dimensional surfaces are expanding, as the largest 3-sphere inflates at radial velocity <math>c</math>. We ourselves live within such an expanding 3-dimensional surface, in an infinitesimally curved 3-manifold surface embedded in Euclidean 4-space. That surface is the ordinary 3-dimensional space we experience. The earth and all the planets lie on it. Our solar system is only a small patch on the surface of a dimensionally rounder space, although that surface is not infinite. It is curved, and finite, analogous to the way the 2-dimensional surface of the earth -- once thought to be flat -- is curved and finite. Our solar system occupies a small patch on a filmy 4-dimensional soap-bubble of galactic size rounded by gravity, that is thicker-skinned than the diameter of an atom only in the superdense interior of large gravitational objects. Our 3-manifold of ordinary space, as a surface within our moving 4-ball galaxy, is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math> with the galaxy, in a distinct direction orthogonal to all three of our 3-manifold's dimensions of interior space. At every material point in the manifold (at every atom), the translation through 4-space is following a geometric law of motion discovered by Coxeter, that governs the propagation of individual objects through Euclidean space by the actions of their symmetry groups. The solar system's atoms of mass are 4-polytopes that are simultaneously rotating and translating, and as they advance together they define a moving 3-dimensional manifold by their own collective inertia, also called gravity, the property of matter's ceaseless propagation through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate of causality at which quantum events occur, all objects move, and the universe evolves. Any moving 3-dimensional manifold such as ours is an evolving surface boundary that is empty in most places, occupied by single atoms in comparatively fewer places, and occupied by bound complexes of multiple atoms (molecules) in still fewer places. In all these places it is no thicker than one atom in the dimension corresponding to its direction of translation, because molecules are 3-dimensional complexes of atoms that add no thickness to the manifold. In fewer places still it is occupied by large lumps of matter which exert a significant gravitational attraction, such as planets and their satellites. These round gravitational objects are thicker than one atom in their fourth dimension, but not uniformly so. They are disk-like 4-dimensional objects, 3-balls that are flattish in the fourth dimension. They are typically only one atom thick at the 4-disk's sharp edge, but they may be much thicker in the center of the 4-disk, particularly if their gravity is strong enough to give them a core of superdense matter, like the earth's deep core. The moving surface manifold cannot be thicker than one atom at any point unless and until there is enough mass near that point for the force of gravity as attraction to overcome the force of gravity as inertia, allowing atoms to be "heaped up" into larger 4-dimensional objects that form a lump in its moving surface. We have only indirect experience of such 4-dimensional lumps of matter thicker than one atom, since they occur naturally in our vicinity only in regions of superdense matter, such as the core of the earth or the interior of the sun. Deep in the core of the earth under enormous gravitational pressure peculiar states of matter have been observed, defying our understanding of how 3-dimensional crystalline structures behave. That is because they are not 3-dimensional structures, they are 4-dimensional crystals. The earth is a disk-like 4-dimensional object that is thin at its edge but thicker at center, dimensionally analogous to a 3-dimensional flying saucer with a sharp circular edge. The earth's surface that we walk on is an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere), analogous to the circular edge of the flying saucer (a 1-sphere), and on that edge where we live every object we find (including our bodies) is 3-dimensional with only the thickness of an atom in the fourth dimension. We cannot walk on the top or bottom surface of the 4-disk flying saucer because those surfaces are 3-dimensional regions within the earth. The earth's deep core of superdense 4-dimensional matter occupies a spherical region of 4-dimensional space (a 4-ball). The sun is the only entirely spherical 4-ball occurring naturally in our solar system. We refer to the contents of such superdense 4-balls of matter as atomic plasma, and have little experimental knowledge of their internal geometry or processes. We know that the sun burns at its surface 3-sphere and emits radiation, and we know a good deal about those surface processes which are nuclear atomic processes, but we know very little about its interior 4-ball, a dimensionally rounder enclosed space whose existence we did not suspect. Every moving surface boundary of matter in the observed universe is evolving in four dimensions at velocity <math>c</math>. The current location in 4-space of any of its material objects corresponds to the present moment in the proper time of that object's inertial reference frame. The object's direction of movement at velocity <math>c</math> corresponds to its proper time dimension, which is a spiral over time, not a Euclidean (straight-line) dimension, since its direction is changing in its orbit. Objects with mass of all sizes, from subatomic particles to the largest objects observed in the cosmos, are perpetually in inertial rotational motion in some orbit, and simultaneously in inertial translational motion propagating themselves through 4-space, in two completely orthogonal inertial motions each at the constant universal rate of transformation <math>c</math>. Every free-falling object with mass moves relative to universal 4-coordinate Euclidean space on its own distinct geodesic spiral, a screw displacement trajectory that is the compound of its two completely orthogonal inertial motions at velocity <math>c</math>, a rotation and a translation. Objects without mass such as photons lie off such moving surface boundaries of matter from which they were emitted, and their motion is of a different nature. They are in translational motion at velocity <math>c</math> through all four dimensions concurrently, without any rotational component of motion, so they move through 4-space on straight lines at a compound velocity. The propagation speed of light measured on a straight line through Euclidean 4-space is <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, so we can see in four dimensions, even though we are physically confined to a 3-dimensional manifold that is moving at velocity <math>c</math>. For example, we can look across the center of the mostly-empty 4-ball containing our galaxy and see stars in the opposite sides of its concentric 3-sphere orbital surfaces. We have been unaware that when we look up at night we see stars and galaxies, themselves large 4-dimensional objects, distributed all around us in 4-dimensional Euclidean space, and moving through it, like us, at the constant velocity <math>c</math>. They move in the 4-space direction corresponding to their proper time, perpendicular to all three dimensions of their proper 3-space, and generally the farther they are from us the greater the divergence of their direction of motion from our direction of motion: the greater the relative motion between us, and the greater their Hubble redshift. Light from them reaches us directly, propagating on straight lines through 4-space at twice the velocity at which they, and we ourselves, are propagating through 4-space. This physical model of the observed universe is compatible with the theories of special and general relativity, and with the atomic theory of quantum mechanics. It explains those theories geometrically, as expressions of intrinsic symmetries in Euclidean space. == Symmetries == It is common to speak of nature as a web, and so it is, the great web of our physical experiences. Every web must have its root systems somewhere, and nature in this sense must be rooted in the symmetries which underlie physics and geometry, the [[W:Group (mathematics)|mathematics of groups]].{{Sfn|Conway, Burgiel & Goodman-Strauss|2008}} As I understand [[W:Noether's theorem|Noether's theorem]] (which is not mathematically), hers is the deepest meta-theory of nature yet, deeper than [[W:Theory of relativity|Einstein's relativity]] or [[W:Evolution|Darwin's evolution]] or [[W:Euclidean geometry|Euclid's geometry]]. It finds that all fundamental findings in physics are based on conservation laws which can be laid at the doors of distinct [[W:symmetry group |symmetry group]]s. Thus all fundamental systems in physics, as examples [[W:quantum chromodynamics|quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD) the theory of the strong force binding the atomic nucleus and [[W:quantum electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) the theory of the electromagnetic force, each have a corresponding symmetry [[W:group theory|group theory]] of which they are an expression. [[W:Coxeter group|Coxeter's theory of symmetry groups]] generated by reflections did for geometry what Noether's theorem and Einstein's relativity did for physics. [[W:Coxeter|Coxeter]] showed that Euclidean geometry is based on conservation laws that correspond to distinct symmetry groups, and that their group actions express the principle of relativity. Here is Coxeter's formulation of the motions of objects (their congruent transformations) in an ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space, excerpted:{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|pp=217-218|loc=§12.2 Congruent transformations}} <blockquote>Let <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> denote a rotation, <math>\mathrm{R}</math> a reflection, <math>\mathrm{T}</math> a translation, and let <math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r\mathrm{T}</math> denote a product of several such transformations, all commutative with one another. Then <math>\mathrm{RT}</math> is a glide-reflection (in two or three dimensions), <math>\mathrm{QR}</math> is a rotary-reflection, <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is a screw-displacement, and <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is a double rotation (in four dimensions).<br> Every orthogonal transformation is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r \le n)</math>, the number of dimensions.<br> Transformations involving a translation are also expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + 1 \le n)</math>.<br> For <math>(n = 4)</math> in particular, every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> If we begin with this most elemental [[w:Kinematics|kinematics]] of Coxeter's, and also assume the [[W:Galilean relativity|Galilean principle of relativity]], every displacement in 4-space can be viewed as either a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> or a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, because we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> in a linearly moving (translating) reference frame. Therefore any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>. By the same principle, we can view any <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> as an isoclinic (equi-angled) <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> by proper choice of reference frame.{{Efn|[[W:Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] showed that any rotation in 4-space can be decomposed into two isoclinic rotations, which intuitively we might see follows from the fact that any transformation from one inertial reference frame to another is expressable as a [[W:SO(4)|rotation in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]].|name=Cayley's rotation factorization into two isoclinic reference frame transformations}} Coxeter's relation is thus a mathematical statement of the principle of relativity, on group-theoretic grounds. It correctly captures the limits to [[W:General relativity|general relativity]], in that we can only exchange the translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) for ''one'' of the two rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>). An observer in any inertial reference frame can always measure the presence, direction and velocity of ''one'' rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) up to uncertainty, and can always distinguish the direction of their own proper time translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>). As I understand Coxeter theory (which is not mathematically), the symmetry groups underlying physics seem to have an expression in a [[W:Euclidean space|Euclidean space]] of four [[W:dimension|dimension]]s, that is, they are [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|four-dimensional Euclidean geometry]]. Therefore as I understand that geometry (which is entirely by synthetic methods rather than by [[W:Geometric algebra|Clifford's algebraic methods]]), the [[W:Atom|atom]] seems to have a distinct Euclidean geometry, such that atoms and their constituent particles are four-dimensional geometric objects (4-polytopes), and nature can be understood in terms of their [[W:group action|group actions]], including centrally their group <math>SO(4)</math> [[W:rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space|rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space]]. The distinct Coxeter symmetry groups have characteristic <math>SO(4)</math> rotational expressions as the [[W:Regular_4-polytope|regular 4-polytopes]]. Their discrete isoclinic rotations are distinguishing properties of fundamental objects in geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics. For example, atoms exhibit <math>SO(4)</math> symmetries of the discrete isoclinic (equi-angled) double rotations (<math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>) of a set of regular 4-polytopes that is characteristic of their [[w:Atomic_number|atomic number]]. == Special relativity describes Euclidean 4-space == <blockquote>Our entire model of the universe is built on symmetries. Some, like isotropy (the laws are the same in all directions), homogeneity (same in all places), and time invariance (same at all times) seem natural enough. Even relativity, the Lorentz Invariance that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, has an elegance to it that makes it seem natural.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Dave|last=Goldberg|title=The Universe in the Rearview Mirror: How Hidden Symmetries Shape Reality|chapter=§10. Hidden Symmetries: Why some symmetries but not others?|year=2013|publisher=Dutton Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-525-95366-1|ref={{SfnRef|Goldberg|2013}}}}</ref></blockquote> Although the Minkowski spacetime of relativity is a non-Euclidean 4-dimensional space,{{Efn|Spacetime is a non-Euclidean (curved) 4-dimensional space because it consists of three orthogonal space dimensions and a time dimension. The time dimension is not orthogonal to the three spatial dimensions; the time coordinate has the opposite sign as the three space coordinates so spacetime is hyperbolic, not a Euclidean (flat) 4-space at all.}} it has been noticed that its 3-dimensional space component could be modeled as a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in 4-dimensional Euclidean (flat) space. That is, we could imagine that the ordinary 3-dimensional space we perceive is the curved 3-dimensional surface of a 4-dimensional ball (since the surface of a 4-ball is a curved 3-dimensional space called a 3-sphere, just as the surface of a 3-ball like the earth is a curved 2-dimensional space called a 2-sphere). This was [[#Origins of the theory|imagined by Einstein]] himself in 1921, as a thought experiment in which he carefully described his fourth orthogonal spatial dimension as merely a mathematical abstraction.<ref name=Einstein1923>{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36276|title=The Meaning of Relativity|last=Einstein|first=Albert|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1923|isbn=|location=|pages=110-111}}</ref> Subsequently it was noticed by others (not mainstream physicists) that if physical space were really embedded in Euclidean 4-dimensional space (with our 3-dimensional space embedded in 4-space as some non-Euclidean 3-manifold, not necessarily a 3-sphere), then the Lorentz transformation effects of special relativity (spatial forshortenings and time dilations and so forth) could all be explained by ordinary perspective geometry in 4-dimensional Euclidean space. Special relativity reduces to classical vector space geometry (based on the 4-dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem), but if and only if every observer is moving through 4-space at a universal constant velocity <math>c</math>, in some 4-space direction.{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} This counter-intuitive alternative geometric model of relativity, which has usually been called [[W:Formulations of special relativity#Euclidean relativity|Euclidean relativity]], is motivated by the fact that in every kind of relativity, but originally in Einstein's special relativity, each observer moves on a vector through a Euclidean four-dimensional space consisting of their three proper spatial dimensions and their proper time dimension, and the Pythagorean vector-sum of their motion through this kind of proper 4-space is always <math>c</math>, as measured by all observers from any inertial reference frame.{{Efn|Each observer is stationary in space in their own proper reference frame, while they move at maximum velocity {{Math|c}} through their own proper time. Observed from another reference frame in relative motion, they appear foreshortened in space in their direction of motion, and their clocks appear to be slowed to less than the maximum velocity {{Math|c}}.}} This is the Lorentz invariant, that allows everyone to observe a constant speed of light, regardless of their motion relative to the light source.{{Efn| ...cite Lewis Epstein's elegant explanation of the Lorentz Invariance as observers moving at constant velocity {{Math|c}} through space and proper time.}} But no physicists have taken the leap of claiming that therefore, our universe is physically [[W:Euclidean geometry#Higher dimensions|this kind of Euclidean 4-space]], and that observers are actually moving through it at velocity <math>c</math>. In physics as it has been universally understood, observers are not supposed to be able to move at velocity <math>c</math>. Their motion takes place in 3-space and in universal coordinate time (in Minkowski spacetime), and the cosmos is considered to be a non-Euclidean 3-space, generally a closed (finite) expanding 3-space, but with only three spatial dimensions, not four. In the Euclidean relativity alternative view, however, every observer is always moving at velocity <math>c</math> through the universe, which is real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. The direction in which they are moving is called their proper time axis.{{Efn|Time in spacetime is universal coordinate time, but there is another kind of time in relativity, the proper time in each inertial reference frame. Your proper time is the time you experience, and every observer has his own proper time; proper time runs at different rates in different inertial reference frames. It runs slower (compared to universal coordinate time) in a gravitational field (according to general relativity), and observers in motion with respect to each other view each other's clocks as running slower than their own clocks (according to special relativity).}} Their movement in time is not just modelled as movement in an abstract fourth dimension (as it is in Minkowski spacetime), their movement in time is isomorphic to their movement through physical space in a distinct direction at velocity <math>c</math>. Two observers' directions of movement through space may be different (or not, if they happen to be going in the same direction). Your proper time dimension is whichever direction you are moving. The other three directions perpendicular to your proper time axis are the three dimensions of your ordinary proper space, which again, will be different directions for you than for other observers moving in a different direction. There are four orthogonal spatial dimensions which we all share, but we share the same orthogonal proper time axis and ordinary proper 3-space axes only if we are at rest with respect to each other, actually moving in the same direction at velocity <math>c</math>, in the same inertial reference frame. Your proper 4-space coordinate system is rotated with respect to another observer's proper 4-space coordinate system, precisely as your vectors (directions of motion) are rotated in Euclidean 4-space with respect to each other, but there are no metric distortions (no Lorentz transformations) between your proper Euclidean 4-space coordinate systems; you are both embedded in the same Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. Lorentz transformations are required only to convert between your respective proper Minkowski spacetime coordinate systems. So in this novel alternate view of relativity, every mass in the universe must be perpetually in motion at velocity <math>c</math> through Euclidean 4-space, along with all the masses in its vicinity that are going in (nearly) the same direction. The entire solar system, for example, must be translating in the fourth dimension at the "speed of light" <math>c</math>, although we do not notice it, since we are all moving in that same direction together. Acceleration of an object varies its direction of motion through 4-space, but never its velocity, which is invariant for all objects with mass. Two objects which are in motion relative to each other are both actually in motion at the same velocity <math>c</math>, but in at least slightly different directions.{{Efn|The angular divergence between two observer's motion vectors is proportional to their relative velocity: the more they diverge, the greater their relative velocity, up to the maximum divergence possible in the space. In Euclidean relativity all observers are in motion at velocity {{Math|c}} relative to universal Cartesian 4-coordinate space, so the maximum relative velocity between two observers is {{Math|2c}} when they are moving in exactly opposite directions in 4-space. This is not a contradiction of special relativity, which limits the maximum relative velocity between two observers to {{Math|c}}, it is the same measurement in different units. Special relativity measures all velocities in Minkowski spacetime (in a non-Euclidean 3-space). Euclidean relativity measures all velocities in Euclidean 4-space.}} In Einstein's relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of light through 3-space. In Euclidean relativity, the invariant <math>c</math> is the speed of matter through 4-space! The speed of light through 3-space is also perceived as <math>c</math> by all observers, because they are each living in a moving 3-manifold that is translating through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. Despite their extreme differences in viewpoint, Einstein's relativity and Euclidean relativity are equivalent theories in complete agreement with each other, by definition. The two theories make exactly the same special relativity predictions of how observers in different inertial reference frames will perceive each other's motions in time and space. It is beyond the scope of this present paper to show how they also agree on the predictions of general relativity, but it is important to understand that our formulation of Euclidean relativity requires our acceptance of the experimentally verified findings of special relativity, general relativity and quantum mechanics. Our model and the standard model both describe the same geometric relations of space and time based on the same evidence, but as embedded in two very different universal host spaces: Euclidean 4-space versus Minkowski spacetime. In some instances our model provides a geometric explanation for physical phenomena where the standard model has none, as yet. An example is the two models' differing explanations for the gravitational coherence of galaxies: either their inertial motion at velocity <math>c</math>, or their possession of experimentally undetected dark matter. A more central example is our use of Coxeter's kinematics to explain the laws of relativistic motion geometrically. {{Efn|More generally, our model is concerned with group-theoretic properties of number elucidated by Coxeter and other geometers. ...cite Kappraff & Adamson's 2003 paper on The Relationship of the Cotangent Function to Special Relativity Theory, geometry and properties of number,{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2003|loc=Special Relativity Theory, Geometry and properties of number}} which shows how the Lorentz coefficient is a function of a deep geometric property of number{{Sfn|Kappraff & Adamson|2000|loc=A Fresh Look at Number}} discovered by Steinbach,{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997|loc=Golden Fields: A Case for the Heptagon}} by means of which the root formula of geometry in any Euclidean dimension, the Pythagorean theorem, may be derived solely in terms of the addition of polygon side lengths, without recourse to their products or squares. More generally, Steinbach found that in the relations among regular polytope chords, to add is to multiply; every chord is both the product (quotient) of a pair of chords and the sum (difference) of another pair of chords.}} Euclidean relativity is not even a fringe theory; no physicists or astronomers have adopted it. There are many good reasons why the revolutionary leap to a four orthogonal spatial dimensions viewpoint has not been taken, beginning with the universally observed fact that we can only construct three perpendiculars through a point in our immediate space, which appears to be resolutely 3-dimensional, not 4-dimensional. Euclidean relativity offers a nice geometric explanation of the reasons for the Lorentz transformations, but only at the cost of raising other mysteries, which have been difficult for its aficionados to explain. Another mystery is how light signals between observers in relative motion could "catch up" with the receiver moving on a diverging path through 4-space from the emitter. If both observers are already moving at <math>c</math> (on diverging paths), the propagation speed of light through 4-space between them would have to be greater than <math>c</math>. Euclidean relativity is a revolutionary theory indeed, in which <math>c</math> cannot possibly be the speed of light! We conclude that, for a theory of Euclidean 4-space to be physically viable (that is, for <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> to be our real space and not merely an abstract mathematical space), the speed of light through Euclidean 4-space must be <math>c\prime = 2c</math>, with massless photons translating through 4-space at twice the speed of mass-carrying objects. Photons must translate the diagonal distance through 4-space along the long diameter of a unit 4-hypercube, in the same time that massive particles translate inertially along the edge (or the radius) of a unit 4-hypercube. This is conceivable in Euclidean 4-space (and in no other Euclidean space of any dimensionality) because the long diagonal of the unit 4-hypercube is the natural number <math>\sqrt{4}</math>. == An object's motion in space is the product of its discrete self-reflections == Coxeter theory describes all the possible motions of an object in space as local functions of the object's discrete geometry (its shape). Coxeter observed that in a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, any displacement of a geometric object from one place to another, and any rotation of the object from one orientation to another, can be broken down into the product of a number of discrete self-reflections. Any action of a polytope that transforms its position and orientation in space may be measured as a distinct sequence of self-reflections of the object in its own surfaces. Therefore any motion of the object whatsoever may be precisely described as the object propagating itself through space by a discrete sequence of local self-reflections. This is a purely kinematic description of motion which does not give any account of forces acting on the object that cause it to move. Coxeter found that both changes in position (translations) and changes in orientation (rotations) can be broken down into the simplest of all displacements (self-reflections). A translation occurs when an object self-reflects twice, in two distinct surfaces which are parallel to each other. A rotation also occurs when an object self-reflects twice, but in two distinct surfaces which intersect each other. When a object self-reflects once, it turns itself inside out (it reverses its chirality), but in translations and rotations it self-reflects twice, preserving its chirality. Coxeter's laws of kinematics are a geometric counterpart to Newton's algebraic laws of motion in three dimensional Euclidean space. They are helpful because they can be understood as geometric pictures, which may help us to visualize the relationships between translation and rotation in classic Newtonian physics problems, such as the [[W:Kepler problem|Kepler problem]] of the motion of the planets.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Feynman|first=Richard|title=Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun|date=1996|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393039184}}</ref> But they are also a revolutionary advance beyond Newton's laws, because Coxeter formulated them in Euclidean spaces of any number of dimensions. In particular, they give us geometric pictures of all the possible motions of objects in 4-dimensional Euclidean space: <blockquote>Every orthogonal transformation in 4-space is expressible as:<br> :<math>\mathrm{Q}^q \mathrm{R}^r \mathrm{T}^t</math><br> where <math>(2^q + r + t \le 4)</math>. Every displacement is either a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, or a screw-displacement <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> [where the rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> is a simple rotation, but the <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> is chiral like a <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>]. Every enantiomorphous transformation in 4-space (reversing chirality) is a <math>\mathrm{QRT}</math>.</blockquote> While this description should be understood as geometric pictures, some of the pictures may not be easy for us to visualize, since we have no physical experience in 4-dimensional space. Rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}</math>), reflection (<math>\mathrm{R}</math>) and translation (<math>\mathrm{T}</math>) are obvious analogues of what they are in three-dimensional space, but double rotation (<math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>) is something new and unprecedented in our physical experience, because double rotations cannot occur until there are four or more dimensions of space in which to rotate. A point in 4-space may be in motion on two circles in two completely orthogonal rotation planes simultaneously. Nothing constrains the two circles to be of the same radius, or constrains either circle from being of infinite radius such that the point moves in a straight line within its rotation plane: a translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> rather than a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. The motion of a rigid object defined by multiple points is constrained by its rigidity, such that the radii of both circles may approach infinity, but only one of the two radii may actually reach infinity. For a rigid object, only one of the two rotations may actually be a translation. Four dimensional Euclidean space can accomodate no such thing as a <math>\mathrm{Q}^2\mathrm{T}</math>. A translating double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math>, like a translating simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>, is simply a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. That is the essence of the way the principle of relativity operates in Euclidean 4-space. An object which is double-rotating in its own proper inertial reference frame may be seen to be performing nothing more mysterious than a screw translation, when observed from an inertial reference frame from which the object is in relative translational motion. Of course, it is a screw translation in 4-space, which is more mysterious than a screw translation in our ordinary 3-space. In 3-space the orbit of a screw translation (or any <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>) lies on a great circle of an ordinary sphere (a 2-sphere). In 4-space the orbit of a screw translation <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}^2</math> lies on a great circle of a hypersphere (a 3-sphere). Such 4-dimensional great circles are inherently more complex than the ordinary circles we experience in 3-space. They do not lie in a single plane, but bend through all four dimensions, in either a left or right hand direction of curvature. Unlike ordinary circles they are inherently chiral, and their circumference is not <math>2\pi r</math>, but like ordinary circles they are truly circular, geodesic circles. In 4-space they might even be said to be more circular than ordinary circles, which bend in only two dimensions. We refer to such 4-dimensional great circles as ''isoclines'', to distinguish them from ordinary 2-dimensional great circles in the plane. Their name comes from the fact that a point on a rigid 4-dimensional object undergoing [[W:SO(4)#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]] traverses an isocline circle. In a universe which is real Euclidean four-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>, wherein these motions occur only at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, there is a universal Cartesian 4-coordinate reference frame in which every rigid object in free fall is translating on a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> at velocity <math>c</math>. That universal inertial reference frame is not the proper reference frame of any object or observer, wherein the object or observer is stationary and double-rotating at the universal rate of quantum events <math>c</math>, but it is the common reference frame of all observers. == Light propagates through 4-space at twice its apparent velocity <math>c</math>== Coxeter's laws of kinematics in 4-dimensional Euclidean space apply to all objects with mass, but we find there is an additional kind of displacement which applies only to massless particles such as photons, considered as single point objects. Light quanta (photons) translate through 4-space by 4-dimensional reflection <math>\mathrm{R}^4</math>, which may be termed a double translation <math>\mathrm{T}^2</math>, a pure translation via two pairs of parallel reflections without any rotation component <math>\mathrm{Q}</math>. Matter (atoms and all particles with mass) are perpetually rotating and translating through 4-space by <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>, a screw translation of a rotating object, which is relativistically equivalent to a stationary isoclinic <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math>, an isoclinically rotating object such as an atom. A simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> or simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> is a double reflection <math>\mathrm{R^2}</math>, so a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> or <math>\mathrm{Q^2}</math> is an <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>, but not with the same group of reflection angles as a light signal <math>\mathrm{R^4}</math>. A translation <math>\mathrm{T = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two parallel planes, and a rotation <math>\mathrm{Q = R^2}</math> is a double reflection in two intersecting planes, as in a <math>\mathrm{QT = R^4}</math> which is both at once. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is two double reflections in pairs of parallel planes at once, a reflection in four non-intersecting parallel planes; it is all translation and no rotation. In a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> all the motion goes to translation, so the translation goes twice as far as the simple translation <math>\mathrm{T}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. A double translation <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> is the opposite of a double rotation <math>\mathrm{Q^2 = R^4}</math>, which is stationary but rotates twice as far as the simple rotation <math>\mathrm{Q}</math> in a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math>. The product of the two translations in a <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> is a diagonal 4-space translation over the long diameter of the unit 4-hypercube, exactly twice the distance of a simple <math>\mathrm{T}</math> over the edge length (or radius) of the unit 4-hypercube. The [[w:Tesseract|4-hypercube (also known as the 8-cell or tesseract)]] is ''radially equilateral'', which means its edge length is equal to its radius, like the hexagon, so its long diameter (twice its radius) is exactly twice its edge length. The photon moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions. By the four-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, each of those four distances is half the total distance the photon moves: one edge length (one radius) is half the total diagonal distance moved (the long diameter). That total movement is a double the unit-distance translation, but without any rotation component, so it cannot carry any mass with it. A <math>\mathrm{T^2}</math> cannot reposition a 4-polytope the way a <math>\mathrm{QT}</math> does, it can only reposition a quantum of energy that has no distinguishing rotational symmetry, such as a photon. That is the price light pays to move exactly twice as fast as matter.{{Efn| ...lensing of double translations <math>\mathrm{T^2 = R^4}</math> in more than two pairs of parallel planes at once...relationship to the frequency of light emitted and the coherence length of the wave packet...}} == Special relativity is Galilean relativity in Euclidean 4-space == {{Efn|...TAC suggests this section is needed sooner, i.e. in the preceding Special Relativity section, as it explains how Euclidean relativity reduces special relativity to 4D perspective geometry...it's misplaced (too late) here...}} Perspective effects known as the Lorentz transformations occur because each observer's proper 3-dimensional space is a moving curved manifold embedded in flat 4-dimensional Euclidean space. The curvature of their 3-space complicates sightline calculations for observers; they sometimes require Lorentz transformations to produce the actual 4-space Cartesian coordinates of objects in the scene being observed. But if all four spatial dimensions are considered, no Lorentz transformations are required (or permitted) in correct scene construction, except when an observer wants to calculate a projection, that is, the shadow of how things will appear to them from a three-dimensional viewpoint (not how they really are in 4-space).{{Sfn|Yamashita|2023}} Space really has four orthogonal dimensions, and space and time behave there just as they do in a classical vector space, only bigger by one dimension. It is not necessary to combine 4-space with time in a unified spacetime to explain 4-dimensional perspective effects at high relative velocities, because Euclidean 4-space is already 4-dimensional, and those effects fall out naturally from the 4-dimensional Pythagorean theorem, exactly as ordinary visual perspective does in three dimensions from the 3-dimensional Pythagorean theorem. Because one of the four spatial dimensions corresponds to an observer's direction of motion (in both space and proper time), and all observers and all scenes being observed are in motion (at constant velocity) in their respective proper time directions, we observe perspective foreshortenings in time as well as in a spatial dimension. In special relativity these perspective effects are reciprocal, precisely because they are only apparent, not actual, changes in size and duration. (However in general relativity, discussed below, the actual rate of physical processes varies from place to place, and reference frame differences predicted by the theory are neither reciprocal nor illusory.) None of these Lorentz effects are beyond geometric explanation or paradoxical. The universe is unexpectedly strange to us in precisely the ways the Euclidean fourth dimension is strange to us; but that does hold many surprises. Euclidean 4-space is much more interesting than Euclidean 3-space, analogous to the way 3-space is much more interesting and deeply explanatory to us than it would be if we experienced it only as a 2-space with many folds and curves, as perhaps an ant does. The emergent properties of 4-space are hard for us to visualize because they lie so wholly beyond our physical experience, just as it was hard for our ancestors to imagine the earth as round like a ball. However, Euclidean spaces of successive dimensions are analogous, and so higher dimensional spaces can be anticipated and explored: that is Schläfli's great discovery. Moreover dimensional analogy itself, like everything else in nature including all of physics, is an exact expression of intrinsic group-theoretic symmetries: that is Nother's great discovery. == General relativity is the geometry of gravity in Euclidean 4-space == The statement that the laws of special relativity hold to good approximation in freely falling (and non-rotating) reference frames is known as the [[W:Equivalence principle|Einstein equivalence principle]]. The weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a building on the surface of the earth is the same as the weight experienced by an observer standing on the floor in a spaceship in interstellar space accelerating at a rate of 32'/second/second. Both observers are experiencing an upwards acceleration at the same rate, which in their respective proper reference frames is measured as the weight of gravity, rather than as an accelerating motion (they are stationary in their proper reference frames). Einstein used this equivalence principle as the basis for his general theory of relativity, in much the same way he had used the constant velocity of light as the basis for his special theory of relativity. In general relativity the two accelerating observers occupy scenes which are relativistically equivalent, which means that although they can be distinguished (they have different measurements) in any reference frame from which they may both be observed, they have the same invariant geometry in all reference frames (they are the same phenomena), implying that there exists, for either scene, another reference frame from which it measures exactly like the other scene. Relativistically equivalent does not imply that there exists a single reference frame in which the two scenes are congruent (have the same measurements). It only means that they can be transformed into each other by a shift in point of view, because their invariant geometries (their measurements which are independent of point of view) are the same. Einstein's general theory of relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in spacetime. Our formulation of Euclidean relativity describes that invariant geometry, for scenes in general, in real Euclidean 4-dimensional space <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math>. An observer standing on the surface of the earth is accelerated at the rate of 32'/second/second. The observer and the earth are both stationary in their proper inertial reference frames (which are similar except for the rotation of the earth), so the observer's acceleration cannot be perceived as motion in either proper reference frame; it is perceptible there instead as the force of gravity. It is only perceptible as motion in some other reference frame in which the earth and the observer are both in motion, such as the universal common reference frame of Euclidean 4-coordinate space in which they are both in motion at velocity <math>c</math> on their respective screw translations <math>QT</math>, which are distinct. In that universal common reference frame the observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is the rate of change in the direction of his vector of translation through 4-space. The velocity of his vector of translation <math>T</math> through 4-space remains the constant <math>c</math> throughout; only his direction is changing. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation <math>Q</math> of a translation <math>T</math>: a screw translation <math>QT</math>. A change in the direction of a vector is a rotation which is an acceleration. We can be precise about the units of measurement of this acceleration at atomic scale. In Coxeter's kinematics rotations of geometric objects occur in discrete increments called rotational displacements, with each distinct kind of rotation performing a characteristic number of its characteristic rotational displacement during a full revolution that returns the object to its starting orientation. There are many distinct kinds of rotation, each with its characteristic rotational displacement and number of displacements per revolution. The general rotation in 4-space is a double rotation <math>Q^2</math> distinguished by two distinct completely orthogonal angles through which the object turns in each rotational displacement. The angles determine not only the distance through which the object turns, but the characteristic trajectory of each point on the surface of the rotating object, including the length of that trajectory before it closes into a circle when the object returns to its starting orientation. For any distinct kind of rotation, the circular trajectory is always an integer multiple of the characteristic rotational displacement, but the full circle may be greater than 360°. In 4-space rotational circles are not ordinary 2-dimensional circles that lie in the plane and have a 360° circumference. Many distinct 4-space rotations of interest have a circumference of 720°, and many are larger. In 4-space every object with mass moves on its distinct <math>QT</math> trajectory. Each rotational displacement <math>Q</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which intersect each other, at angles related to a distinct star polygon. Each translational displacement <math>T</math> is equivalent to a pair of reflection displacements in two surfaces which lie parallel to each other. In both kinds of motion (rotation and translation) it is the rate at which these double-reflection displacements occur which is constant and which we measure as the velocity <math>c</math>. Every atom translates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing a large number of atomic scale translational displacements per second. Concurrently, the atom rotates at velocity <math>c</math>, performing the same large number of atomic scale rotational displacements per second. Although the number of displacements at atomic scale per unit time is the same universal constant <math>c</math> for all rotations and translations, distinct kinds of rotation revolve at distinct rates, because the number of rotational displacements per complete revolution and the circumference of the complete revolution are distinct characteristics of each kind of rotation. The velocity at which each point on the surface of a rotating object moves, and the frequency of its rotational circling, are functions of the distinct rotation it is performing. However, they are not simple functions of <math>c</math> and the two defining angle parameters of the rotation. Distinct rotations arise from distinct symmetry groups and each is its own mystery with a unique conservation law. The relationships between those distinct conservation laws are even more mysterious, and have been shown to be chaotic. Steinbach{{Sfn|Steinbach|1997}} discovered the Golden Fields family of ratios which govern distinct rotational displacements related to the regular star polygons at least up to the hendecagon {11}. Kappraff and Adamson{{Sfn|Kappraff|Adamson|2004}} further characterized the families of rotation functions and showed that they form an infinite number of periodic trajectories when operated on by the Mandelbrot operator. The inertial tendency of mass is to follow a geodesic. The inertial conservation law of gravity applies to all motions of objects with mass, rotations as well as translations. A translation <math>T</math> is the distinct simple rotation <math>Q</math> in which the characteristic angle of rotational displacement is zero. Inertia is the tendency of objects with mass to conserve their angles of rotational displacement. In 4-space each object has two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement which are characteristic of the distinct rotation the object is performing. Inertia is the conservation of this distinct double rotation. In 4-coordinate Euclidean space the acceleration of an object with mass is a rotation of the object, a change to its direction, not a change to its constant velocity. Because the rate of atomic scale displacements is the universal constant <math>c</math>, the rate of change of direction (the acceleration of the object) is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law. A observer standing on the surface of the earth is performing a distinct double rotation characterized by two completely orthogonal angles of rotational displacement. The observer's acceleration of 32'/second/second is a function of <math>c</math> and the distinct rotation's conservation law, and a measurement of the rate of change of the observer's direction of motion through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>. ... == Quantum mechanics is the rotational kinematics of Coxeter groups in Euclidean 4-space == ... == Dimensional relativity == The formulation of Euclidean relativity based on Coxeter's kinetic law of <math>n</math>-dimensional congruent transformations in Euclidean space may be called ''dimensional relativity'', since it captures the theories of special and general relativity, and has its roots in dimensional analogy. Dimensional analogy is the exploration of [[w:Hermann_Grassmann#Mathematician|Hermann Grassmann's vector space principle]], in which space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. The geometry of higher-dimensional space is accessible by reason of direct analogy, as [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] subsequently demonstrated, and by algebraic methods after [[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]]. By analogy to the surface of the earth, the bounding surface of a spherical region of <math>n</math>-dimensional Euclidean space is an <math>(n-1)</math>-sphere, a spherical space of one fewer dimensions than the <math>n</math>-ball of Euclidean space it surrounds. In dimensional relativity the sky is not a ceiling, but an infinite regress of alternating spherical and Euclidean <math>n</math>-spaces of increasing <math>n</math>, accessible from each observer's point of view. By dimensional analogy, each observer looks up into their own reference frame's regress of concentric alternating <math>n</math>-spaces. By the capacity for dimensional analogy which they possess, some observers see deeper into <math>n</math>-dimensional space than others. == Polycentric spherical relativity == An intelligent observer equipped with the principle of dimensional relativity may perceive the universe from any inertial reference frame, not only from their own proper stationary reference frame in the Euclidean <math>n</math>-space universe in which they physically locate themself. We see that every observer may also properly view themself as stationary and the universe as an <math>n</math>-sphere with themself at the center observing it, perceptually equidistant from all points on its <math>n</math>-space surface, including their own physical location which is one of those surface points, distinguished to them but moving on the surface, and not the center of anything. This ''polycentric model'' of the universe is a further restatement of the principle of relativity, and of the [[W:Copernican principle|Copernican principle]] that observation is democratic: observers occupy representative viewpoints, not privileged monocentric positions. The polycentric model is compatible with Galileo's relativity of uniformly moving objects in ordinary space, Einstein's special relativity of inertial reference frames in 4-dimensional spacetime, Einstein's general relativity of all reference frames in non-Euclidean spacetime, and Coxeter's dimensional relativity of orthogonal group actions in Euclidean and spherical spaces of any number of dimensions. The polycentric model should be known as Thoreau's principle of ''spherical relativity'', since the first precise written statement of it appears in 1849, contemporaneous with and independent of Schlafli's discovery of higher dimensional space: <blockquote>The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence.{{Sfn|Thoreau|1849|p=349|ps=; "The universe is a sphere whose center is wherever there is intelligence." [Contemporaneous and independent of [[W:Ludwig Schlafli|Ludwig Schlafli]]'s pioneering work enumerating the complete set of regular polyschemes in any number of dimensions.]}}</blockquote> == Revolutions == The original Copernican revolution in 1543 displaced the center of the universe from the center of the earth to a point farther away, the center of the sun, with the earth performing a ''revolution'' around the sun, and the stars remaining on a fixed 2-sphere around the sun instead of around the earth. But this led inevitably to the recognition that the sun must be a star itself, not equidistant from all the stars, and the center of but one of many spheres, no monotheistic center at all. In 1600 [[W:Giordano Bruno|Giordano Bruno]] who first openly advocated these views was burned at the stake in Rome's [[W:Campo de' Fiori|Campo de' Fiori]] by the Catholic inquisition. In such fashion the Euclidean four-dimensional revolution, emerging three to five centuries later, initially lends itself to the big bang theory of a single origin of the whole universe, but leads inevitably to the recognition that all the galaxies need not be equidistant from a single origin in time, any more than all the stars lie in the same galaxy, equidistant from a single center in space. The expanding sphere of matter on the surface of which we find ourselves living is likely to be one of many 3-spheres expanding at velocity <math>c</math>, with their big bang origins occurring at distinct times and places in the ''n''-dimensional universe. The most distant objects we see when we look up at night may not all have the same origin in space and time. As recently as Copernicus we believed all the stars lay on a single 2-sphere embedded in Euclidean 3-space, with our sun at its center. During the enlightenment observers beginning with Bruno dispersed those stars into an infinite Euclidean 3-space, and relinquished our privileged position at the center. Then Einstein showed that our 3-space could not be Euclidean, that it must be a 3-manifold curved in every place in obedience to Newton's inverse-square law of gravity; and in a geometry related to time, at least, it must be 4-dimensional. In the present work we propose a theory of ''n''-dimensional real space and how light travels in it, a theory which says we can see into four orthogonal dimensions of Euclidean space, and so when we look up at night we see cosmological objects distributed in at least four dimensions of space around us, rather than all located in our own local 3-space. Looking still deeper and farther out, the universe viewed as a 4-sphere might, or might not, be expanding, and the most distant objects we see when we look up at night may, or may not, lie in our 4-dimensional hyperplane. Real space has ''n'' dimensions as [[w:Hermann_Grassmann|Grassmann]] and [[w:Schläfli|Schläfli]] showed, and we do not know how many dimensions the most distant objects we see may be distributed in. They need not all lie within the four spatial dimensions in which we have now learned to observe them, any more than they all lie in our local 3-space. When we look up at the objects that surround us, we have no immediate way of discerning how many dimensions beyond three the space we are looking into has. We know their distance from us primarily by virtue of how long it takes their light to reach us. We can measure their distribution around us in 3-space or 4-space, but that is simply how we choose to measure their positions, not an actual finding of how they are distributed. Even if it is now evident that they do not all lie in the same 3-space, how many more dimensions than three are needed to contain them? We observe that our 4-ball galaxy is embedded in Euclidean <math>n</math>-space as one of many 4-ball galaxies, each translating in a distinct direction through 4-space at velocity <math>c</math>, on more or less divergent paths from each other. But only closer observation will reveal evidence of whether everything we see lies in the same Euclidean 4-space, or if it is distributed in five or more dimensions, and how it is moving there. To remain in agreement with the theory of relativity, the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint requires that all mass-carrying objects be in motion in some distinct direction through 4-space at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, although the relative velocity between nearby objects is much smaller since they move on similar vectors, aimed away from a common origin point in the past. It is natural to expect that objects moving at constant velocity away from a common origin will be distributed roughly on the surface of an expanding 3-sphere. Although their paths away from their origin are not straight lines but various helical isoclines (screw translation spirals), nearby objects must be translating radially at the same average velocity, since the objects in a system (such as our solar system or galaxy) do not separate rapidly over time but remain in orbital formation. Each system's screw translation has two [[w:Completely_orthogonal|completely orthogonal]] components of motion in 4-space, an orbital rotation (such as the earth's around our sun) and a linear translation of the entire system at velocity <math>c</math> in the direction of the original 3-sphere's radial expansion (along the system's proper time vector). Of course the view from our solar system does not suggest that the 3-sphere enclosing each galaxy is expanding at this great rate from its galactic center. The standard theory has been that the entire observable universe is expanding from a single big bang origin in time, with galaxies forming later. While the Euclidean four-dimensional viewpoint lends itself to that standard theory, it also supports theories which require no single origin point in space and time. These are the voyages of starship Earth, to boldly go where no one has gone before. We made the jump to light speed long ago, in whatever big bang our atoms emerged from, and have never slowed down since. == Origins of the theory == Einstein himself may have been the first to imagine the universe as the three-dimensional surface of a four-dimensional Euclidean 3-sphere, in what was narrowly the first written articulation of a Euclidean 4-space universe, contemporaneous with the teen-aged Coxeter's (quoted below).{{Efn|[[W:William Rowan Hamilton|Hamilton]]'s algebra '''H''' of [[W:Quaternions|quaternions]] introduces (in 1843) the notion of a [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]] embedded in a four-dimensional space, but Hamilton did not quite conceive of the quaternions as the Cartesian 4-coordinates of a Euclidean 4-space, and he did not describe our ordinary 3-space as embedded in Euclidean 4-space.}} Einstein did this as a [[W:Gedankenexperiment|gedankenexperiment]] in the context of investigating whether his equations of general relativity predicted an infinite or a finite universe, in his 1921 Princeton lecture. He invited us to imagine "A spherical manifold of three dimensions, embedded in a Euclidean continuum of four dimensions", but he was careful to disclaim parenthetically that "The aid of a fourth space dimension has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice."<ref name=Einstein1923/> Informally, the Euclidean 4-dimensional theory of relativity may be given as a sort of reciprocal to that disclaimer of Einstein's: ''The Minkowski spacetime has naturally no significance except that of a mathematical artifice, as an aid to understanding how things will appear to an observer from their perspective; the foreshortenings, clock desynchronizations and other Lorentz transformations it predicts are proper calculations of actual perspective effects; but real space is a flat, Euclidean continuum of four orthogonal spatial dimensions, and in it the ordinary laws of a flat vector space hold (such as the Pythagorean theorem), and all sightline calculations work classically, so long as you consider all four spatial dimensions.'' The Euclidean theory of relativity differs from the special theory of relativity in ascribing to the physical universe a geometry of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions, rather than the special theory's [[w:Minkowski spacetime|Minkowski spacetime]] geometry, in which three spatial dimensions and a time dimension comprise a unified non-Euclidean spacetime of four dimensions. Anco and Maghadam found that <math>SO(4)</math> breaks to <math>\mathbb{S}^3</math> (the 3-sphere) if the energy in a Kepler orbit is negative (an elliptical orbit), and to <math>H^3</math> (Minkowski spacetime) if the energy is positive (a hyperbolic orbit). Therefore the fact that the planets orbit on ellipses in our 3-space suggests that they orbit on a 3-sphere embedded in Euclidean 4-space. Thus we can conclude that <math>\mathbb{R}^4</math> is the actual geometry of our physical universe, and Minkowski spacetime is an abstraction of it; the reciprocal of Einstein's disclaimer is the more direct physical model. Of course spacetime remains a true and useful abstraction, although it must relinquish its privileged position as our exclusive conception of our place in space.{{Efn| ...origins of the Euclidean 4-space insight in the observations of Fock, Atkinson, Moser and others.}} The invention of Euclidean geometry of more than three spatial dimensions preceded Einstein's theories by more than fifty years, when it was worked out originally by the Swiss mathematician [[w:Ludwig Schläfli|Ludwig Schläfli]] before 1853.{{Sfn|Coxeter|1973|loc=§7. Ordinary Polytopes in Higher Space; §7.x. Historical remarks|pp=141-144|ps=; "Practically all the ideas in this chapter ... are due to Schläfli, who discovered them before 1853 — a time when Cayley, Grassmann and Möbius were the only other people who had ever conceived the possibility of geometry in more than three dimensions."}} Schläfli extended Euclid's geometry of one, two, and three dimensions in a direct way to four or more dimensions, generalizing the rules and terms of [[w:Euclidean geometry|Euclidean geometry]] to spaces of any number of dimensions. He coined the general term ''[[polyscheme]]'' to mean geometric forms of any number of dimensions, including two-dimensional [[w:polygon|polygons]], three-dimensional [[w:polyhedron|polyhedra]], four dimensional [[w:polychoron|polychora]], and so on, and in the process he found all of the [[w:Regular polytope|regular polyschemes]] that are possible in every dimension, including in particular the [[User:Dc.samizdat/Rotations#Sequence of regular 4-polytopes|six convex regular polychora]] which can be constructed in a Euclidean space of four dimensions (the set analogous to the five [[w:Platonic solid|Platonic solids]] the ancients found in three dimensional space). Thus Schläfli was the first to explore the fourth dimension, reveal its emergent geometric properties, and discover its astonishing regular objects. Because his work was only published posthumously in 1901, and remained almost completely unknown until Coxeter published [[w:Regular_Polytopes_(book)|Regular Polytopes]] in 1947, other researchers had more than fifty years to rediscover the regular polychora, and competing terms were coined; today [[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s word ''[[w:Polytope|polytope]]'' is the commonly used term for ''polyscheme.''{{Efn|[[w:Reinhold_Hoppe|Reinhold Hoppe]]'s German word ''polytop'' was introduced into English by [[W:Alicia Boole Stott|Alicia Boole Stott]], who like Hoppe and [[W:Thorold Gosset|Thorold Gosset]] rediscovered Schlafli's six regular convex 4-polytopes, with no knowledge of their prior discovery. Today Schläfli's original ''polyschem'', with its echo of ''schema'' as in the configurations of information structures, seems even more fitting in its generality than ''polytope'' -- perhaps analogously as information software (programming) is even more general than information hardware (computers).}} Because of this century-long lag in the dissemination of a scientific discovery, the regular 4-polytopes appear to have played no role at all, by any name, in the twentieth century discovery and evolution of the theories of relativity and quantum mechanics.{{Efn|One could argue that the higher-dimensional polytopes have barely influenced science or culture at all thus far. The physicist John Edward Huth's comprehensive deep dive through the history of cultural and scientific concepts of physical space, from ancient flatland models of the world through general relativity and quantum mechancs, shows exactly how we got to our present standard model of the universe, although it includes no mention of higher-dimensional Euclidean space.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huth|first=John Edward|title=A Sense of Space: A local's guide to a flat earth, the edge of the cosmos, and other curious places|year=2025|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref>}} == Boundaries == <blockquote>Ever since we discovered that Earth is round and turns like a mad-spinning top, we have understood that reality is not as it appears to us: every time we glimpse a new aspect of it, it is a deeply emotional experience. Another veil has fallen.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Carlo Rovelli|author-link=W:Carlo Rovelli|title=Seven Brief Lessons on Physics|publisher=Riverhead|year=2016|isbn=978-0399184413}}</ref></blockquote> Of course it is strange to consciously contemplate this world we inhabit, our planet, our solar system, our 3-sphere surface in our vast galaxy, as the merest film, a boundary no thicker in the places we inhabit than the diameter of an electron (though much thicker in some places we cannot inhabit, such as the planet's core and the interior of stars). But is not our unconscious traditional concept of the boundary of our world even stranger? Since the enlightenment we are accustomed to thinking that there is nothing beyond three dimensional space: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But anyone who knows the [[polyscheme]]s Schläfli discovered knows that space can have any number of dimensions, and that there are fundamental objects and motions to be discovered in four dimensions that are even more various and interesting than those we can discover in three. The strange thing, when we think about it that way, is that there ''is'' a boundary between three and four dimensional space. ''Why'' can't we move (or apparently, see) in more than three dimensions? Why is our physical world apparently only three dimensional? Why would it have just ''three'' dimensions, and not four, or five, or the ''n'' dimensions that Schläfli mapped? What is the nature of the boundary which confines us to just three dimensions? We know that in Euclidean geometry the boundary between three and four dimensions is itself a spherical three dimensional space, so we should suspect that we are materially confined within such a curved boundary surface. Light need not be confined with us within our three dimensional boundary space. We would look directly through four dimensional space in our natural way, by receiving light signals that travelled through it to us on straight lines. In that case the reason we do not observe a fourth spatial dimension in our vicinity is that there are no nearby objects in it, just off our hyperplane in the wild. The nearest 4-ball object we can see with our eyes is our sun, which lies equatorially in our own hyperplane, though it bulges out of it above and below. But when we look up at the heavens, every pinprick of light we observe is itself a four-dimensional object off our hyperplane, and they are distributed all around us in four-dimensional space through which we gaze. We are four-dimensionally sighted creatures, even though our bodies are three-dimensional objects, thin as an atom in the fourth dimension. But that should not perplex us: we can see into three dimensional space even though our retinas are two dimensional objects, thin as a photoreceptor cell. Our unconscious provincial concept is that there is nothing else outside our three dimensional world: no boundary, because there is nothing else to separate us from. But Schläfli discovered something else: all the astonishing regular objects that exist in higher dimensions, which vastly extend our notions of the beauty and mystery of space itself, and the intrinsic spatial symmetries of our universe which geometry reveals. Space is more commodious than we thought it was, and permits previously unimagined objects and motions. So our provincial conception of our place in it now has the same kind of status as our idea that the sun rises in the east and passes overhead: it is mere appearance, not a true model and no longer a proper explanation. An inertial boundary is a proper explanation, be it ever so thin. And would a boundary of ''no'' thickness, a mere abstraction with no physical power to separate, be a more suitable explanation? We must look for a physically powerful explanation in the geometry of space itself, which general relativity properly associates with the gravitational or inertial force. <blockquote>The number of dimensions possessed by a figure is the number of straight lines each perpendicular to all the others which can be drawn on it. Thus a point has no dimensions, a straight line one, a plane surface two, and a solid three .... In space as we now know it only three lines can be imagined perpendicular to each other. A fourth line, perpendicular to all the other three would be quite invisible and unimaginable to us. We ourselves and all the material things around us probably possess a fourth dimension, of which we are quite unaware. If not, from a four-dimensional point of view we are mere geometrical abstractions, like geometrical surfaces, lines, and points are to us. But this thickness in the fourth dimension must be exceedingly minute, if it exists at all. That is, we could only draw an exceedingly small line perpendicular to our three perpendicular lines, length, breadth and thickness, so small that no microscope could ever perceive it. We can find out something about the conditions of the fourth and higher dimensions if they exist, without being certain that they do exist, by a process which I have termed "Dimensional Analogy."<ref>{{Citation|title=Dimensional Analogy|last=Coxeter|first=Donald|date=February 1923|publisher=Coxeter Fonds, University of Toronto Archives|authorlink=W:Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter|series=|postscript=|work=}}</ref></blockquote> I believe, but I cannot prove, that we live in real space, which is Schläfli's Euclidean space of ''n'' analogous dimensions. As Grassmann showed first, space cannot be limited to any finite number of dimensions. There will always be higher dimensions to discover, first in imagination and then to explore physically, each an astonishing new enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book|first=T.S.|last=Eliot|title=Little Gidding|volume=Four Quartets|year=1943}}<blockquote> :We shall not cease from exploration :And the end of all our exploring :Will be to arrive where we started :And know the place for the first time. :Through the unknown, remembered gate :When the last of earth left to discover :Is that which was the beginning; :At the source of the longest river :The voice of the hidden waterfall :And the children in the apple-tree :Not known, because not looked for :But heard, half-heard, in the stillness :Between two waves of the sea. </blockquote></ref> Schläfli discovered every regular convex polytope that exists in any dimension, but that was only the beginning of the story of dimensional analogy, not its end or even the end of its beginning. That project is forever beginning anew. Coxeter discovered that Schläfli's Euclidean space is an expression of intrinsic symmetries, as Noether discovered all of physics is. Kappraff and Adamson discovered that even the sequences of humble regular polygons have fractal complexity, so symmetry itself is chaotic, always reachable but forever beyond our complete grasp. We are on a wilderness project, and just at its beginning, but already we observe a Euclidean space of four or more orthogonal spatial dimensions in which all objects with mass move ceaselessly at the constant velocity <math>c</math>, the universal rate at which everything moves, quantum events occur, and each of our proper times evolves. I believe these facts explain the experimentally verified theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, by revealing their unified polycentric geometry, the same way the facts about Copernicus's heliocentric solar system explained the observed motions of the planets, by revealing the geometry of gravity to Kepler. But others will have to do the math, work out the physics, and perform experiments to prove or disprove all of this, because I don't have the mathematics; entirely unlike Coxeter and Einstein, I am illiterate in those languages. <blockquote> ::::::BEECH :Where my imaginary line :Bends square in woods, an iron spine :And pile of real rocks have been founded. :And off this corner in the wild, :Where these are driven in and piled, :One tree, by being deeply wounded, :Has been impressed as Witness Tree :And made commit to memory :My proof of being not unbounded. :Thus truth's established and borne out, :Though circumstanced with dark and doubt— :Though by a world of doubt surrounded. :::::::—''The Moodie Forester''<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Witness Tree|last=Frost|first=Robert|year=1942|series=The Poetry of Robert Frost|publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston|edition=1969|}}</ref> </blockquote> == Appendix: Sequence of regular 4-polytopes == {{Regular convex 4-polytopes|wiki=W:|columns=7}} == ... == {{Efn|In a ''[[W:William Kingdon Clifford|Clifford]] displacement'', also known as an [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], all the Clifford parallel{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} invariant planes are displaced in four orthogonal directions (two completely orthogonal planes) at once: they are rotated by the same angle, and at the same time they are tilted ''sideways'' by that same angle. A [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|Clifford displacement]] is [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensionally diagonal]].{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} Every plane that is Clifford parallel to one of the completely orthogonal planes (including in this case an entire Clifford parallel bundle of 4 hexagons, but not all 16 hexagons) is invariant under the isoclinic rotation: all the points in the plane rotate in circles but remain in the plane, even as the whole plane tilts sideways. All 16 hexagons rotate by the same angle (though only 4 of them do so invariantly). All 16 hexagons are rotated by 60 degrees, and also displaced sideways by 60 degrees to a Clifford parallel hexagon. All of the other central polygons (e.g. squares) are also displaced to a Clifford parallel polygon 60 degrees away.|name=Clifford displacement}} {{Efn|It is not difficult to visualize four hexagonal planes intersecting at 60 degrees to each other, even in three dimensions. Four hexagonal central planes intersect at 60 degrees in the [[W:cuboctahedron|cuboctahedron]]. Four of the 24-cell's 16 hexagonal central planes (lying in the same 3-dimensional hyperplane) intersect at each of the 24-cell's vertices exactly the way they do at the center of a cuboctahedron. But the ''edges'' around the vertex do not meet as the radii do at the center of a cuboctahedron; the 24-cell has 8 edges around each vertex, not 12, so its vertex figure is the cube, not the cuboctahedron. The 8 edges meet exactly the way 8 edges do at the apex of a canonical [[W:cubic pyramid]|cubic pyramid]].{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}}|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} {{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} {{Efn|Eight {{sqrt|1}} edges converge in curved 3-dimensional space from the corners of the 24-cell's cubical vertex figure{{Efn|The [[W:vertex figure|vertex figure]] is the facet which is made by truncating a vertex; canonically, at the mid-edges incident to the vertex. But one can make similar vertex figures of different radii by truncating at any point along those edges, up to and including truncating at the adjacent vertices to make a ''full size'' vertex figure. Stillwell defines the vertex figure as "the convex hull of the neighbouring vertices of a given vertex".{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=17}} That is what serves the illustrative purpose here.|name=full size vertex figure}} and meet at its center (the vertex), where they form 4 straight lines which cross there. The 8 vertices of the cube are the eight nearest other vertices of the 24-cell. The straight lines are geodesics: two {{sqrt|1}}-length segments of an apparently straight line (in the 3-space of the 24-cell's curved surface) that is bent in the 4th dimension into a great circle hexagon (in 4-space). Imagined from inside this curved 3-space, the bends in the hexagons are invisible. From outside (if we could view the 24-cell in 4-space), the straight lines would be seen to bend in the 4th dimension at the cube centers, because the center is displaced outward in the 4th dimension, out of the hyperplane defined by the cube's vertices. Thus the vertex cube is actually a [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]]. Unlike a cube, it seems to be radially equilateral (like the tesseract and the 24-cell itself): its "radius" equals its edge length.{{Efn|The vertex cubic pyramid is not actually radially equilateral,{{Efn|name=radially equilateral}} because the edges radiating from its apex are not actually its radii: the apex of the [[W:cubic pyramid|cubic pyramid]] is not actually its center, just one of its vertices.}}|name=24-cell vertex figure}} {{Efn|The hexagons are inclined (tilted) at 60 degrees with respect to the unit radius coordinate system's orthogonal planes. Each hexagonal plane contains only ''one'' of the 4 coordinate system axes.{{Efn|Each great hexagon of the 24-cell contains one axis (one pair of antipodal vertices) belonging to each of the three inscribed 16-cells. The 24-cell contains three disjoint inscribed 16-cells, rotated 60° isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other (so their corresponding vertices are 120° {{=}} {{radic|3}} apart). A [[16-cell#Coordinates|16-cell is an orthonormal ''basis'']] for a 4-dimensional coordinate system, because its 8 vertices define the four orthogonal axes. In any choice of a vertex-up coordinate system (such as the unit radius coordinates used in this article), one of the three inscribed 16-cells is the basis for the coordinate system, and each hexagon has only ''one'' axis which is a coordinate system axis.|name=three basis 16-cells}} The hexagon consists of 3 pairs of opposite vertices (three 24-cell diameters): one opposite pair of ''integer'' coordinate vertices (one of the four coordinate axes), and two opposite pairs of ''half-integer'' coordinate vertices (not coordinate axes). For example: {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}1,{{spaces|2}}0) {{indent|5}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}({{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|5}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}}){{spaces|3}}(–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}},–{{sfrac|1|2}},{{spaces|2}}{{sfrac|1|2}}) {{indent|17}}({{spaces|2}}0,{{spaces|2}}0,–1,{{spaces|2}}0)<br> is a hexagon on the ''y'' axis. Unlike the {{sqrt|2}} squares, the hexagons are actually made of 24-cell edges, so they are visible features of the 24-cell.|name=non-orthogonal hexagons|group=}} {{Efn|Visualize the three [[16-cell]]s inscribed in the 24-cell (left, right, and middle), and the rotation which takes them to each other. [[24-cell#Reciprocal constructions from 8-cell and 16-cell|The vertices of the middle 16-cell lie on the (w, x, y, z) coordinate axes]];{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} the other two are rotated 60° [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinically]] to its left and its right. The 24-vertex 24-cell is a compound of three 16-cells, whose three sets of 8 vertices are distributed around the 24-cell symmetrically; each vertex is surrounded by 8 others (in the 3-dimensional space of the 4-dimensional 24-cell's ''surface''), the way the vertices of a cube surround its center.{{Efn|name=24-cell vertex figure}} The 8 surrounding vertices (the cube corners) lie in other 16-cells: 4 in the other 16-cell to the left, and 4 in the other 16-cell to the right. They are the vertices of two tetrahedra inscribed in the cube, one belonging (as a cell) to each 16-cell. If the 16-cell edges are {{radic|2}}, each vertex of the compound of three 16-cells is {{radic|1}} away from its 8 surrounding vertices in other 16-cells. Now visualize those {{radic|1}} distances as the edges of the 24-cell (while continuing to visualize the disjoint 16-cells). The {{radic|1}} edges form great hexagons of 6 vertices which run around the 24-cell in a central plane. ''Four'' hexagons cross at each vertex (and its antipodal vertex), inclined at 60° to each other.{{Efn|name=cuboctahedral hexagons}} The [[24-cell#Hexagons|hexagons]] are not perpendicular to each other, or to the 16-cells' perpendicular [[24-cell#Squares|square central planes]].{{Efn|name=non-orthogonal hexagons}} The left and right 16-cells form a tesseract.{{Efn|Each pair of the three 16-cells inscribed in the 24-cell forms a 4-dimensional [[W:tesseract|hypercube (a tesseract or 8-cell)]], in [[24-cell#Relationships among interior polytopes|dimensional analogy]] to the way two tetrahedra form a cube: the two 8-vertex 16-cells are inscribed in the 16-vertex tesseract, occupying its alternate vertices. The third 16-cell does not lie within the tesseract; its 8 vertices protrude from the sides of the tesseract, forming a cubic pyramid on each of the tesseract's cubic cells. The three pairs of 16-cells form three tesseracts.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} The tesseracts share vertices, but the 16-cells are completely disjoint.{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}}|name=three 16-cells form three tesseracts}} Two 16-cells have vertex-pairs which are one {{radic|1}} edge (one hexagon edge) apart. But a [[24-cell#Simple rotations|''simple'' rotation]] of 60° will not take one whole 16-cell to another 16-cell, because their vertices are 60° apart in different directions, and a simple rotation has only one hexagonal plane of rotation. One 16-cell ''can'' be taken to another 16-cell by a 60° [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|''isoclinic'' rotation]], because an isoclinic rotation is [[3-sphere]] symmetric: four [[24-cell#Clifford parallel polytopes|Clifford parallel hexagonal planes]] rotate together, but in four different rotational directions,{{Efn|name=Clifford displacement}} taking each 16-cell to another 16-cell. But since an isoclinic 60° rotation is a ''diagonal'' rotation by 60° in ''two'' completely orthogonal directions at once,{{Efn|name=isoclinic geodesic}} the corresponding vertices of the 16-cell and the 16-cell it is taken to are 120° apart: ''two'' {{radic|1}} hexagon edges (or one {{radic|3}} hexagon chord) apart, not one {{radic|1}} edge (60°) apart as in a simple rotation.{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} By the [[W:chiral|chiral]] diagonal nature of isoclinic rotations, the 16-cell ''cannot'' reach the adjacent 16-cell by rotating toward it; it can only reach the 16-cell ''beyond'' it. But of course, the 16-cell beyond the 16-cell to its right is the 16-cell to its left. So a 60° isoclinic rotation ''will'' take every 16-cell to another 16-cell: a 60° ''right'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we may have originally visualized as the ''left'' 16-cell, and a 60° ''left'' isoclinic rotation will take the middle 16-cell to the 16-cell we visualized as the ''right'' 16-cell. (If so, that was our error in visualization; the 16-cell to the "left" is in fact the one reached by the left isoclinic rotation, as that is the only sense in which the two 16-cells are left or right of each other.)|name=three isoclinic 16-cells}} {{Efn|In a double rotation each vertex can be said to move along two completely orthogonal great circles at the same time, but it does not stay within the central plane of either of those original great circles; rather, it moves along a helical geodesic that traverses diagonally between great circles. The two completely orthogonal planes of rotation are said to be ''invariant'' because the points in each stay in the plane ''as the plane moves'', tilting sideways by the same angle that the other plane rotates.|name=helical geodesic}} {{Efn|A point under isoclinic rotation traverses the diagonal{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} straight line of a single '''isoclinic geodesic''', reaching its destination directly, instead of the bent line of two successive '''simple geodesics'''. A '''[[W:geodesic|geodesic]]''' is the ''shortest path'' through a space (intuitively, a string pulled taught between two points). Simple geodesics are great circles lying in a central plane (the only kind of geodesics that occur in 3-space on the 2-sphere). Isoclinic geodesics are different: they do ''not'' lie in a single plane; they are 4-dimensional [[W:helix|spirals]] rather than simple 2-dimensional circles.{{Efn|name=helical geodesic}} But they are not like 3-dimensional [[W:screw threads|screw threads]] either, because they form a closed loop like any circle (after ''two'' revolutions). Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'', and they are just as circular as 2-dimensional circles: in fact, twice as circular, because they curve in a circle in two completely orthogonal directions at once.{{Efn|Isoclinic geodesics are ''4-dimensional great circles'' in the sense that they are 1-dimensional geodesic ''lines'' that curve in 4-space in two completely orthogonal planes at once. They should not be confused with ''great 2-spheres'',{{Sfn|Stillwell|2001|p=24}} which are the 4-dimensional analogues of 2-dimensional great circles (great 1-spheres).}} These '''isoclines''' are geodesic 1-dimensional lines embedded in a 4-dimensional space. On the 3-sphere{{Efn|All isoclines are geodesics, and isoclines on the 3-sphere are circles (curving equally in each dimension), but not all isoclines on 3-manifolds in 4-space are circles.}} they always occur in [[W:chiral|chiral]] pairs and form a pair of [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]s on the [[W:Clifford torus|Clifford torus]],{{Efn|Isoclines on the 3-sphere occur in non-intersecting chiral pairs. A left and a right isocline form a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]] called the {1,1} torus knot{{Sfn|Dorst|2019|loc=§1. Villarceau Circles|p=44|ps=; "In mathematics, the path that the (1, 1) knot on the torus traces is also known as a [[W:Villarceau circle|Villarceau circle]]. Villarceau circles are usually introduced as two intersecting circles that are the cross-section of a torus by a well-chosen plane cutting it. Picking one such circle and rotating it around the torus axis, the resulting family of circles can be used to rule the torus. By nesting tori smartly, the collection of all such circles then form a [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fibration]].... we prefer to consider the Villarceau circle as the (1, 1) torus knot [a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]] rather than as a planar cut [two intersecting circles]."}} in which ''each'' of the two linked circles traverses all four dimensions.}} the paths of the left and the right [[W:Rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space#Double rotations|isoclinic rotation]]. They are [[W:Helix|helices]] bent into a [[W:Möbius strip|Möbius loop]] in the fourth dimension, taking a diagonal [[W:Winding number|winding route]] twice around the 3-sphere through the non-adjacent vertices of a 4-polytope's [[W:Skew polygon#Regular skew polygons in four dimensions|skew polygon]].|name=isoclinic geodesic}} {{Efn|[[File:Hopf band wikipedia.png|thumb|150px|Two [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles spanned by a twisted [[W:Annulus (mathematics)|annulus]].]][[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]]s are non-intersecting curved lines that are parallel in the sense that the perpendicular (shortest) distance between them is the same at each point. A double helix is an example of Clifford parallelism in ordinary 3-dimensional Euclidean space. In 4-space Clifford parallels occur as geodesic great circles on the [[W:3-sphere|3-sphere]].{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|pp=8-10|loc=Relations to Clifford Parallelism}} Whereas in 3-dimensional space, any two geodesic great circles on the [[W:2-sphere|2-sphere]] will always intersect at two antipodal points, in 4-dimensional space not all great circles intersect. In 4-polytopes various discrete sets of Clifford parallel non-intersecting geodesic great circles can be found on the 3-sphere. They spiral around each other in [[W:Hopf fibration|Hopf fiber bundles]] which visit all the vertices just once. The simplest example is that six mutually orthogonal great circles can be drawn on the 3-sphere, as three pairs of completely orthogonal great circles, intersecting at 8 points defining a [[16-cell]]. Each completely orthogonal pair of circles is Clifford parallel. They cannot intersect at all, because they lie in planes which intersect at only one point: the center of the 16-cell. Because they are perpendicular and share a common center, the two circles are obviously not parallel and separate in the usual way of parallel circles in 3 dimensions; rather they are connected like adjacent links in a chain, each passing through the other without intersecting at any points, forming a [[W:Hopf link|Hopf link]]|name=Clifford parallels}} {{Efn|In the 24-cell each great square plane is completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to another great square plane, and each great hexagon plane is completely orthogonal to a plane which intersects only two vertices: a great [[W:digon|digon]] plane.|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} {{Efn|In an [[24-cell#Isoclinic rotations|isoclinic rotation]], each point anywhere in the 4-polytope moves an equal distance in four orthogonal directions at once, on a [[W:8-cell#Radial equilateral symmetry|4-dimensional diagonal]]. The point is displaced a total [[W:Pythagorean distance]] equal to the square root of four times the square of that distance. For example, when the unit-radius 24-cell rotates isoclinically 60° in a hexagon invariant plane and 60° in its completely orthogonal invariant plane,{{Efn|name=pairs of completely orthogonal planes}} all vertices are displaced to a vertex two edge lengths away. Each vertex is displaced to another vertex {{radic|3}} (120°) away, moving {{radic|3/4}} in four orthogonal coordinate directions.|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} {{Efn|Each square plane is isoclinic (Clifford parallel) to five other square planes but completely orthogonal{{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} to only one of them.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Every pair of completely orthogonal planes has Clifford parallel great circles, but not all Clifford parallel great circles are orthogonal (e.g., none of the hexagonal geodesics in the 24-cell are mutually orthogonal).|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}} {{Efn|In the [[16-cell#Rotations|16-cell]] the 6 orthogonal great squares form 3 pairs of completely orthogonal great circles; each pair is Clifford parallel. In the 24-cell, the 3 inscribed 16-cells lie rotated 60 degrees isoclinically{{Efn|name=isoclinic 4-dimensional diagonal}} with respect to each other; consequently their corresponding vertices are 120 degrees apart on a hexagonal great circle. Pairing their vertices which are 90 degrees apart reveals corresponding square great circles which are Clifford parallel. Each of the 18 square great circles is Clifford parallel not only to one other square great circle in the same 16-cell (the completely orthogonal one), but also to two square great circles (which are completely orthogonal to each other) in each of the other two 16-cells. (Completely orthogonal great circles are Clifford parallel, but not all Clifford parallels are orthogonal.{{Efn|name=only some Clifford parallels are orthogonal}}) A 60 degree isoclinic rotation of the 24-cell in hexagonal invariant planes takes each square great circle to a Clifford parallel (but non-orthogonal) square great circle in a different 16-cell.|name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} {{Efn|In 4 dimensional space we can construct 4 perpendicular axes and 6 perpendicular planes through a point. Without loss of generality, we may take these to be the axes and orthogonal central planes of a (w, x, y, z) Cartesian coordinate system. In 4 dimensions we have the same 3 orthogonal planes (xy, xz, yz) that we have in 3 dimensions, and also 3 others (wx, wy, wz). Each of the 6 orthogonal planes shares an axis with 4 of the others, and is ''completely orthogonal'' to just one of the others: the only one with which it does not share an axis. Thus there are 3 pairs of completely orthogonal planes: xy and wz intersect only at the origin; xz and wy intersect only at the origin; yz and wx intersect only at the origin.|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}} {{Efn|Two planes in 4-dimensional space can have four possible reciprocal positions: (1) they can coincide (be exactly the same plane); (2) they can be parallel (the only way they can fail to intersect at all); (3) they can intersect in a single line, as two non-parallel planes do in 3-dimensional space; or (4) '''they can intersect in a single point'''{{Efn|To visualize how two planes can intersect in a single point in a four dimensional space, consider the Euclidean space (w, x, y, z) and imagine that the w dimension represents time rather than a spatial dimension. The xy central plane (where w{{=}}0, z{{=}}0) shares no axis with the wz central plane (where x{{=}}0, y{{=}}0). The xy plane exists at only a single instant in time (w{{=}}0); the wz plane (and in particular the w axis) exists all the time. Thus their only moment and place of intersection is at the origin point (0,0,0,0).|name=how planes intersect at a single point}} (and they ''must'', if they are completely orthogonal).{{Efn|Two flat planes A and B of a Euclidean space of four dimensions are called ''completely orthogonal'' if and only if every line in A is orthogonal to every line in B. In that case the planes A and B intersect at a single point O, so that if a line in A intersects with a line in B, they intersect at O.{{Efn|name=six orthogonal planes of the Cartesian basis}}|name=completely orthogonal planes}}|name=how planes intersect}} {{Efn|Polytopes are '''completely disjoint''' if all their ''element sets'' are disjoint: they do not share any vertices, edges, faces or cells. They may still overlap in space, sharing 4-content, volume, area, or lineage.|name=completely disjoint}} {{Efn|If the [[W:Euclidean distance|Pythagorean distance]] between any two vertices is {{sqrt|1}}, their geodesic distance is 1; they may be two adjacent vertices (in the curved 3-space of the surface), or a vertex and the center (in 4-space). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|2}}, their geodesic distance is 2 (whether via 3-space or 4-space, because the path along the edges is the same straight line with one 90^o bend in it as the path through the center). If their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|3}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 (whether on a hexagonal great circle past one 60^o bend, or as a straight line with one 60^o bend in it through the center). Finally, if their Pythagorean distance is {{sqrt|4}}, their geodesic distance is still 2 in 4-space (straight through the center), but it reaches 3 in 3-space (by going halfway around a hexagonal great circle).|name=Geodesic distance}} {{Efn|Two angles are required to fix the relative positions of two planes in 4-space.{{Sfn|Kim|Rote|2016|p=7|loc=§6 Angles between two Planes in 4-Space|ps=; "In four (and higher) dimensions, we need two angles to fix the relative position between two planes. (More generally, ''k'' angles are defined between ''k''-dimensional subspaces.)"}} Since all planes in the same [[W:hyperplane|hyperplane]] are 0 degrees apart in one of the two angles, only one angle is required in 3-space. Great hexagons in different hyperplanes are 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles. Great squares in different hyperplanes are 90 degrees apart in ''both'' angles (completely orthogonal){{Efn|name=completely orthogonal planes}} or 60 degrees apart in ''both'' angles.{{Efn||name=Clifford parallel squares in the 16-cell and 24-cell}} Planes which are separated by two equal angles are called ''isoclinic''. Planes which are isoclinic have [[W:Clifford parallel|Clifford parallel]] great circles.{{Efn|name=Clifford parallels}} A great square and a great hexagon in different hyperplanes are neither isoclinic nor Clifford parallel; they are separated by a 90 degree angle ''and'' a 60 degree angle.|name=two angles between central planes}} {{Efn|The 24-cell contains 3 distinct 8-cells (tesseracts), rotated 60° isoclinically with respect to each other. The corresponding vertices of two 8-cells are {{radic|3}} (120°) apart. Each 8-cell contains 8 cubical cells, and each cube contains four {{radic|3}} chords (its long diagonals). The 8-cells are not completely disjoint{{Efn|name=completely disjoint}} (they share vertices), but each cube and each {{radic|3}} chord belongs to just one 8-cell. The {{radic|3}} chords joining the corresponding vertices of two 8-cells belong to the third 8-cell.|name=three 8-cells}} {{Efn|Departing from any vertex V₀ in the original great hexagon plane of isoclinic rotation P₀, the first vertex reached V₁ is 120 degrees away along a {{radic|3}} chord lying in a different hexagonal plane P₁. P₁ is inclined to P₀ at a 60° angle.{{Efn|P₀ and P₁ lie in the same hyperplane (the same central cuboctahedron) so their other angle of separation is 0.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}}}} The second vertex reached V₂ is 120 degrees beyond V₁ along a second {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₂ that is Clifford parallel to P₀.{{Efn|P₀ and P₂ are 60° apart in ''both'' angles of separation.{{Efn|name=two angles between central planes}} Clifford parallel planes are isoclinic (which means they are separated by two equal angles), and their corresponding vertices are all the same distance apart. Although V₀ and V₂ are ''two'' {{radic|3}} chords apart{{Efn|V₀ and V₂ are two {{radic|3}} chords apart on the geodesic path of this rotational isocline, but that is not the shortest geodesic path between them. In the 24-cell, it is impossible for two vertices to be more distant than ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord, unless they are antipodal vertices {{radic|4}} apart.{{Efn|name=Geodesic distance}} V₀ and V₂ are ''one'' {{radic|3}} chord apart on some other isocline. More generally, isoclines are geodesics because the distance between their ''adjacent'' vertices is the shortest distance between those two vertices, but a path between two vertices along a geodesic is not always the shortest distance between them (even on ordinary great circle geodesics).}}, P₀ and P₂ are just one {{radic|1}} edge apart (at every pair of ''nearest'' vertices).}} (Notice that V₁ lies in both intersecting planes P₁ and P₂, as V₀ lies in both P₀ and P₁. But P₀ and P₂ have ''no'' vertices in common; they do not intersect.) The third vertex reached V₃ is 120 degrees beyond V₂ along a third {{radic|3}} chord lying in another hexagonal plane P₃ that is Clifford parallel to P₁. The three {{radic|3}} chords lie in different 8-cells.{{Efn|name=three 8-cells}} V₀ to V₃ is a 360° isoclinic rotation.|name=360 degree geodesic path visiting 3 hexagonal planes}} {{Sfn|Mamone, Pileio & Levitt|2010|loc=§4.5 Regular Convex 4-Polytopes|pp=1438-1439|ps=; the 24-cell has 1152 symmetry operations (rotations and reflections) as enumerated in Table 2, symmetry group 𝐹₄.}} ==Notes== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Notelist|wiki=W:}} ==Citations== {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Reflist|wiki=W:}} ==References== {{Refbegin}} * {{Cite book|title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers|last=Thoreau|first=Henry David|author-link=W:Thoreau|publisher=James Munroe and Company|year=1849|isbn=|location=Boston|ref={{SfnRef|Thoreau|1849}}}} * {{Cite journal|title=Theoretical Evidence for Principles of Special Relativity Based on Isotropic and Uniform Four-Dimensional Space|first=Takuya|last=Yamashita|date=25 May 2023|doi= 10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|journal=Preprints|volume=2023|issue=2023051785|url=https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202305.1785.v1|ref={{SfnRef|Yamashita|2023}}}} * {{Cite_arXiv | arxiv=2512.02903v2 | date=2 January 2026 | title=Symmetry transformation group arising from the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector | first1=Stephen C. | last1=Anco | first2=Mahdieh Gol Bashmani | last2=Moghadam | class=math-ph}} === [[Polyscheme|Polyschemes]] === {{Regular convex 4-polytopes Refs|wiki=W:}} {{Refend}} dwahvzcmwqsufnkgyjj4u9y8n7k4ihp 0 290008 2842686 2618456 2026-10-26T18:26:16Z ~2026-57235-18 3113354 Excluded /* AI Generated Prompts */ 2842686 wikitext text/x-wiki If you have the urge to write, but have trouble getting started, these writing prompts might provide the inspiration you need to get going. Choose a prompt that inspires you to write that story that has been lurking in you for so long. [[File:Fountain pen writing (literacy).jpg|thumb|An inspiring writing prompt can get you started.]] {{TOC right | limit|limit=2}} These prompts may also help begin meaningful conversations, or inspire a new song, poem, or other artistic creations. == The Proust Questionnaire == The [[w:Proust Questionnaire|Proust Questionnaire]] is a set of questions answered by the French writer [[w:Marcel Proust|Marcel Proust]], and often used by modern interviewers. The (slightly edited) questions are: # What is your favorite [[Virtues|virtue]]? ##What are the principal aspects of your personality? #What are your favorite qualities in a man? ##What is the quality that you find most desirable in a man? #What are your favorite qualities in a woman? ##What is the quality that you find most desirable in a woman? #What is your chief characteristic? #What do you appreciate most in your friends? #What is your main fault? #What is your favorite occupation? #What is your idea of happiness? ##What is your dream of happiness? #What is your idea of misery? ##What would be your greatest misfortune? #If not yourself, who would you be? ## Who do you most admire? #Where would you like to live? #What is your favorite color, flower, and bird? #Who are your favorite prose authors? #Who are your favorite poets? #Who are your favorite heroes in fiction? #Who are your favorite painters and composers? == Alan Alda’s 7 Questions == [[w:Alan_Alda|Alan Alda]] ends each episode of his Clear + Vivid podcast by asking the guest to answer seven questions, chosen from this list: #What do you wish you really understood? #What do you wish other people understood about you? #How do you tell someone that they have their facts wrong? #What's the strangest question anyone has ever asked you? #How do you stop a compulsive talker? #How do you strike up a real, genuine conversation? #Is there anyone you just can't feel empathy for? #What book changed your life? #What gives you confidence? #How do you like to deliver bad news? In person, on the phone, or by carrier pigeon? #What, if anything, would make you end a friendship? == Socratic dialogue topics == A [[Socratic Methods|Socratic dialogue]] reveals how different our outlooks can be on concepts we use every day. This list of [[Socratic Methods/prompts|Socratic method prompts]] can inspire your imagination and writing. This list of [[Socratic Methods/questions to classify|questions to classify]] can also stimulate and clarify your thinking. == Personal Inventory == This [[True Self/personal inventory|personal inventory]] can prompt reflection about yourself or others and suggest various writing topics. == Moral issues == Describe your well considered views on one of these [[Moral_Reasoning/Moral_Issues|moral issues]]. == General knowledge == It can be thought provoking to examine this list of [[Knowing How You Know/general knowledge questions|general knowledge questions]]. Questions with surprising answers may be good candidates for writing about. == Other Candidate Resources == Many sites on the Internet suggest writing prompts. Here is a sample of them: * Weekly writing prompts.<ref>[https://blog.reedsy.com/creative-writing-prompts/ Weekly writing prompts], reedsy prompts.</ref> * 365 Creative Writing Prompts.<ref>[https://thinkwritten.com/365-creative-writing-prompts/ 365 Creative Writing Prompts], [https://thinkwritten.com/ Thinkwritten]</ref> * 50 Writing Prompts for all levels.<ref>[https://www.edutopia.org/article/50-writing-prompts-all-grade-levels-todd-finley 50 Writing Prompts for All Grade Levels], [[w:Edutopia|Edutopia]].</ref> * 251 FREE Creative Writing Prompts for Kids.<ref>[https://www.journalbuddies.com/creative-writing-2/creative-writing-prompts-for-kids/ 251 FREE Creative Writing Prompts for Kids], [https://www.journalbuddies.com/ journalbuddies].</ref> ==Recommended Reading== These books can provide further inspiration. #{{cite book |last=Ginsberg |first=Laura B |date=October 11, 2022 |title=Poetic Emergencies: writing prompts to spark creativity |publisher=Inspired Girl Books |pages=384 |isbn=978-1737316350}} == References == <references/> [[Category:Writing]] t2krdu6t04v15x81o2irpw0bz454fnh 0 305992 2842715 2815149 2026-10-26T21:28:35Z Cieljaune 3113367 /* Long Term Benefits */ Fixes spelling 2842715 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological literacy:<br>What is psychological literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aXfQMx8tOt0&ab_channel=LouiseG}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:A Happy Cartoon Businesswoman.svg|thumb|100px|'''Figure 1'''. Alex, the student who is considered psychologically literate.]] ;Case study Alex has a passion for studying the human mind and is about to graduate with an undergraduate psychology degree. Over the course of her studies, she has gained adequate skills and tools to be able to utilise her knowledge for psychological theories and apply it to everyday life. In her spare time, she has also been expanding her knowledge through extra study and work experience in various healthcare positions. Through her knowledge and experience, she can now easily recognise the emotional state of herself and others and respond appropriately using psychological science. These skills have helped her reach her academic, professional and personal goals. She is very happy with her life. It is fair to say that Alex is a psychological literate citizen. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Psychological literacy is a modern psychological concept, which is defined as a person's ability to understand and regulate their own mind and behaviour, as well as recognising and responding to the emotional well being of others{{f}}. People experience a wide variety of emotions (as displayed in Figure 2), therefore becoming a Psychological Literate citizen can support the communication of not only one's self but also society. [[File:Emotion collage.png|thumb|308x308px|Figure 2: Picture collage of a range of human emotions. Learning the skills to effectively understand and respond appropriately to emotions, develops a person’s psychological literacy. ]] Equipping people with the skills and tools to understand and regulate their own feelings and behaviour can be beneficial for not only the individual but also for society. Psychological literacy also has many immediate, short term and long term benefits and if the approach is introduced to people early in life, can offer better academic, social and mental health outcomes. However this psychological concept is still in the early stages of development, with questions regarding the reliability and validity of this concept needing to be investigated. Further research regarding the social benefit of if and how it can be implemented in today's society is required. {{robelbox|theme=9|title=Focus questions:|icon=Nuvola_apps_kwrite.png|iconwidth=48px}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> * What is psychological literacy? * Why is psychological literacy important? * How can psychological literacy be fostered? </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==What is Psychological Literacy?== Psychological literacy is a person's ability to utilise their knowledge of psychological theory in practice, primarily in everyday life. This can be measured through the assessment of specific key concepts that a person displays such as self-management, resilience and use of positive psychology. === Definition === Psychological literacy as defined by Cranney et al. (2012, piii) is “the general capacity to adaptively and intentionally apply psychology to meet personal, professional, and societal needs". In simpler terms, it is the capacity that an individual person has to self-manage their emotions and to recognise the emotional state of others, in order to produce positive social outcomes. === Brief History of Psychological Literacy === The History of psychological literacy is quite brief, as it is a relatively new concept. The American psychologist Alan Boneau, only coined the term 'psychological literacy' in 1990 (Boneau, 1990). During his research, Boneau was looking to define key concepts in multiple psychological subfields that would be most useful for those in the psychological society, especially students. This is why he then developed the term ‘psychological literacy’, which has individual subsections that contain multiple key concepts, to be measured in order to assess the level of PL a person has. Boneau collected research through enquiries and questionnaires from other researchers in the field, to adequately rate and organise the key concepts in order of importance and relevance (Boneau, 1990). Although Boneau’s research was extensive and produced the basis of PL as a concept, he emphasised the importance of further development in this area and welcomed further suggestions. Despite Boneau’s research, this concept was sparsely used in mainstream psychology. This was until 2010 when more interpretations of Boneau’s research was expanded upon and used. During this period the term was more specifically used to describe graduates of psychological education (Harris et al., 2021). These are often referred to as graduate attributes, such as knowledge, skills and attitudes. However, during the 2020s, psychological literacy has been generally applied to the global population. Further research has been undertaken on the effectiveness of teaching these concepts to young people and children and how to incorporate this learning into age-appropriate language through the school curriculum (Cranney et al., 2022b). Since the increase of interest in PL during the 2010's{{g}}, more studies have been conducted to test the validity and reliability of this psychological concept. === Concepts of Psychological Literacy === {{expand}} Psychological literacy consists of these key concepts/theories {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key concepts !Definitions |- |[[Psychological resilience|Resilience]] |Through learned optimism, an individual can build resilience. |- |[https://www.betterup.com/blog/what-is-self-management-and-how-can-you-improve-it Self-management] |The process where an individual learns healthy ways to manage and self-regulate their emotional well-being. |- |[[Positive psychology]] |Is an approach to mental and emotional well being through the balance of positive and negative experiences. Effective coping strategies and emotional skill development are used to create long term positive psychological health. |- |[https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-adaptation-2794815 Adaptive cognition theory] |Is defined as global ways of thinking and consequently behaving that are beneficial to one's (and others) survival and well-being. |} == Why is Psychological Literacy Important? == Having psychological literacy skills, whether basic or advanced, can be beneficial for not only the individual but other aspects of society. For example, parents and carers of children may find that having PL, benefits them when interacting and parenting children. Also, if children are taught from early childhood how to manage their emotions, as they grow up they are less likely to experience antisocial behaviours which then benefits society.{{f}} === Importance for Individuals === Early intervention of psychological literacy during childhood equips the child with appropriate tools to learn how to self-regulate and manage their emotional well-being. These tools help children learn to self soothe which in turn builds resilience and empathy which is essential for adults. Therefore, as the child enters adolescence and eventually adulthood, having the foundational skills for resilience and self-management already gives them an advantage to achieve their personal, social and professional goals. Studies have also shown that people with high levels of emotional literacy experience lower rates of mental illness (Bezzina & Camilleri, 2021){{expand}}. === Importance for Parents and Carers of Children === [[File:Empathy 1.jpg|thumb|231x231px|Figure 3 : An image of two woman{{sp}} showing empathy and love towards a young child. This helps the child's development of Empathy.]] Raising and parenting children can, at times, be a challenging and overwhelming experience. Having a good understanding of how and why children may behave and express themselves benefits not only the child but also the guardian (Black & Trude 2019). A psychologically literate would have a basic understanding of developmental psychology, therefore would have appropriate knowledge to support the child/children through the different stages of their childhood. This is essential when supporting children with the development of [[Empathy Models|empathy]], which begins in early childhood. Empathy is a crucial part of human emotion, helping us connect with others and function effectively in society. It is a vital part of building and establishing relationships and avoiding conflict (Schonert-Reichl, 2013). Therefore, supporting children in the development of empathy in early childhood, as shown in Figure 3, supports them in learning how to have healthy relationships within families and in furthermore in their future relationships{{g}}. === Importance for Society === The importance of psychological literacy for society is that if a person has high PL they are more likely to be a productive member of society. The more productive members of a society, the stronger the economy and labour market which reduces the amount of people living in lower socio-economic lifestyles and reduces antisocial behaviour (Brindle et al., 2019). Higher levels of psychological literacy also increases academic/career outcomes which in turns reduces poverty. == The Benefits of Psychological Literacy == Psychological literacy offers benefits that are short-term and long-term, as the skills learned can be utilised from early childhood into adulthood. === Short Term Benefits === The short-term benefits for children, if introduced in early childhood, is that PL can reduce the occurrence/frequency of tantrums and emotional outbursts. As the children are already developing the skills for PL, they can be more independent and focus on building healthy relationships and express themselves in an effective and appropriate manner (Lincoln et al., 2017). This also benefits parents and carers in the short-term. When a person experiences emotional distress during adolescence and adulthood, they would also already have the tools and skills to manage their emotions which would in turn reduce the negative health outcomes. This would place less stress on the healthcare system and offer better performance in social settings, workplaces/schools and relationships (Cranney et al., 2022b). === Long Term Benefits === Individuals who can self-manage their emotional well-being, have a better chance of completing their education, forming healthy relationships and becoming productive members of society (Olympia et al., 1994). Productive members of society are also less likely to engage in anti-social behaviour. Therefore, learning these skills in childhood are beneficial in the long-term outcomes{{g}}. Increasing the occurrence of PL in childhood would then reduce anti-social behaviour and criminal activity, as the individuals who engage in these activities often aren't equipped with the skills to self-regulate their emotional/mental well-being (Gaik et al., 2010). Through the implementation of proficient psychological literacy, the local economy will benefit through the increase in productivity and the decrease in poverty. A study conducted by James (2011), {{gr}} found that law students experienced a high rate of mental illnesses related to the profession. These include high rates of depression, anxiety and work burnout. However, when offered psychological literacy education including an early intervention of mindfulness and self-management training, the students experienced lower rates of mental disorders related to their profession during their studies but most importantly in the long-term{{expand}}. == How can Psychological Literacy be Fostered? == One approach to fostering psychological literacy is to incorporate this concept into the health studies of the school curriculum, from early childhood through to adolescence (Hulme & Cranney, 2021). Teaching children about positive psychology and mindfulness will support them with self-managing their emotional well-being (Hulme & Taylor, 2015). Intervention of psychological literacy during early childhood education will be beneficial, as this is a key developmental period in a child's life where they are learning how to navigate social interactions. A study conducted by Arslan et al. (2022) measured the effectiveness of storytelling, using positive psychology literature, on the well-being of high school students. They found that the students who took part in mindfulness storytelling experienced an improvement in mindfulness, optimism, happiness, and positive emotions, and a reduction in depression, anxiety, pessimism, and other negative emotions over a 5-week period (Arslan et al., 2022). Therefore, incorporating PL training into the curriculum through storytelling would be an effective approach. == Criticisms of Psychological Literacy == We have discussed why psychological literacy is important as well as the short- and long-term benefits associated with adequate PL however it is still a relatively new concept. The validity and reliability of the concept need to be critically analysed. There is also no framework for the appropriate/adequate delivery of psychological literacy for either children or adults. Most research has focused on the benefits for persons in the psychology field rather than the general population. It is not realistic to expect that people with PL can ‘fix’ issues/problems with their knowledge. It can also be harmful if overused in everyday life and in all human interactions{{f}}. Some people may find it challenging and exhausting to translate psychological theory into all real-world situations (Pownall, 2017). This can create unrealistic expectations for those who are educated in psychology to constantly evaluate and provide solutions to psychological issues in the real-world. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Noun emotion 1325508.svg|thumb|Figure 4 : Alex is feeling sad and overwhelmed ]] ;Case study Although Alex is considered a psychological literate citizen, it is becoming increasingly exhausting for her to always be expected to ‘fix’ problems using her skills and knowledge. Alex is a supportive person who likes to help her friends and family, however those around Alex are now always expecting her to provide theory based advise. Her psychological literacy has now become a burden and is impacting how Alex is interacting and spending time with people. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== Psychological literacy has validity for adults to be able to adequately self-manage their emotion well-being. Teaching PL during early childhood and through to adulthood has many short- and long-term benefits including a healthy development of Empathy for children and young people which in turn offers better mental health and well-being outcomes. This can be incorporated into the school curriculum and effectively delivered through fictional storytelling. However, this concept is still relatively new and further research is needed to provide conclusive evidence of the role that psychological literacy plays in today’s society. Further research is also needed to produce {{missing}} framework for the appropriate/adequate delivery of psychological literacy for children and adults. ==See also== * [[Emotional intelligence]] (Wikiveristy{{sp}}) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[Empathy Models/Empathy Model|Empathy]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Psychological_literacy|Psychological literacy]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Arslan, G., Yıldırım, M., Zangeneh, M., & Ak, İ. (2022). Benefits of positive psychology-based story reading on adolescent mental health and well-being. Child indicators research, 15(3), 781-793. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-021-09891-4 Bezzina, A., & Camilleri, S. (2021). ‘Happy Children’A project that has the aim of developing emotional literacy and conflict resolution skills. A Maltese Case Study. Pastoral care in education, 39(1), 48-66. <nowiki>https://doi.org/</nowiki>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02643944.2020.1774633 10.1080/02643944.2020.1774633] Black, M. M., & Trude, A. C. (2019). Conceptualizations of child development benefit from inclusion of the nurturing care framework. The ''Journal of nutrition'', 149(8), 1307–1308. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxz114 Boneau, C. A. (1990). Psychological literacy: A first approximation. ''American Psychologist'', ''45''(7), 891. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.45.7.891 Brindle, K. A., Bowles, T. V., & Freeman, E. (2019). Gender, education and engagement in antisocial and risk-taking behaviours and emotional dysregulation. Issues in Educational Research, 29(3), 633–648. https://www.iier.org.au/iier29/brindle.pdf Cranney, J., Botwood, L., & Morris, S. (2012a). National standards for psychological literacy and global citizenship: Outcomes of undergraduate psychology education. ''Australia: The University of New South Wales. Dostupné z:'' https://groups.psychology.org.au/assets/files/cranney_ntf_final_report_231112_final_pdf.pdf Cranney, J., Dunn, D. S., Hulme, J. A., Nolan, S. A., Morris, S., & Norris, K. (2022b). Psychological literacy and undergraduate psychology education: An international provocation. In Frontiers in Education (Vol. 7, p. 790600). Frontiers Media SA. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.790600 Gaik, L. P., Abdullah, M. C., Elias, H., & Uli, J. (2010). Development of antisocial behaviour. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 7, 383–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.10.052 Harris, R., Pownall, M., Thompson, C., Newell, S. J., & Blundell-Birtill, P. (2021). Students' Understanding of Psychological Literacy in the UK Undergraduate Curriculum. Psychology Teaching Review, 27(1), 56–68. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1304625.pdf Hulme, J. A., & Cranney, J. (2021). Psychological literacy and learning for life. In International handbook of psychology learning and teaching (pp. 1-29). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26248-8_42-2 James, C. (2011). Law student wellbeing: Benefits of promoting psychological literacy and self-awareness using mindfulness, strengths theory and emotional intelligence. Legal Education Review, 21(1/2), 217–233. https://search.informit.org/doi/pdf/10.3316/informit.868049526963988 Lincoln, C. R., Russell, B. S., Donohue, E. B., & Racine, L. E. (2017). Mother-child interactions and preschoolers’ emotion regulation outcomes: Nurturing autonomous emotion regulation. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26, 559–573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0561-z Olympia, D. E., Sheridan, S. M., Jenson, W. R., & Andrews, D. (1994). Using student‐managed interventions to increase homework completion and accuracy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(1), 85–99. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1994.27-85 Pownall. M.. (2017, June 27). ''Overrated: Psychological Literacy.'' The British Psychological Society. https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/overrated-psychological-literacy Schonert-Reichl, K. (2013). Promoting empathy in school-aged children: Current state of the field and implications for research and practice. In School rampage shootings and other youth disturbances (pp. 159–203). https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kimberly-Schonert-Reichl/publication/299566650_Promoting_empathy_in_school-aged_children_Current_approaches_and_implications_for_practice/links/56ffc38d08aee995dde81820/Promoting-empathy-in-school-aged-children-Current-approaches-and-implications-for-practice.pdf Taylor, J., & Hulme, J. (2015). Introducing a compendium of psychological literacy case studies: Reflections on psychological literacy in practice. ''Psychology Teaching Review'', ''21''(2), 25-34. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1146628.pdf }} ==External links== * [https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/how-reading-fiction-increases-empathy-and-encourages-understanding How reading fiction encourages empathy] (Discover Magazine) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/mindfulness Mindfulness psychology] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.blackdoginstitute.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Positive-psychology-fact-sheet.pdf Positive psychology] (Blackdog Institute) * [https://positivepsychologytraining.co.uk/ Positive psychology training uk] (Positive psychology Training) * [https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/psychological-literacy-classroom-real-world Psychological literacy – from classroom to real world] (British Psychological Society) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience/guide-parents-teachers Resilience guide for parents and teachers] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.berkeleywellbeing.com/self-management.html Self-management] (Berkley Well-being Institute) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] 96ikooki8vt11gf321ila88xrip9i0m 2842717 2842715 2026-10-26T21:30:15Z Cieljaune 3113367 /* Long Term Benefits */ Clarifies 2842717 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Psychological literacy:<br>What is psychological literacy, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aXfQMx8tOt0&ab_channel=LouiseG}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:A Happy Cartoon Businesswoman.svg|thumb|100px|'''Figure 1'''. Alex, the student who is considered psychologically literate.]] ;Case study Alex has a passion for studying the human mind and is about to graduate with an undergraduate psychology degree. Over the course of her studies, she has gained adequate skills and tools to be able to utilise her knowledge for psychological theories and apply it to everyday life. In her spare time, she has also been expanding her knowledge through extra study and work experience in various healthcare positions. Through her knowledge and experience, she can now easily recognise the emotional state of herself and others and respond appropriately using psychological science. These skills have helped her reach her academic, professional and personal goals. She is very happy with her life. It is fair to say that Alex is a psychological literate citizen. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Psychological literacy is a modern psychological concept, which is defined as a person's ability to understand and regulate their own mind and behaviour, as well as recognising and responding to the emotional well being of others{{f}}. People experience a wide variety of emotions (as displayed in Figure 2), therefore becoming a Psychological Literate citizen can support the communication of not only one's self but also society. [[File:Emotion collage.png|thumb|308x308px|Figure 2: Picture collage of a range of human emotions. Learning the skills to effectively understand and respond appropriately to emotions, develops a person’s psychological literacy. ]] Equipping people with the skills and tools to understand and regulate their own feelings and behaviour can be beneficial for not only the individual but also for society. Psychological literacy also has many immediate, short term and long term benefits and if the approach is introduced to people early in life, can offer better academic, social and mental health outcomes. However this psychological concept is still in the early stages of development, with questions regarding the reliability and validity of this concept needing to be investigated. Further research regarding the social benefit of if and how it can be implemented in today's society is required. {{robelbox|theme=9|title=Focus questions:|icon=Nuvola_apps_kwrite.png|iconwidth=48px}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> * What is psychological literacy? * Why is psychological literacy important? * How can psychological literacy be fostered? </div> {{Robelbox/close}} ==What is Psychological Literacy?== Psychological literacy is a person's ability to utilise their knowledge of psychological theory in practice, primarily in everyday life. This can be measured through the assessment of specific key concepts that a person displays such as self-management, resilience and use of positive psychology. === Definition === Psychological literacy as defined by Cranney et al. (2012, piii) is “the general capacity to adaptively and intentionally apply psychology to meet personal, professional, and societal needs". In simpler terms, it is the capacity that an individual person has to self-manage their emotions and to recognise the emotional state of others, in order to produce positive social outcomes. === Brief History of Psychological Literacy === The History of psychological literacy is quite brief, as it is a relatively new concept. The American psychologist Alan Boneau, only coined the term 'psychological literacy' in 1990 (Boneau, 1990). During his research, Boneau was looking to define key concepts in multiple psychological subfields that would be most useful for those in the psychological society, especially students. This is why he then developed the term ‘psychological literacy’, which has individual subsections that contain multiple key concepts, to be measured in order to assess the level of PL a person has. Boneau collected research through enquiries and questionnaires from other researchers in the field, to adequately rate and organise the key concepts in order of importance and relevance (Boneau, 1990). Although Boneau’s research was extensive and produced the basis of PL as a concept, he emphasised the importance of further development in this area and welcomed further suggestions. Despite Boneau’s research, this concept was sparsely used in mainstream psychology. This was until 2010 when more interpretations of Boneau’s research was expanded upon and used. During this period the term was more specifically used to describe graduates of psychological education (Harris et al., 2021). These are often referred to as graduate attributes, such as knowledge, skills and attitudes. However, during the 2020s, psychological literacy has been generally applied to the global population. Further research has been undertaken on the effectiveness of teaching these concepts to young people and children and how to incorporate this learning into age-appropriate language through the school curriculum (Cranney et al., 2022b). Since the increase of interest in PL during the 2010's{{g}}, more studies have been conducted to test the validity and reliability of this psychological concept. === Concepts of Psychological Literacy === {{expand}} Psychological literacy consists of these key concepts/theories {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key concepts !Definitions |- |[[Psychological resilience|Resilience]] |Through learned optimism, an individual can build resilience. |- |[https://www.betterup.com/blog/what-is-self-management-and-how-can-you-improve-it Self-management] |The process where an individual learns healthy ways to manage and self-regulate their emotional well-being. |- |[[Positive psychology]] |Is an approach to mental and emotional well being through the balance of positive and negative experiences. Effective coping strategies and emotional skill development are used to create long term positive psychological health. |- |[https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-adaptation-2794815 Adaptive cognition theory] |Is defined as global ways of thinking and consequently behaving that are beneficial to one's (and others) survival and well-being. |} == Why is Psychological Literacy Important? == Having psychological literacy skills, whether basic or advanced, can be beneficial for not only the individual but other aspects of society. For example, parents and carers of children may find that having PL, benefits them when interacting and parenting children. Also, if children are taught from early childhood how to manage their emotions, as they grow up they are less likely to experience antisocial behaviours which then benefits society.{{f}} === Importance for Individuals === Early intervention of psychological literacy during childhood equips the child with appropriate tools to learn how to self-regulate and manage their emotional well-being. These tools help children learn to self soothe which in turn builds resilience and empathy which is essential for adults. Therefore, as the child enters adolescence and eventually adulthood, having the foundational skills for resilience and self-management already gives them an advantage to achieve their personal, social and professional goals. Studies have also shown that people with high levels of emotional literacy experience lower rates of mental illness (Bezzina & Camilleri, 2021){{expand}}. === Importance for Parents and Carers of Children === [[File:Empathy 1.jpg|thumb|231x231px|Figure 3 : An image of two woman{{sp}} showing empathy and love towards a young child. This helps the child's development of Empathy.]] Raising and parenting children can, at times, be a challenging and overwhelming experience. Having a good understanding of how and why children may behave and express themselves benefits not only the child but also the guardian (Black & Trude 2019). A psychologically literate would have a basic understanding of developmental psychology, therefore would have appropriate knowledge to support the child/children through the different stages of their childhood. This is essential when supporting children with the development of [[Empathy Models|empathy]], which begins in early childhood. Empathy is a crucial part of human emotion, helping us connect with others and function effectively in society. It is a vital part of building and establishing relationships and avoiding conflict (Schonert-Reichl, 2013). Therefore, supporting children in the development of empathy in early childhood, as shown in Figure 3, supports them in learning how to have healthy relationships within families and in furthermore in their future relationships{{g}}. === Importance for Society === The importance of psychological literacy for society is that if a person has high PL they are more likely to be a productive member of society. The more productive members of a society, the stronger the economy and labour market which reduces the amount of people living in lower socio-economic lifestyles and reduces antisocial behaviour (Brindle et al., 2019). Higher levels of psychological literacy also increases academic/career outcomes which in turns reduces poverty. == The Benefits of Psychological Literacy == Psychological literacy offers benefits that are short-term and long-term, as the skills learned can be utilised from early childhood into adulthood. === Short Term Benefits === The short-term benefits for children, if introduced in early childhood, is that PL can reduce the occurrence/frequency of tantrums and emotional outbursts. As the children are already developing the skills for PL, they can be more independent and focus on building healthy relationships and express themselves in an effective and appropriate manner (Lincoln et al., 2017). This also benefits parents and carers in the short-term. When a person experiences emotional distress during adolescence and adulthood, they would also already have the tools and skills to manage their emotions which would in turn reduce the negative health outcomes. This would place less stress on the healthcare system and offer better performance in social settings, workplaces/schools and relationships (Cranney et al., 2022b). === Long Term Benefits === Individuals who can self-manage their emotional well-being, have a better chance of completing their education, forming healthy relationships and becoming productive members of society (Olympia et al., 1994). Productive members of society are also less likely to engage in anti-social behaviour. Therefore, learning these skills in childhood produces beneficial outcomes later in life. Increasing the occurrence of PL in childhood would then reduce anti-social behaviour and criminal activity, as the individuals who engage in these activities often aren't equipped with the skills to self-regulate their emotional/mental well-being (Gaik et al., 2010). Through the implementation of proficient psychological literacy, the local economy will benefit through the increase in productivity and the decrease in poverty. A study conducted by James (2011), {{gr}} found that law students experienced a high rate of mental illnesses related to the profession. These include high rates of depression, anxiety and work burnout. However, when offered psychological literacy education including an early intervention of mindfulness and self-management training, the students experienced lower rates of mental disorders related to their profession during their studies but most importantly in the long-term{{expand}}. == How can Psychological Literacy be Fostered? == One approach to fostering psychological literacy is to incorporate this concept into the health studies of the school curriculum, from early childhood through to adolescence (Hulme & Cranney, 2021). Teaching children about positive psychology and mindfulness will support them with self-managing their emotional well-being (Hulme & Taylor, 2015). Intervention of psychological literacy during early childhood education will be beneficial, as this is a key developmental period in a child's life where they are learning how to navigate social interactions. A study conducted by Arslan et al. (2022) measured the effectiveness of storytelling, using positive psychology literature, on the well-being of high school students. They found that the students who took part in mindfulness storytelling experienced an improvement in mindfulness, optimism, happiness, and positive emotions, and a reduction in depression, anxiety, pessimism, and other negative emotions over a 5-week period (Arslan et al., 2022). Therefore, incorporating PL training into the curriculum through storytelling would be an effective approach. == Criticisms of Psychological Literacy == We have discussed why psychological literacy is important as well as the short- and long-term benefits associated with adequate PL however it is still a relatively new concept. The validity and reliability of the concept need to be critically analysed. There is also no framework for the appropriate/adequate delivery of psychological literacy for either children or adults. Most research has focused on the benefits for persons in the psychology field rather than the general population. It is not realistic to expect that people with PL can ‘fix’ issues/problems with their knowledge. It can also be harmful if overused in everyday life and in all human interactions{{f}}. Some people may find it challenging and exhausting to translate psychological theory into all real-world situations (Pownall, 2017). This can create unrealistic expectations for those who are educated in psychology to constantly evaluate and provide solutions to psychological issues in the real-world. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Noun emotion 1325508.svg|thumb|Figure 4 : Alex is feeling sad and overwhelmed ]] ;Case study Although Alex is considered a psychological literate citizen, it is becoming increasingly exhausting for her to always be expected to ‘fix’ problems using her skills and knowledge. Alex is a supportive person who likes to help her friends and family, however those around Alex are now always expecting her to provide theory based advise. Her psychological literacy has now become a burden and is impacting how Alex is interacting and spending time with people. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Conclusion== Psychological literacy has validity for adults to be able to adequately self-manage their emotion well-being. Teaching PL during early childhood and through to adulthood has many short- and long-term benefits including a healthy development of Empathy for children and young people which in turn offers better mental health and well-being outcomes. This can be incorporated into the school curriculum and effectively delivered through fictional storytelling. However, this concept is still relatively new and further research is needed to provide conclusive evidence of the role that psychological literacy plays in today’s society. Further research is also needed to produce {{missing}} framework for the appropriate/adequate delivery of psychological literacy for children and adults. ==See also== * [[Emotional intelligence]] (Wikiveristy{{sp}}) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour|Emotional intelligence and anti-social behaviour]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Emotional self-regulation|Emotional regulation]] (Book chapter, 2013) * [[Empathy Models/Empathy Model|Empathy]] (Wikiversity) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Light triad|Light triad]] (Book chapter, 2021) * [[wikipedia:Psychological_literacy|Psychological literacy]] (Wikipedia) * [[w:Self determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Arslan, G., Yıldırım, M., Zangeneh, M., & Ak, İ. (2022). Benefits of positive psychology-based story reading on adolescent mental health and well-being. Child indicators research, 15(3), 781-793. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-021-09891-4 Bezzina, A., & Camilleri, S. (2021). ‘Happy Children’A project that has the aim of developing emotional literacy and conflict resolution skills. A Maltese Case Study. Pastoral care in education, 39(1), 48-66. <nowiki>https://doi.org/</nowiki>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02643944.2020.1774633 10.1080/02643944.2020.1774633] Black, M. M., & Trude, A. C. (2019). Conceptualizations of child development benefit from inclusion of the nurturing care framework. The ''Journal of nutrition'', 149(8), 1307–1308. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxz114 Boneau, C. A. (1990). Psychological literacy: A first approximation. ''American Psychologist'', ''45''(7), 891. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.45.7.891 Brindle, K. A., Bowles, T. V., & Freeman, E. (2019). Gender, education and engagement in antisocial and risk-taking behaviours and emotional dysregulation. Issues in Educational Research, 29(3), 633–648. https://www.iier.org.au/iier29/brindle.pdf Cranney, J., Botwood, L., & Morris, S. (2012a). National standards for psychological literacy and global citizenship: Outcomes of undergraduate psychology education. ''Australia: The University of New South Wales. Dostupné z:'' https://groups.psychology.org.au/assets/files/cranney_ntf_final_report_231112_final_pdf.pdf Cranney, J., Dunn, D. S., Hulme, J. A., Nolan, S. A., Morris, S., & Norris, K. (2022b). Psychological literacy and undergraduate psychology education: An international provocation. In Frontiers in Education (Vol. 7, p. 790600). Frontiers Media SA. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.790600 Gaik, L. P., Abdullah, M. C., Elias, H., & Uli, J. (2010). Development of antisocial behaviour. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 7, 383–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.10.052 Harris, R., Pownall, M., Thompson, C., Newell, S. J., & Blundell-Birtill, P. (2021). Students' Understanding of Psychological Literacy in the UK Undergraduate Curriculum. Psychology Teaching Review, 27(1), 56–68. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1304625.pdf Hulme, J. A., & Cranney, J. (2021). Psychological literacy and learning for life. In International handbook of psychology learning and teaching (pp. 1-29). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26248-8_42-2 James, C. (2011). Law student wellbeing: Benefits of promoting psychological literacy and self-awareness using mindfulness, strengths theory and emotional intelligence. Legal Education Review, 21(1/2), 217–233. https://search.informit.org/doi/pdf/10.3316/informit.868049526963988 Lincoln, C. R., Russell, B. S., Donohue, E. B., & Racine, L. E. (2017). Mother-child interactions and preschoolers’ emotion regulation outcomes: Nurturing autonomous emotion regulation. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26, 559–573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0561-z Olympia, D. E., Sheridan, S. M., Jenson, W. R., & Andrews, D. (1994). Using student‐managed interventions to increase homework completion and accuracy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27(1), 85–99. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1994.27-85 Pownall. M.. (2017, June 27). ''Overrated: Psychological Literacy.'' The British Psychological Society. https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/overrated-psychological-literacy Schonert-Reichl, K. (2013). Promoting empathy in school-aged children: Current state of the field and implications for research and practice. In School rampage shootings and other youth disturbances (pp. 159–203). https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kimberly-Schonert-Reichl/publication/299566650_Promoting_empathy_in_school-aged_children_Current_approaches_and_implications_for_practice/links/56ffc38d08aee995dde81820/Promoting-empathy-in-school-aged-children-Current-approaches-and-implications-for-practice.pdf Taylor, J., & Hulme, J. (2015). Introducing a compendium of psychological literacy case studies: Reflections on psychological literacy in practice. ''Psychology Teaching Review'', ''21''(2), 25-34. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1146628.pdf }} ==External links== * [https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/how-reading-fiction-increases-empathy-and-encourages-understanding How reading fiction encourages empathy] (Discover Magazine) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/mindfulness Mindfulness psychology] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.blackdoginstitute.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Positive-psychology-fact-sheet.pdf Positive psychology] (Blackdog Institute) * [https://positivepsychologytraining.co.uk/ Positive psychology training uk] (Positive psychology Training) * [https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/psychological-literacy-classroom-real-world Psychological literacy – from classroom to real world] (British Psychological Society) * [https://www.apa.org/topics/resilience/guide-parents-teachers Resilience guide for parents and teachers] (American Psychological Association) * [https://www.berkeleywellbeing.com/self-management.html Self-management] (Berkley Well-being Institute) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotional intelligence]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] m1gtwfnfpqxhanoeh2upsd9yaj3to6n 0 321521 2842681 2842276 2026-10-26T17:20:58Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2842681 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} See [[s:Category:Music]] and [[w:Category:Music books]] This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of music. Bibliography *[[w:Bibliography of Music Literature|Bibliography of Music Literature]] *Green (ed). Foundations in Music Bibliography. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rADdpZN9UhAC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Krummel. The Literature of Music Bibliography: An Account of the Writings on the History of Music Printing & Publishing. 2nd Ed: 1992. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3AZsiITI-IEC] *Bibliography of Music Bibliographies. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d6YJAQAAMAAJ] *Bayne. A Guide to Library Research in Music. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ExGbDqu9gPAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A Selected Bibliography of Music Librarianship [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X5AeOl4O-osC] *Bradley. American Music Librarianship: A Research and Information Guide. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VabcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Music Reference and Research Materials. 3rd Ed: 1974: [https://books.google.com/books?id=5Y1IAAAAMAAJ] *Agruss. Guide to Reference Books on Music. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX06AAAAIAAJ] *Haggerty. A Guide to Popular Music Reference Books: An Annotated Bibliography. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OnEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Coover. A Bibliography of Music Dictionaries. 1952: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NH06AAAAIAAJ]. Music Lexicography. 2nd Ed: 1958. Including a Study of Lacunae in Music Lexicography and a Bibliography of Music Dictionaries. 3rd Ed: 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jKMJAQAAMAAJ]. *A Bibliography of Books on Music and Collections of Music. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vfvpnwWWlZwC] *Deakin. Musical Bibliography: A Catalogue of the Musical Works. 1892. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-UgQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] (England 15th to 18th century) *Matthew. The Literature of Music. 1896. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTQ6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bjdVAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA56#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dzcZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA22#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R0gcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA470#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qK5OAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA55#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1chZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA155#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ezszAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5h61TMyTmOMC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8k8wAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i8W8LKTuc0AC]. Author: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awIQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA275#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Hoek. Analyses of Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Music, 1940-2000. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CRG4AQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *RILM Abstracts of Music Literature. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HxjjAAAAMAAJ] *Forkel. Allgemeine Litteratur der Musik. 1792. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VTRDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3N8sAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA33#v=onepage&q&f=false] Bibliography of periodical literature *Elliker. The Periodical Literature of Music: Trends from 1952 to 1987. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T5ifAAAAMAAJ] *Joan M Meggett. Music Periodical Literature: An Annotated Bibliography of Indexes and Bibliographies. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HCjBAAAAIAAJ] *Thomas E Warner. Periodical Literature on American Music, 1620-1920. Harmonie Park Press. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zTlQAQAAIAAJ] History and bibliography *Matthew. A Handbook of Musical History and Bibliography. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V1g5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P1lDAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA229#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Boyden. The History and Literature of Music: 1750 to the Present. 1959. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XcAZAQAAIAAJ] *Brown. An Introduction to the History and Literature of Music in Western Culture. 2nd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aKpGAAAACAAJ] Chronology, annuals, year books, years *Eisler. World Chronology of Music History. *Lowe. A Chronological Cyclopædia of Musicians and Musical Events. 1896. *Tokyo Ongaku Gakko. Kinsei Hogaku Nempyo. [Chronology of Japanese Music in Recent Ages.] Rokugatsu-Kan. Volume 1. 1912. Volume 2. 1914. Volume 3. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=drMQAQAAMAAJ] *Cossar. This Day in Music. 2005. 2010. *Glassman. The Year in Music. Columbia House. *[[w:Herman Klein|Hermann Klein]]. Musical Notes. Annual Critical Record of Important Musical Events. *[[w:Joseph Bennett (critic)|Bennett]]. The Musical Year. *Hinrichsen's Musical Year Book *The Musical Year Book of the United States **The Boston Musical Year Book *Billboard. Overview. 1982: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YyQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT53#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Billboard. The Year in Music. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZAgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA62#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2003: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bA8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA47#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **The Year in Music and Video. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uyQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT50#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tiQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Jackson. 1965: The Most Revolutionary Year in Music. *Porter. A Musical Season: 1972-1973. **Music of Three Seasons: 1974-1977 **Music of Three More Seasons 1977-1980 **Musical Events: A Chronicle, 1980-1983. *[https://news.1242.com/article/tag/大人のmusic-calendar 【大人のMusic Calendar】]. Nippon Broadcasting System. [Articles from 2016 are included in [https://news.1242.com/article/author/toritani/page/42 NEWS ONLINE 編集部の記事一覧].] *[http://music-calendar.jp Music Calendar] History *"Recorded Sound: The First Century: 1877-1977". Billboard. 21 May 1977. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT39#v=onepage&q&f=false RS-1] to RS-117. Encyclopedias See also [[w:List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge/Music]] and [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias#Music and dance]] *Encyclopedia of Music in the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m8W2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Moore. Complete Encyclopædia of Music. 1852. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QBFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dictionaries *Apel. "Dictionaries of music". Harvard Dictionary of Music. 1969. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TMdf1SioFk4C&pg=PA232#v=onepage&q&f=false 232] to 234. United Kingdom: *Billboard. Spotlight on the United Kingdom. 1978: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TSQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT78#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1979: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MCUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT100#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Australia: *Billboard. Spotlight on Australia/New Zealand. 1982: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT54#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hiQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT29#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UCQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Live Talent of Australia: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YyQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT94#v=onepage&q&f=false] New Zealand: *Harvey. A Bibliography of Writings about New Zealand Music Published to the End of 1983. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B1ROA_sP-xsC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Complete New Zealand Music Charts, 1966-2006: Singles, Albums, DVDs, Compilations. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wyU5AQAAIAAJ] *Billboard. New Zealand. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Rg0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false] Canada: *Billboard. Spotlight on Canada. 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DSQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT50#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Scandanavia: *Billboard. Spotlight on Scandanavia. 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT86#v=onepage&q&f=false]. France: *Billboard. Spotlight on France. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-wgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1982: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AyQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT66#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ICUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q&f=false] Germany: *Billboard. Spotlight on West Germany. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zQgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-iMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT12#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Spotlight on West Germany, Austria and Switzerland. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CSUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false] Italy: *Billboard. Spotlight on Italy. 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8iQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3yQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT36#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2SQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA38-IA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XQgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA67#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Spain: *Billboard. Spotlight on Spain. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Q8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false] Philipines: *[https://billboardphilippines.com/culture/scenes/lost-history-how-filipino-music-was-documented-in-the-40s-to-2010s/ Lost History: How Filipino Music Was Documented In The ’40s To 2010s]. Billboard Philippines. 18 January 2024. *[[w:en:Billboard Philippines|Billboard Philippines]] Brazil: *Billboard. Spotlight on Brazil. 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NA0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=false]. United States *Krummel. Bibliographical Handbook of American Music. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4wcnkvFZl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Krummel. Resources of American Music History: A Directory of Source Materials from Colonial Times to World War II. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bJcYAAAAIAAJ] Soviet *Aschmann. Current Soviet Music Bibliography. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2i7jAAAAMAAJ] Decline of pop music: *[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/science-proves-pop-music-has-actually-gotten-worse-8173368/ Science Proves: Pop Music Has Actually Gotten Worse]. [[w:Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]. 27 July 2012. *[https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/new-study-discovers-pop-music-has-suffered-significant-decline-in-one-area/ New study discovers pop music has suffered “significant decline” in one area]. [[w:Far Out (website)|Far Out]]. 5 July 2024. *[https://www.globalnews.ca/news/9001083/why-older-music-more-popular-than-new-music/amp/ There is something very, very wrong with today’s music. It just may not be very good.] [[w:Global News|Global News]]. 24 July 2022. *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/articles/fb84bf19-29c9-4ed3-b6b6-953e8a083334 Has pop music lost its fun?]. BBC. 12 January 2018. *[https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/its-official-modern-music-is-bad/ It’s official: modern music is bad]. The Spectator. 13 February 2024. Homogeneity of pop music: *[https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jul/27/pop-music-sounds-same-survey-reveals Pop music these days: it all sounds the same, survey reveals]. The Guardian. 27 July 2012. *[https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna48356108 Pop Music All Sounds the Same Nowadays]. NBC News. 27 July 2012. *[https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/why-does-today-s-pop-music-sound-the-same-because-the-same-people-make-it-8368714.html Why does today's pop music sound the same? Because the same people make it]. The Independent. 29 November 2012. *[https://www.reuters.com/article/lifestyle/science/pop-music-too-loud-and-all-sounds-the-same-official-idUSBRE86P0R9/ Pop music too loud and all sounds the same: official]. Reuters. 26 July 2012. *[https://theconversation.com/from-art-form-to-asset-our-study-found-popular-songs-are-becoming-more-generic-266097 From art form to asset: our study found popular songs are becoming more generic]. The Conversation. 3 October 2025. Conferences: *International Music Industry Conference. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tggEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA29#v=onepage&q&f=false] Laserdisc/Karaoke/CES *Billboard. Karaoke. 1992: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jg8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA41-IA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **CES and Karaoke. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UggEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA77#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Laserdisc. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7AsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA67#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Laserdisc/Karaoke. 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iQ8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q&f=false] Classical music *Billboard spotlights: 1995 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1g0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false] (9 September 1995) **"Classical Music Recording Market". Billboard. 12 April 1980. pp C-1 to C-12 and p 32. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Classical Music: Discovering New Dimensions". Billboard. 10 September 1983. pp C-1 to C-18. (A Billboard Spotlight). *"Classical" section, and "Best Selling Classical LPs" chart, in Billboard Jazz *[[w:en:All About Jazz|All About Jazz]] Oldies *"Oldies stations find their place in radio market". Star-News. 13 March 1988. pp 1D & [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OoyAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA16#v=onepage&q&f=false 6D]: "Oldies". *Billboard. 15 April 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a0UEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT7#v=onepage&q&f=false p 47]. *Billboard. 17 April 1961, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JiIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1]. *Billboard. 4 January 1960, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ch8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1] Nostalgia See also [[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia]] *"A Perspective on the Future of Nostalgia". Billboard. 4 May 1974. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cgkEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false N-1] to N-54 and two more pages. *Carr. Nostalgia, Song and the Quest for Home: Production, Text, Reception. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xz1jEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Charts *Carroll, " Did Billboard, Cash Box, and Record World Charts Tell the Same Story? Perception and Reality, 1960-1979"(2022) 9 Rock Music Studies [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19401159.2022.2054107 199] Periodicals; Magazines See also [[w:Category:Music magazines]] *Billboard. Google: [https://books.google.co.uk/books/serial/ISSN:00062510?rview=1&lr=&sa=N&start=2770 1942] onwards *Pacific Beat: The Pacific Journal of Research Into Contemporary Music and Popular Culture (1992 onwards) Department of Contemporary Music Studies, Macquarie University. Published by Equinox from 2009 onwards. Commentary: Jennifer Post, Ethnomusicology: A Research and Information Guide, 2004, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=u9-SAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q&f=false p 84]. ==Japanese and Japan== *The Ashgate Research Companion to Japanese Music. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W2JTgQGc99EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4tINDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Billboard. Spotlight on Japan. 1970: 19 December 1970 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mSkEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1971: 11 December 1971 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Fg8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1973: 17 February 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QEUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT25#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1977: 30 April 1977 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=USMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT46#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1979: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_iQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT48#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1982:[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=byQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT38#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1CQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT65#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986:[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-CMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1993: 12 June 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9A8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA57#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1995: 5 August 1995 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xwsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA52-IA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1996: 31 August 1996 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwcEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1997: 30 August 1997 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_gkEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA61#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1998: 26 September 1998 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgoEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA117#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2000: 9 September 2000 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aREEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA65#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2002: 7 September 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QwEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2003: 5 July 2003 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **"Japan in 1974: Business Bristles While Shortages Are Met". Billboard. 23 February 1974. pp J-1 to J-30. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Made in Japan: A Dynamic Music Industry". Billboard. 1 March 1975. pp J-1 to J-23. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Japan '76". Billboard. 17 April 1976. pp 36 to 59. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Japanese Music: The Challenge of Recession". Billboard. 27 May 1978. pp J-1 to J-31. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Music in Japan: Industry Views 1981 With Quiet Optimism". Billboard. 30 May 1981. pp J-1 to J-18. **"Japan: Where Technology Greets Tradition". (An International Market Profile). Billboard. 21 May 1983. pp J-1 to J-13. Follows p 34. **"Billboard Spotlight on Japan: VCRs and CDs Will Be Pacemakers". Billboard. 26 May 1984. pp J-1 to J-11. Follows p 38. **"Spotlight on Japan". Billboard. 6 June 1987. pp J-1 to J-12. **"Japan '88". Billboard. 9 July 1988. pp J-1 to J-11. (A Billboard International Spotlight). **"Japan". ("Japan '89"/"Spotlight on Japan"). Billboard. 3 June 1989. pp J-1 to J-20. (International Spotlight). **"Japan". ("International Spotlight"/"A Billboard Spotlight"). Billboard. 25 May 1991. pp J-1 to J-26. Follows p 50. Called "Japan '91" on front page. **"Japan: Uncovering the Future". Billboard. 31 July 1999. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lQgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false 53] to 66. *[[w:The Best Ten|The Best Ten]] (ザ・ベストテン). [Television programme]. [https://www.tbs.co.jp/tbs-ch/special/the_bestten/ Episodes]. *[[w:ja:Music Station|Music Station]]. [Television programme]. Episodes: [https://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/music/contents/m_lineup/0003/index.html episode 1] etc. *Hisao Tanabe. Japanese Music. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (The Society for International Cultural Relations). Tokyo. 1st Ed: 1929. **Reprints: 1st Ed: 1936. 2nd Ed: 1937. 3rd Ed: 1939: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S4kHAQAAMAAJ]. **2nd Revised Ed: 1959. *Wade. Music in Japan: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XXYIAQAAMAAJ] *Malm. Japanese Music & Musical Instruments. 1959. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QkTaAAAAMAAJ] *[[w:Francis Taylor Piggott|Pigott]]. The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan. 1893 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ttKTUwmjzMwC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1909. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MAM5AAAAIAAJ] *Robert C Provine, Yoshiko Tokumaru and J Lawrence Witzleben. "Japan". East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea. The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, vol 7. Routledge. 2002. ISBN 0-8240-6041-5. Part 4. pp 531 to 800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J1ADwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toru Mitsui. "Interactions of Imported and Indigenous Musics in Japan: A Historical Overview of the Music Industry". Fouli T Papageorgiou (ed). Whose Master's Voice?: The Development of Popular Music in Thirteen Cultures. Chapter 9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xHrDEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA152#v=onepage&q&f=false p 152]. Bibliography *Tsuge. Japanese Music: An Annotated Bibliography. 1986. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YCsKAQAAMAAJ] *[[w:ja:三井徹|Tōru Mitsui]]. Popyurā Ongaku Kankei Tosho Mokuroku: Ryūkōka, Jazu, Rokku, J-poppu no Hyakunen. (Japanese: ポピュラー音楽関係図書目録: 流行歌、ジャズ、ロック、Jポップの百年). Nichigai Associates. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dSAxAQAAIAAJ]. Catalogues: [https://search.worldcat.org/title/406243182] [https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1970586434933272116] *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/avmaterials/post_572 音楽に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. NDL. Dictionaries *[[w:ja:下中弥三郎|Shimonaka Yasaburo]] (ed). Ongaku Jiten. Heibonsha. Review: (1959) 18 Journal of Asian Studies 295 [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/abs/ongaku-jiten-dictionary-of-music-ed-shimonaka-yasaburo-tokyo-heibonsha-195557-12-volumes-900-yen-per-volume/F3067B1CE61B5B2C647091E69CE8C8DD] [https://read.dukeupress.edu/journal-of-asian-studies/article-abstract/18/2/295/322980/Ongaku-jiten-Dictionary-of-Music?redirectedFrom=fulltext] History *Eta Harich-Schneider. A History of Japanese Music. 1973. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3AraAAAAMAAJ] *Koh-ichi Hattori. 123 Years of Japanese Music: The Culture of Japan Through a Look at Its Music. 2004. [https://books.google.com/books?id=znzsAAAAMAAJ] **Koh-ichi Hattori. 36,000 Days of Japanese Music: The Culture of Japan Through A Look At Its Music. Pacific Vision. Pierce, Southfield, Michigan. 1996. ISBN 0965364208. *Shinpan Nihon Ryūkōkashi. (Japanese: 新版日本流行歌史). [[w:ja:社会思想社|Shakaishisosha]]. 1994. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XQdIAAAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/en/books/R100000002-I000002420287] **新版日本流行歌史: 1960-1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_b4pAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nb4pAQAAIAAJ]. **新版日本流行歌史: 1938-1959 **1867-1937 *Mehl. Music and the Making of Modern Japan: Joining the Global Concert. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P3QMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false] Annuals, yearbooks *Ongaku-Nenkan (Japanese: 音楽年鑑) (English: "Music Year Book", "Music Yearbook", "Yearbook of Music"). [[w:ja:音楽之友社|Ongaku No Tomo Sha]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BhoKAQAAMAAJ 1960] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-bXPAAAAMAAJ 1968] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yNAJAQAAMAAJ 1992]. Catalogues: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN0029282X] [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN11185209] Modern, contemporary, today *Johnson. Handbook of Japanese Music in the Modern Era. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KNP7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Matsue. Focus: Music in Contemporary Japan. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AQgtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Music of Japan Today. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YZQYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular music *Mitsui (ed). Made in Japan: Studies in Popular Music. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YWQKBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stevens. Japanese Popular Music: Culture, Authenticity and Power. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OHMkdcL9DAMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Mitsui. Popular Music in Japan: Transformation Inspired by the West. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FpbqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nagahara. Tokyo Boogie-Woogie: Japan’s Pop Era and Its Discontents. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iTxYDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Patterson. Music and Words: Producing Popular Songs in Modern Japan, 1887–1952. 2019. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P0FvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James Stanlaw. "Using English identity markers in Japanese Popular Music". English in East and South Asia. Chapter 14. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=88A1EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT109#v=onepage&q&f=false] *"Japanese Popular Music in Singapore". Asian Music. vol 34. No 1: Fall/Winter 2002/2003. p 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_D4JAQAAMAAJ] *Steve McClure. Nipponpop. Tuttle Publishing. 1998. ISBN 9780804821070. ISBN 0804821070. [Sometimes called "Nippon Pop"]. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/title/Nipponpop/oclc/247384040] Review: (1998) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=f9egmeZ8YywC 245] The Publishers Weekly 2 From folk to J-pop *[[w:ja:富澤一誠|Issei Tomizawa]]. Ano subarashii kyoku o mō ichido: fōku kara J-poppu made. (Japanese: あの素晴しい曲をもう一度: フォークからJポップまで). [[w:Shinchosha|Shinchosha]]. 2010. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ju9MAQAAIAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/title/501749494]. Commentary on book: [https://www.ytv.co.jp/michiura/time/2010/01/j2010110.html]. Review of the CD: [https://www.cdjournal.com/i/disc/great-agefree-music-forever-and-great-music-are-o/4109110788]. J-pop *Bourdaghs. Sayonara Amerika, Sayonara Nippon: A Geopolitical Prehistory of J-pop. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K_y88JwibrMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *"The Rise of J-Pop in Asia and Its Impact" (2004) Japan Spotlight. vol 23. p 24. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i7C0AAAAIAAJ] *Terence Lancashire. "J-pop's elusive J: Is Japanese popular music Japanese?" (2008) Perfect Beat. vol 9. No 1. p 38. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5No4AQAAIAAJ] *Tetsu Misaki. J-poppu no Nihongo: kashiron. (Japanese: Jポップの日本語: 歌詞論). [[w:ja:彩流社|彩流社 (Sairyusha)]]. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dsMpAQAAIAAJ] [https://search.worldcat.org/ja/title/J-:/oclc/52005194] *[[w:ja:烏賀陽弘道|Hiromichi Ugaya]]. Jpoppu Towa Nanika: Kyodaikasuru Ongaku Sangyō. (Japanese: Jポップとは何か: 巨大化する音楽産業). 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLlOAAAAMAAJ] catalogue [https://search.worldcat.org/ja/title/J-:/oclc/676652594] [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA71618018] Japanese rock *Takarajima Special Edition: Encyclopedia of Japanese Rock 1955-1990. Nihon rokku daihyakka: Rokabirī kara bando būmu made. (Japanese: 日本ロック大百科 [年表編] ロカビリーからバンド・ブームまで 1955〜1990). [[w:ja:JICC出版局|JICC Shuppankyoku]]. 1992. ISBN 9784796602907. ISBN 4796602909. Catalogues: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN07889172] [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/catalog/2263400]. *Japanese Rock: Standard: 1967-1985. 日本のロック名曲徹底ガイド: 名曲263決定盤846. CDJournal. 2008. ISBN 9784861710469. ISBN 4861710464. [https://www.cdjournal.com/Company/products/mook.php?mno=20081002]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA8932668X?l=en]. *Kojima Satoshi (Japanese: 小島智). 検証・80年代日本のロック. アルファベータブックス. 2024. ISBN 9784865981179. ISBN 4865981179. [https://books.google.com/books?id=0gbl0AEACAAJ]. Review: [https://mainichi.jp/articles/20241026/ddm/015/070/005000c]. Jazz *[[w:ja:スイングジャーナル|Swing Journal]] (1947 to 2010) Commentary: [https://www.allaboutjazz.com/news/swing-journal-long-standing-jazz-magazine-to-be-suspended-in-june/] Japanese fusion: *THE DIG presents 日本のフュージョン. Shinko Music Mook. Released 19 April 2013. Commentary: [https://www.cdjournal.com/news/casiopea/50967]. No II. Released 23 October 2014. Commentary: [https://www.cdjournal.com/news/takanaka-masayoshi/62225] Classical *[[w:ja:ぶらあぼ|Bravo]] (Japanese: ぶらあぼ) ebravo.jp *[[w:ja:音楽芸術 (雑誌)|Ongaku Geijutsu]] (Japanese: 音楽芸術) Magazines For Japanese music magazines, see [[w:ja:日本の音楽雑誌]]. *Music Periodicals in Japan — A Comprehensive List (1988) 35 Fontes Artis Musicae 116 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507222] [https://books.google.com/books?id=qHYWAAAAIAAJ] **Kishimoto, "Additional Corrections and Alphabetical Title Index" (1989) 36 Fontes Artis Musicae 38 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507313] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7XYWAAAAIAAJ] *Special Bibliography: A Bibliography of Japanese Magazines and Music (1959) 3 Ethnomusicology 76 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/924290] *A Historical Survey of Music Periodicals in Japan: 1881—1920 (1989) 36 Fontes Artis Musicae 44 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507314] *[[w:ja:篠原章|Akira Shinohara]]. 日本ロック雑誌クロニクル. [[w:en:Ohta Publishing|Ohta Publishing]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=L8opAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:Oricon|Oricon]] (オリコン) **[https://web.archive.org/web/19970412131857/http://www.999.com/Oricon/index.html Oricon Music Site]. Commentary: [https://internet.watch.impress.co.jp/www/article/980309/oms.htm]. *[[w:Billboard Japan|Billboard Japan]] (ビルボード・ジャパン) **Music Labo (ミュージック・ラボ) (1970 to 1994) *Music Research (ミュージック・リサーチ) ["Weekly Music Magazine"]. Catalogue: [https://web.archive.org/web/20260319070908/https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000039804]. *Rolling Stone Japan *新譜ジャーナル (Shinpu Journal). Catalogue: [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000012315]. Began 1968 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=L8opAQAAIAAJ], later called シンプジャーナル **シンプジャーナル *Myūjikku mansurī [ミュージック・マンスリー]  [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/AN00396190] *カセットライフ. (Cassette Life). [[w:ja:シンコーミュージック・エンタテイメント|Shinko Music Entertainment]] *[[w:ja:CDジャーナル|CDJournal]] *[[w:ja:Rockin'on Japan|Rockin'on Japan]]. (ロッキング・オン・ジャパン). (1986 onwards) *[[w:ja:Rooftop|Rooftop]] (1976 onwards) *[[w:ja:FOOL'S MATE|Fool's Mate]] *Record Monthly (レコード・マンスリー). From 日本レコード振興株式会社. Catalogues: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/AA11433275] [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000027924] *[[w:ja:WHAT's IN?|What's In?]] (1988 to 2016) Columns in periodicals *"Japanese Newsnotes". Billboard. (eg 17 April 1961, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JiIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA13#v=onepage&q&f=false p 13].) Websites *[[w:ja:ナタリー (ニュースサイト)|Natalie]] (ナタリー) *[[w:ja:BARKS|Barks]] *OKMusic. Commentary: [https://xtech.nikkei.com/it/article/NEWS/20120626/405442/]. Charts For Japanese music charts, see [[w:ja:日本の音楽チャート]] Chart books *Oricon Chart Book (Japanese: オリコンチャート・ブック) **1987 to 1998 Oricon Chart Book. All Albums. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KvEoNwAACAAJ] **Album Chart Book Complete Edition 1970〜2005. Catalogue:[https://www.tosyokan.pref.shizuoka.jp/licsxp-opac/WOpacMsgNewListToTifTilDetailAction.do?tilcod=1000610247212] *澤山博之. ミュージック・ライフ 東京で1番売れていたレコード 1958~1966. Shinko Music Entertainment. 2019. [Charts published in Music Life from 1958 onwards]. Commentary: [https://mikiki.tokyo.jp/articles/-/20952 Mikiki] Number ones *Oricon No.1 Hits 500. Clubhouse (Japanese: クラブハウス). 1994. 1998. **[https://books.google.com/books?id=GlsnNwAACAAJ vol 1 (1968~1985)]. ISBN 9784906496129. **[https://books.google.com/books?id=icInNwAACAAJ vol 2 (1986~1994)]. ISBN 9784906496136. Awards Japan Record Awards *輝く!日本レコード大賞 公式データブック: 放送60回記念: TBS公認. Shinko Music Entertainment. ISBN 9784401647019. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JcDqvwEACAAJ] [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB2773137X] Traditional, Hogaku *Malm. Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yn3VQbqywCsC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miyuki Yoshikami. Japan's Musical Tradition: Hogaku from Prehistory to the Present. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X3XTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hughes. Traditional Folk Song in Modern Japan: Sources, Sentiment and Society. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yfV5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Koto: *Tokyo Academy of Music. Collection of Japanese Koto Music. 1888. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RncQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false][https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044040839565&seq=1] Exam guides: For the 音楽CD検定 exam on music CDs: *音楽CD検定公式ガイドブック. 2007. [[w:ja:音楽出版社 (企業)|Ongaku Shuppansha Co Ltd]] (音楽出版社). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sbjdeDJMkQcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AoFgIowII48C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. Commentary: [https://www.cdjournal.com/i/news/-/15303] [https://www.oricon.co.jp/news/46065/full/] [https://allabout.co.jp/gm/gc/57723/] [https://www.oricon.co.jp/news/45388/full/]. Film *Tak Shindo. "Japanese Film Music". Film Journal. No 11: October 1958. p 21. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YF9AIcnhKTIC] Animation *Marco Pellitteri (ed). The Palgrave Handbook of Music and Sound in Japanese Animation. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4FIhEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anime songs *USEN アニソン研究所！ **2002: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/seednaruto2002.html USEN アニソン研究所！ #010]. 2001: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/2001.html #009]. 2000: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/-19981999.html #008]. 1998 & 1999: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/-19961997-1.html #007]. 1996 & 1997: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/-19961997.html #006]. 1994 & 1995: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/-19941995.html #005]. Children's music *Elizabeth May. The Influence of the Meiji Period on Japanese Children's Music. University of California Press. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54cHAQAAMAAJ] **Japanese Children's Music Before and After Contact with the West. University of California at Los Angeles. 1958. (doctoral dissertation). DJs *Masahiro Yasuda, "How Japanese DJs cut across Market Boundaries" (1999) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H5QJAQAAMAAJ 4] Perfect Beat 45 Duration of songs *[https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20260213/p2a/00m/0et/002000c Japanese hit songs trimming intros, getting to chorus faster, Nara student finds]. The Mainichi. 14 February 2026. Diaspora *Dale Olsen. The Chrysanthemum and the Song: Music, Memory, and Identity in the South American Japanese Diaspora. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3WloQgAACAAJ] [[Category:Music resources]] o8lcnqy8vap1n49la6rlyyngn00o9l0 2842682 2842681 2026-10-26T17:22:27Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2842682 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} See [[s:Category:Music]] and [[w:Category:Music books]] This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of music. Bibliography *[[w:Bibliography of Music Literature|Bibliography of Music Literature]] *Green (ed). Foundations in Music Bibliography. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rADdpZN9UhAC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Krummel. The Literature of Music Bibliography: An Account of the Writings on the History of Music Printing & Publishing. 2nd Ed: 1992. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3AZsiITI-IEC] *Bibliography of Music Bibliographies. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d6YJAQAAMAAJ] *Bayne. A Guide to Library Research in Music. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ExGbDqu9gPAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A Selected Bibliography of Music Librarianship [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X5AeOl4O-osC] *Bradley. American Music Librarianship: A Research and Information Guide. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VabcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Music Reference and Research Materials. 3rd Ed: 1974: [https://books.google.com/books?id=5Y1IAAAAMAAJ] *Agruss. Guide to Reference Books on Music. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX06AAAAIAAJ] *Haggerty. A Guide to Popular Music Reference Books: An Annotated Bibliography. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OnEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Coover. A Bibliography of Music Dictionaries. 1952: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NH06AAAAIAAJ]. Music Lexicography. 2nd Ed: 1958. Including a Study of Lacunae in Music Lexicography and a Bibliography of Music Dictionaries. 3rd Ed: 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jKMJAQAAMAAJ]. *A Bibliography of Books on Music and Collections of Music. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vfvpnwWWlZwC] *Deakin. Musical Bibliography: A Catalogue of the Musical Works. 1892. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-UgQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] (England 15th to 18th century) *Matthew. The Literature of Music. 1896. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTQ6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bjdVAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA56#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dzcZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA22#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R0gcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA470#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qK5OAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA55#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1chZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA155#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ezszAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5h61TMyTmOMC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8k8wAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i8W8LKTuc0AC]. Author: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awIQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA275#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Hoek. Analyses of Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Music, 1940-2000. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CRG4AQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *RILM Abstracts of Music Literature. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HxjjAAAAMAAJ] *Forkel. Allgemeine Litteratur der Musik. 1792. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VTRDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3N8sAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA33#v=onepage&q&f=false] Bibliography of periodical literature *Elliker. The Periodical Literature of Music: Trends from 1952 to 1987. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T5ifAAAAMAAJ] *Joan M Meggett. Music Periodical Literature: An Annotated Bibliography of Indexes and Bibliographies. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HCjBAAAAIAAJ] *Thomas E Warner. Periodical Literature on American Music, 1620-1920. Harmonie Park Press. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zTlQAQAAIAAJ] History and bibliography *Matthew. A Handbook of Musical History and Bibliography. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V1g5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P1lDAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA229#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Boyden. The History and Literature of Music: 1750 to the Present. 1959. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XcAZAQAAIAAJ] *Brown. An Introduction to the History and Literature of Music in Western Culture. 2nd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aKpGAAAACAAJ] Chronology, annuals, year books, years *Eisler. World Chronology of Music History. *Lowe. A Chronological Cyclopædia of Musicians and Musical Events. 1896. *Tokyo Ongaku Gakko. Kinsei Hogaku Nempyo. [Chronology of Japanese Music in Recent Ages.] Rokugatsu-Kan. Volume 1. 1912. Volume 2. 1914. Volume 3. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=drMQAQAAMAAJ] *Cossar. This Day in Music. 2005. 2010. *Glassman. The Year in Music. Columbia House. *[[w:Herman Klein|Hermann Klein]]. Musical Notes. Annual Critical Record of Important Musical Events. *[[w:Joseph Bennett (critic)|Bennett]]. The Musical Year. *Hinrichsen's Musical Year Book *The Musical Year Book of the United States **The Boston Musical Year Book *Billboard. Overview. 1982: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YyQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT53#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Billboard. The Year in Music. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZAgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA62#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2003: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bA8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA47#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **The Year in Music and Video. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uyQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT50#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tiQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Jackson. 1965: The Most Revolutionary Year in Music. *Porter. A Musical Season: 1972-1973. **Music of Three Seasons: 1974-1977 **Music of Three More Seasons 1977-1980 **Musical Events: A Chronicle, 1980-1983. *[https://news.1242.com/article/tag/大人のmusic-calendar 【大人のMusic Calendar】]. Nippon Broadcasting System. [Articles from 2016 are included in [https://news.1242.com/article/author/toritani/page/42 NEWS ONLINE 編集部の記事一覧].] *[http://music-calendar.jp Music Calendar] History *"Recorded Sound: The First Century: 1877-1977". Billboard. 21 May 1977. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT39#v=onepage&q&f=false RS-1] to RS-117. Encyclopedias See also [[w:List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge/Music]] and [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias#Music and dance]] *Encyclopedia of Music in the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m8W2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Moore. Complete Encyclopædia of Music. 1852. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QBFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dictionaries *Apel. "Dictionaries of music". Harvard Dictionary of Music. 1969. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TMdf1SioFk4C&pg=PA232#v=onepage&q&f=false 232] to 234. United Kingdom: *Billboard. Spotlight on the United Kingdom. 1978: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TSQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT78#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1979: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MCUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT100#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Australia: *Billboard. Spotlight on Australia/New Zealand. 1982: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT54#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hiQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT29#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UCQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Live Talent of Australia: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YyQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT94#v=onepage&q&f=false] New Zealand: *Harvey. A Bibliography of Writings about New Zealand Music Published to the End of 1983. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B1ROA_sP-xsC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Complete New Zealand Music Charts, 1966-2006: Singles, Albums, DVDs, Compilations. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wyU5AQAAIAAJ] *Billboard. New Zealand. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Rg0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false] Canada: *Billboard. Spotlight on Canada. 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DSQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT50#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Scandanavia: *Billboard. Spotlight on Scandanavia. 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT86#v=onepage&q&f=false]. France: *Billboard. Spotlight on France. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-wgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1982: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AyQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT66#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ICUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q&f=false] Germany: *Billboard. Spotlight on West Germany. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zQgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-iMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT12#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Spotlight on West Germany, Austria and Switzerland. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CSUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false] Italy: *Billboard. Spotlight on Italy. 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8iQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3yQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT36#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2SQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA38-IA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XQgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA67#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Spain: *Billboard. Spotlight on Spain. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Q8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false] Philipines: *[https://billboardphilippines.com/culture/scenes/lost-history-how-filipino-music-was-documented-in-the-40s-to-2010s/ Lost History: How Filipino Music Was Documented In The ’40s To 2010s]. Billboard Philippines. 18 January 2024. *[[w:en:Billboard Philippines|Billboard Philippines]] Brazil: *Billboard. Spotlight on Brazil. 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NA0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=false]. United States *Krummel. Bibliographical Handbook of American Music. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4wcnkvFZl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Krummel. Resources of American Music History: A Directory of Source Materials from Colonial Times to World War II. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bJcYAAAAIAAJ] Soviet *Aschmann. Current Soviet Music Bibliography. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2i7jAAAAMAAJ] Decline of pop music: *[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/science-proves-pop-music-has-actually-gotten-worse-8173368/ Science Proves: Pop Music Has Actually Gotten Worse]. [[w:Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]. 27 July 2012. *[https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/new-study-discovers-pop-music-has-suffered-significant-decline-in-one-area/ New study discovers pop music has suffered “significant decline” in one area]. [[w:Far Out (website)|Far Out]]. 5 July 2024. *[https://www.globalnews.ca/news/9001083/why-older-music-more-popular-than-new-music/amp/ There is something very, very wrong with today’s music. It just may not be very good.] [[w:Global News|Global News]]. 24 July 2022. *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/articles/fb84bf19-29c9-4ed3-b6b6-953e8a083334 Has pop music lost its fun?]. BBC. 12 January 2018. *[https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/its-official-modern-music-is-bad/ It’s official: modern music is bad]. The Spectator. 13 February 2024. Homogeneity of pop music: *[https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jul/27/pop-music-sounds-same-survey-reveals Pop music these days: it all sounds the same, survey reveals]. The Guardian. 27 July 2012. *[https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna48356108 Pop Music All Sounds the Same Nowadays]. NBC News. 27 July 2012. *[https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/why-does-today-s-pop-music-sound-the-same-because-the-same-people-make-it-8368714.html Why does today's pop music sound the same? Because the same people make it]. The Independent. 29 November 2012. *[https://www.reuters.com/article/lifestyle/science/pop-music-too-loud-and-all-sounds-the-same-official-idUSBRE86P0R9/ Pop music too loud and all sounds the same: official]. Reuters. 26 July 2012. *[https://theconversation.com/from-art-form-to-asset-our-study-found-popular-songs-are-becoming-more-generic-266097 From art form to asset: our study found popular songs are becoming more generic]. The Conversation. 3 October 2025. Conferences: *International Music Industry Conference. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tggEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA29#v=onepage&q&f=false] Laserdisc/Karaoke/CES *Billboard. Karaoke. 1992: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jg8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA41-IA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **CES and Karaoke. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UggEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA77#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Laserdisc. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7AsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA67#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Laserdisc/Karaoke. 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iQ8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q&f=false] Classical music *Billboard spotlights: 1995 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1g0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false] (9 September 1995) **"Classical Music Recording Market". Billboard. 12 April 1980. pp C-1 to C-12 and p 32. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Classical Music: Discovering New Dimensions". Billboard. 10 September 1983. pp C-1 to C-18. (A Billboard Spotlight). *"Classical" section, and "Best Selling Classical LPs" chart, in Billboard Jazz *[[w:en:All About Jazz|All About Jazz]] Oldies *"Oldies stations find their place in radio market". Star-News. 13 March 1988. pp 1D & [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OoyAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA16#v=onepage&q&f=false 6D]: "Oldies". *Billboard. 15 April 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a0UEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT7#v=onepage&q&f=false p 47]. *Billboard. 17 April 1961, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JiIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1]. *Billboard. 4 January 1960, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ch8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1] Nostalgia See also [[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia]] *"A Perspective on the Future of Nostalgia". Billboard. 4 May 1974. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cgkEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false N-1] to N-54 and two more pages. *Carr. Nostalgia, Song and the Quest for Home: Production, Text, Reception. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xz1jEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Charts *Carroll, " Did Billboard, Cash Box, and Record World Charts Tell the Same Story? Perception and Reality, 1960-1979"(2022) 9 Rock Music Studies [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19401159.2022.2054107 199] Periodicals; Magazines See also [[w:Category:Music magazines]] *Billboard. Google: [https://books.google.co.uk/books/serial/ISSN:00062510?rview=1&lr=&sa=N&start=2770 1942] onwards *Perfect Beat: The Pacific Journal of Research Into Contemporary Music and Popular Culture (1992 onwards) Department of Contemporary Music Studies, Macquarie University. Published by Equinox from 2009 onwards. Commentary: Jennifer Post, Ethnomusicology: A Research and Information Guide, 2004, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=u9-SAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q&f=false p 84]. ==Japanese and Japan== *The Ashgate Research Companion to Japanese Music. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W2JTgQGc99EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4tINDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Billboard. Spotlight on Japan. 1970: 19 December 1970 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mSkEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1971: 11 December 1971 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Fg8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1973: 17 February 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QEUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT25#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1977: 30 April 1977 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=USMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT46#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1979: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_iQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT48#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1982:[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=byQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT38#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1CQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT65#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986:[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-CMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1993: 12 June 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9A8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA57#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1995: 5 August 1995 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xwsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA52-IA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1996: 31 August 1996 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwcEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1997: 30 August 1997 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_gkEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA61#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1998: 26 September 1998 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgoEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA117#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2000: 9 September 2000 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aREEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA65#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2002: 7 September 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QwEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2003: 5 July 2003 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **"Japan in 1974: Business Bristles While Shortages Are Met". Billboard. 23 February 1974. pp J-1 to J-30. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Made in Japan: A Dynamic Music Industry". Billboard. 1 March 1975. pp J-1 to J-23. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Japan '76". Billboard. 17 April 1976. pp 36 to 59. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Japanese Music: The Challenge of Recession". Billboard. 27 May 1978. pp J-1 to J-31. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Music in Japan: Industry Views 1981 With Quiet Optimism". Billboard. 30 May 1981. pp J-1 to J-18. **"Japan: Where Technology Greets Tradition". (An International Market Profile). Billboard. 21 May 1983. pp J-1 to J-13. Follows p 34. **"Billboard Spotlight on Japan: VCRs and CDs Will Be Pacemakers". Billboard. 26 May 1984. pp J-1 to J-11. Follows p 38. **"Spotlight on Japan". Billboard. 6 June 1987. pp J-1 to J-12. **"Japan '88". Billboard. 9 July 1988. pp J-1 to J-11. (A Billboard International Spotlight). **"Japan". ("Japan '89"/"Spotlight on Japan"). Billboard. 3 June 1989. pp J-1 to J-20. (International Spotlight). **"Japan". ("International Spotlight"/"A Billboard Spotlight"). Billboard. 25 May 1991. pp J-1 to J-26. Follows p 50. Called "Japan '91" on front page. **"Japan: Uncovering the Future". Billboard. 31 July 1999. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lQgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false 53] to 66. *[[w:The Best Ten|The Best Ten]] (ザ・ベストテン). [Television programme]. [https://www.tbs.co.jp/tbs-ch/special/the_bestten/ Episodes]. *[[w:ja:Music Station|Music Station]]. [Television programme]. Episodes: [https://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/music/contents/m_lineup/0003/index.html episode 1] etc. *Hisao Tanabe. Japanese Music. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (The Society for International Cultural Relations). Tokyo. 1st Ed: 1929. **Reprints: 1st Ed: 1936. 2nd Ed: 1937. 3rd Ed: 1939: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S4kHAQAAMAAJ]. **2nd Revised Ed: 1959. *Wade. Music in Japan: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XXYIAQAAMAAJ] *Malm. Japanese Music & Musical Instruments. 1959. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QkTaAAAAMAAJ] *[[w:Francis Taylor Piggott|Pigott]]. The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan. 1893 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ttKTUwmjzMwC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1909. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MAM5AAAAIAAJ] *Robert C Provine, Yoshiko Tokumaru and J Lawrence Witzleben. "Japan". East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea. The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, vol 7. Routledge. 2002. ISBN 0-8240-6041-5. Part 4. pp 531 to 800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J1ADwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toru Mitsui. "Interactions of Imported and Indigenous Musics in Japan: A Historical Overview of the Music Industry". Fouli T Papageorgiou (ed). Whose Master's Voice?: The Development of Popular Music in Thirteen Cultures. Chapter 9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xHrDEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA152#v=onepage&q&f=false p 152]. Bibliography *Tsuge. Japanese Music: An Annotated Bibliography. 1986. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YCsKAQAAMAAJ] *[[w:ja:三井徹|Tōru Mitsui]]. Popyurā Ongaku Kankei Tosho Mokuroku: Ryūkōka, Jazu, Rokku, J-poppu no Hyakunen. (Japanese: ポピュラー音楽関係図書目録: 流行歌、ジャズ、ロック、Jポップの百年). Nichigai Associates. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dSAxAQAAIAAJ]. Catalogues: [https://search.worldcat.org/title/406243182] [https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1970586434933272116] *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/avmaterials/post_572 音楽に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. NDL. Dictionaries *[[w:ja:下中弥三郎|Shimonaka Yasaburo]] (ed). Ongaku Jiten. Heibonsha. Review: (1959) 18 Journal of Asian Studies 295 [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/abs/ongaku-jiten-dictionary-of-music-ed-shimonaka-yasaburo-tokyo-heibonsha-195557-12-volumes-900-yen-per-volume/F3067B1CE61B5B2C647091E69CE8C8DD] [https://read.dukeupress.edu/journal-of-asian-studies/article-abstract/18/2/295/322980/Ongaku-jiten-Dictionary-of-Music?redirectedFrom=fulltext] History *Eta Harich-Schneider. A History of Japanese Music. 1973. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3AraAAAAMAAJ] *Koh-ichi Hattori. 123 Years of Japanese Music: The Culture of Japan Through a Look at Its Music. 2004. [https://books.google.com/books?id=znzsAAAAMAAJ] **Koh-ichi Hattori. 36,000 Days of Japanese Music: The Culture of Japan Through A Look At Its Music. Pacific Vision. Pierce, Southfield, Michigan. 1996. ISBN 0965364208. *Shinpan Nihon Ryūkōkashi. (Japanese: 新版日本流行歌史). [[w:ja:社会思想社|Shakaishisosha]]. 1994. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XQdIAAAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/en/books/R100000002-I000002420287] **新版日本流行歌史: 1960-1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_b4pAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nb4pAQAAIAAJ]. **新版日本流行歌史: 1938-1959 **1867-1937 *Mehl. Music and the Making of Modern Japan: Joining the Global Concert. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P3QMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false] Annuals, yearbooks *Ongaku-Nenkan (Japanese: 音楽年鑑) (English: "Music Year Book", "Music Yearbook", "Yearbook of Music"). [[w:ja:音楽之友社|Ongaku No Tomo Sha]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BhoKAQAAMAAJ 1960] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-bXPAAAAMAAJ 1968] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yNAJAQAAMAAJ 1992]. Catalogues: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN0029282X] [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN11185209] Modern, contemporary, today *Johnson. Handbook of Japanese Music in the Modern Era. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KNP7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Matsue. Focus: Music in Contemporary Japan. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AQgtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Music of Japan Today. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YZQYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular music *Mitsui (ed). Made in Japan: Studies in Popular Music. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YWQKBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stevens. Japanese Popular Music: Culture, Authenticity and Power. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OHMkdcL9DAMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Mitsui. Popular Music in Japan: Transformation Inspired by the West. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FpbqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nagahara. Tokyo Boogie-Woogie: Japan’s Pop Era and Its Discontents. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iTxYDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Patterson. Music and Words: Producing Popular Songs in Modern Japan, 1887–1952. 2019. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P0FvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James Stanlaw. "Using English identity markers in Japanese Popular Music". English in East and South Asia. Chapter 14. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=88A1EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT109#v=onepage&q&f=false] *"Japanese Popular Music in Singapore". Asian Music. vol 34. No 1: Fall/Winter 2002/2003. p 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_D4JAQAAMAAJ] *Steve McClure. Nipponpop. Tuttle Publishing. 1998. ISBN 9780804821070. ISBN 0804821070. [Sometimes called "Nippon Pop"]. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/title/Nipponpop/oclc/247384040] Review: (1998) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=f9egmeZ8YywC 245] The Publishers Weekly 2 From folk to J-pop *[[w:ja:富澤一誠|Issei Tomizawa]]. Ano subarashii kyoku o mō ichido: fōku kara J-poppu made. (Japanese: あの素晴しい曲をもう一度: フォークからJポップまで). [[w:Shinchosha|Shinchosha]]. 2010. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ju9MAQAAIAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/title/501749494]. Commentary on book: [https://www.ytv.co.jp/michiura/time/2010/01/j2010110.html]. Review of the CD: [https://www.cdjournal.com/i/disc/great-agefree-music-forever-and-great-music-are-o/4109110788]. J-pop *Bourdaghs. Sayonara Amerika, Sayonara Nippon: A Geopolitical Prehistory of J-pop. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K_y88JwibrMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *"The Rise of J-Pop in Asia and Its Impact" (2004) Japan Spotlight. vol 23. p 24. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i7C0AAAAIAAJ] *Terence Lancashire. "J-pop's elusive J: Is Japanese popular music Japanese?" (2008) Perfect Beat. vol 9. No 1. p 38. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5No4AQAAIAAJ] *Tetsu Misaki. J-poppu no Nihongo: kashiron. (Japanese: Jポップの日本語: 歌詞論). [[w:ja:彩流社|彩流社 (Sairyusha)]]. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dsMpAQAAIAAJ] [https://search.worldcat.org/ja/title/J-:/oclc/52005194] *[[w:ja:烏賀陽弘道|Hiromichi Ugaya]]. Jpoppu Towa Nanika: Kyodaikasuru Ongaku Sangyō. (Japanese: Jポップとは何か: 巨大化する音楽産業). 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLlOAAAAMAAJ] catalogue [https://search.worldcat.org/ja/title/J-:/oclc/676652594] [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA71618018] Japanese rock *Takarajima Special Edition: Encyclopedia of Japanese Rock 1955-1990. Nihon rokku daihyakka: Rokabirī kara bando būmu made. (Japanese: 日本ロック大百科 [年表編] ロカビリーからバンド・ブームまで 1955〜1990). [[w:ja:JICC出版局|JICC Shuppankyoku]]. 1992. ISBN 9784796602907. ISBN 4796602909. Catalogues: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN07889172] [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/catalog/2263400]. *Japanese Rock: Standard: 1967-1985. 日本のロック名曲徹底ガイド: 名曲263決定盤846. CDJournal. 2008. ISBN 9784861710469. ISBN 4861710464. [https://www.cdjournal.com/Company/products/mook.php?mno=20081002]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA8932668X?l=en]. *Kojima Satoshi (Japanese: 小島智). 検証・80年代日本のロック. アルファベータブックス. 2024. ISBN 9784865981179. ISBN 4865981179. [https://books.google.com/books?id=0gbl0AEACAAJ]. Review: [https://mainichi.jp/articles/20241026/ddm/015/070/005000c]. Jazz *[[w:ja:スイングジャーナル|Swing Journal]] (1947 to 2010) Commentary: [https://www.allaboutjazz.com/news/swing-journal-long-standing-jazz-magazine-to-be-suspended-in-june/] Japanese fusion: *THE DIG presents 日本のフュージョン. Shinko Music Mook. Released 19 April 2013. Commentary: [https://www.cdjournal.com/news/casiopea/50967]. No II. Released 23 October 2014. Commentary: [https://www.cdjournal.com/news/takanaka-masayoshi/62225] Classical *[[w:ja:ぶらあぼ|Bravo]] (Japanese: ぶらあぼ) ebravo.jp *[[w:ja:音楽芸術 (雑誌)|Ongaku Geijutsu]] (Japanese: 音楽芸術) Magazines For Japanese music magazines, see [[w:ja:日本の音楽雑誌]]. *Music Periodicals in Japan — A Comprehensive List (1988) 35 Fontes Artis Musicae 116 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507222] [https://books.google.com/books?id=qHYWAAAAIAAJ] **Kishimoto, "Additional Corrections and Alphabetical Title Index" (1989) 36 Fontes Artis Musicae 38 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507313] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7XYWAAAAIAAJ] *Special Bibliography: A Bibliography of Japanese Magazines and Music (1959) 3 Ethnomusicology 76 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/924290] *A Historical Survey of Music Periodicals in Japan: 1881—1920 (1989) 36 Fontes Artis Musicae 44 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507314] *[[w:ja:篠原章|Akira Shinohara]]. 日本ロック雑誌クロニクル. [[w:en:Ohta Publishing|Ohta Publishing]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=L8opAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:Oricon|Oricon]] (オリコン) **[https://web.archive.org/web/19970412131857/http://www.999.com/Oricon/index.html Oricon Music Site]. Commentary: [https://internet.watch.impress.co.jp/www/article/980309/oms.htm]. *[[w:Billboard Japan|Billboard Japan]] (ビルボード・ジャパン) **Music Labo (ミュージック・ラボ) (1970 to 1994) *Music Research (ミュージック・リサーチ) ["Weekly Music Magazine"]. Catalogue: [https://web.archive.org/web/20260319070908/https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000039804]. *Rolling Stone Japan *新譜ジャーナル (Shinpu Journal). Catalogue: [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000012315]. Began 1968 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=L8opAQAAIAAJ], later called シンプジャーナル **シンプジャーナル *Myūjikku mansurī [ミュージック・マンスリー]  [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/AN00396190] *カセットライフ. (Cassette Life). [[w:ja:シンコーミュージック・エンタテイメント|Shinko Music Entertainment]] *[[w:ja:CDジャーナル|CDJournal]] *[[w:ja:Rockin'on Japan|Rockin'on Japan]]. (ロッキング・オン・ジャパン). (1986 onwards) *[[w:ja:Rooftop|Rooftop]] (1976 onwards) *[[w:ja:FOOL'S MATE|Fool's Mate]] *Record Monthly (レコード・マンスリー). From 日本レコード振興株式会社. Catalogues: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/AA11433275] [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000027924] *[[w:ja:WHAT's IN?|What's In?]] (1988 to 2016) Columns in periodicals *"Japanese Newsnotes". Billboard. (eg 17 April 1961, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JiIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA13#v=onepage&q&f=false p 13].) Websites *[[w:ja:ナタリー (ニュースサイト)|Natalie]] (ナタリー) *[[w:ja:BARKS|Barks]] *OKMusic. Commentary: [https://xtech.nikkei.com/it/article/NEWS/20120626/405442/]. Charts For Japanese music charts, see [[w:ja:日本の音楽チャート]] Chart books *Oricon Chart Book (Japanese: オリコンチャート・ブック) **1987 to 1998 Oricon Chart Book. All Albums. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KvEoNwAACAAJ] **Album Chart Book Complete Edition 1970〜2005. Catalogue:[https://www.tosyokan.pref.shizuoka.jp/licsxp-opac/WOpacMsgNewListToTifTilDetailAction.do?tilcod=1000610247212] *澤山博之. ミュージック・ライフ 東京で1番売れていたレコード 1958~1966. Shinko Music Entertainment. 2019. [Charts published in Music Life from 1958 onwards]. Commentary: [https://mikiki.tokyo.jp/articles/-/20952 Mikiki] Number ones *Oricon No.1 Hits 500. Clubhouse (Japanese: クラブハウス). 1994. 1998. **[https://books.google.com/books?id=GlsnNwAACAAJ vol 1 (1968~1985)]. ISBN 9784906496129. **[https://books.google.com/books?id=icInNwAACAAJ vol 2 (1986~1994)]. ISBN 9784906496136. Awards Japan Record Awards *輝く!日本レコード大賞 公式データブック: 放送60回記念: TBS公認. Shinko Music Entertainment. ISBN 9784401647019. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JcDqvwEACAAJ] [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB2773137X] Traditional, Hogaku *Malm. Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yn3VQbqywCsC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miyuki Yoshikami. Japan's Musical Tradition: Hogaku from Prehistory to the Present. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X3XTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hughes. Traditional Folk Song in Modern Japan: Sources, Sentiment and Society. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yfV5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Koto: *Tokyo Academy of Music. Collection of Japanese Koto Music. 1888. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RncQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false][https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044040839565&seq=1] Exam guides: For the 音楽CD検定 exam on music CDs: *音楽CD検定公式ガイドブック. 2007. [[w:ja:音楽出版社 (企業)|Ongaku Shuppansha Co Ltd]] (音楽出版社). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sbjdeDJMkQcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AoFgIowII48C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. Commentary: [https://www.cdjournal.com/i/news/-/15303] [https://www.oricon.co.jp/news/46065/full/] [https://allabout.co.jp/gm/gc/57723/] [https://www.oricon.co.jp/news/45388/full/]. Film *Tak Shindo. "Japanese Film Music". Film Journal. No 11: October 1958. p 21. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YF9AIcnhKTIC] Animation *Marco Pellitteri (ed). The Palgrave Handbook of Music and Sound in Japanese Animation. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4FIhEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anime songs *USEN アニソン研究所！ **2002: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/seednaruto2002.html USEN アニソン研究所！ #010]. 2001: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/2001.html #009]. 2000: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/-19981999.html #008]. 1998 & 1999: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/-19961997-1.html #007]. 1996 & 1997: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/-19961997.html #006]. 1994 & 1995: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/-19941995.html #005]. Children's music *Elizabeth May. The Influence of the Meiji Period on Japanese Children's Music. University of California Press. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54cHAQAAMAAJ] **Japanese Children's Music Before and After Contact with the West. University of California at Los Angeles. 1958. (doctoral dissertation). DJs *Masahiro Yasuda, "How Japanese DJs cut across Market Boundaries" (1999) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H5QJAQAAMAAJ 4] Perfect Beat 45 Duration of songs *[https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20260213/p2a/00m/0et/002000c Japanese hit songs trimming intros, getting to chorus faster, Nara student finds]. The Mainichi. 14 February 2026. Diaspora *Dale Olsen. The Chrysanthemum and the Song: Music, Memory, and Identity in the South American Japanese Diaspora. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3WloQgAACAAJ] [[Category:Music resources]] 9e8j3to1wgl72w7dyoeehhm8grl2an1 2842683 2842682 2026-10-26T17:23:45Z James500 297601 /* */ Add 2842683 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Bibliography}} See [[s:Category:Music]] and [[w:Category:Music books]] This part of the [[Universal Bibliography]] is a bibliography of music. Bibliography *[[w:Bibliography of Music Literature|Bibliography of Music Literature]] *Green (ed). Foundations in Music Bibliography. 1993. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rADdpZN9UhAC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Krummel. The Literature of Music Bibliography: An Account of the Writings on the History of Music Printing & Publishing. 2nd Ed: 1992. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3AZsiITI-IEC] *Bibliography of Music Bibliographies. 1967. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=d6YJAQAAMAAJ] *Bayne. A Guide to Library Research in Music. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ExGbDqu9gPAC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *A Selected Bibliography of Music Librarianship [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X5AeOl4O-osC] *Bradley. American Music Librarianship: A Research and Information Guide. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VabcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Music Reference and Research Materials. 3rd Ed: 1974: [https://books.google.com/books?id=5Y1IAAAAMAAJ] *Agruss. Guide to Reference Books on Music. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wX06AAAAIAAJ] *Haggerty. A Guide to Popular Music Reference Books: An Annotated Bibliography. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OnEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Coover. A Bibliography of Music Dictionaries. 1952: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NH06AAAAIAAJ]. Music Lexicography. 2nd Ed: 1958. Including a Study of Lacunae in Music Lexicography and a Bibliography of Music Dictionaries. 3rd Ed: 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jKMJAQAAMAAJ]. *A Bibliography of Books on Music and Collections of Music. 1948. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vfvpnwWWlZwC] *Deakin. Musical Bibliography: A Catalogue of the Musical Works. 1892. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-UgQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7#v=onepage&q&f=false] (England 15th to 18th century) *Matthew. The Literature of Music. 1896. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=fTQ6AAAAMAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Reviews: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bjdVAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA56#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dzcZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA22#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=R0gcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA470#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qK5OAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA55#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1chZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA155#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ezszAQAAMAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5h61TMyTmOMC] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8k8wAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i8W8LKTuc0AC]. Author: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=awIQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA275#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Hoek. Analyses of Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Music, 1940-2000. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CRG4AQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *RILM Abstracts of Music Literature. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HxjjAAAAMAAJ] *Forkel. Allgemeine Litteratur der Musik. 1792. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=VTRDAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3N8sAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA33#v=onepage&q&f=false] Bibliography of periodical literature *Elliker. The Periodical Literature of Music: Trends from 1952 to 1987. 1996. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=T5ifAAAAMAAJ] *Joan M Meggett. Music Periodical Literature: An Annotated Bibliography of Indexes and Bibliographies. Scarecrow Press. 1978. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HCjBAAAAIAAJ] *Thomas E Warner. Periodical Literature on American Music, 1620-1920. Harmonie Park Press. 1988. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zTlQAQAAIAAJ] History and bibliography *Matthew. A Handbook of Musical History and Bibliography. 1898. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=V1g5AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P1lDAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA229#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Boyden. The History and Literature of Music: 1750 to the Present. 1959. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XcAZAQAAIAAJ] *Brown. An Introduction to the History and Literature of Music in Western Culture. 2nd Ed: 2011. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aKpGAAAACAAJ] Chronology, annuals, year books, years *Eisler. World Chronology of Music History. *Lowe. A Chronological Cyclopædia of Musicians and Musical Events. 1896. *Tokyo Ongaku Gakko. Kinsei Hogaku Nempyo. [Chronology of Japanese Music in Recent Ages.] Rokugatsu-Kan. Volume 1. 1912. Volume 2. 1914. Volume 3. 1927. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=drMQAQAAMAAJ] *Cossar. This Day in Music. 2005. 2010. *Glassman. The Year in Music. Columbia House. *[[w:Herman Klein|Hermann Klein]]. Musical Notes. Annual Critical Record of Important Musical Events. *[[w:Joseph Bennett (critic)|Bennett]]. The Musical Year. *Hinrichsen's Musical Year Book *The Musical Year Book of the United States **The Boston Musical Year Book *Billboard. Overview. 1982: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YyQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT53#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Billboard. The Year in Music. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ZAgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA62#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2003: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bA8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA47#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **The Year in Music and Video. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uyQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT50#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tiQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false]. *Jackson. 1965: The Most Revolutionary Year in Music. *Porter. A Musical Season: 1972-1973. **Music of Three Seasons: 1974-1977 **Music of Three More Seasons 1977-1980 **Musical Events: A Chronicle, 1980-1983. *[https://news.1242.com/article/tag/大人のmusic-calendar 【大人のMusic Calendar】]. Nippon Broadcasting System. [Articles from 2016 are included in [https://news.1242.com/article/author/toritani/page/42 NEWS ONLINE 編集部の記事一覧].] *[http://music-calendar.jp Music Calendar] History *"Recorded Sound: The First Century: 1877-1977". Billboard. 21 May 1977. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT39#v=onepage&q&f=false RS-1] to RS-117. Encyclopedias See also [[w:List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge/Music]] and [[w:Bibliography of encyclopedias#Music and dance]] *Encyclopedia of Music in the 20th Century [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=m8W2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Moore. Complete Encyclopædia of Music. 1852. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QBFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Dictionaries *Apel. "Dictionaries of music". Harvard Dictionary of Music. 1969. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TMdf1SioFk4C&pg=PA232#v=onepage&q&f=false 232] to 234. United Kingdom: *Billboard. Spotlight on the United Kingdom. 1978: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TSQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT78#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1979: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MCUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT100#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Australia: *Billboard. Spotlight on Australia/New Zealand. 1982: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT54#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=hiQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT29#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UCQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA60#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Live Talent of Australia: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YyQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT94#v=onepage&q&f=false] New Zealand: *Harvey. A Bibliography of Writings about New Zealand Music Published to the End of 1983. 1985. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=B1ROA_sP-xsC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *The Complete New Zealand Music Charts, 1966-2006: Singles, Albums, DVDs, Compilations. 2007. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wyU5AQAAIAAJ] *Billboard. New Zealand. 2002: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Rg0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false] Canada: *Billboard. Spotlight on Canada. 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=DSQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT50#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Scandanavia: *Billboard. Spotlight on Scandanavia. 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT86#v=onepage&q&f=false]. France: *Billboard. Spotlight on France. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-wgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1972: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=REUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1982: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AyQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT66#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ICUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q&f=false] Germany: *Billboard. Spotlight on West Germany. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zQgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-iMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT12#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **Spotlight on West Germany, Austria and Switzerland. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CSUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false] Italy: *Billboard. Spotlight on Italy. 1981: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8iQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3yQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT36#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2SQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA38-IA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1994: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XQgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA67#v=onepage&q&f=false]. Spain: *Billboard. Spotlight on Spain. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5Q8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=false] Philipines: *[https://billboardphilippines.com/culture/scenes/lost-history-how-filipino-music-was-documented-in-the-40s-to-2010s/ Lost History: How Filipino Music Was Documented In The ’40s To 2010s]. Billboard Philippines. 18 January 2024. *[[w:en:Billboard Philippines|Billboard Philippines]] Brazil: *Billboard. Spotlight on Brazil. 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=NA0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA51#v=onepage&q&f=false]. United States *Krummel. Bibliographical Handbook of American Music. 1987. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G4wcnkvFZl4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Krummel. Resources of American Music History: A Directory of Source Materials from Colonial Times to World War II. 1981. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=bJcYAAAAIAAJ] Soviet *Aschmann. Current Soviet Music Bibliography. 1976. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2i7jAAAAMAAJ] Decline of pop music: *[https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/science-proves-pop-music-has-actually-gotten-worse-8173368/ Science Proves: Pop Music Has Actually Gotten Worse]. [[w:Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]. 27 July 2012. *[https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/new-study-discovers-pop-music-has-suffered-significant-decline-in-one-area/ New study discovers pop music has suffered “significant decline” in one area]. [[w:Far Out (website)|Far Out]]. 5 July 2024. *[https://www.globalnews.ca/news/9001083/why-older-music-more-popular-than-new-music/amp/ There is something very, very wrong with today’s music. It just may not be very good.] [[w:Global News|Global News]]. 24 July 2022. *[https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/articles/fb84bf19-29c9-4ed3-b6b6-953e8a083334 Has pop music lost its fun?]. BBC. 12 January 2018. *[https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/its-official-modern-music-is-bad/ It’s official: modern music is bad]. The Spectator. 13 February 2024. Homogeneity of pop music: *[https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jul/27/pop-music-sounds-same-survey-reveals Pop music these days: it all sounds the same, survey reveals]. The Guardian. 27 July 2012. *[https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna48356108 Pop Music All Sounds the Same Nowadays]. NBC News. 27 July 2012. *[https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/why-does-today-s-pop-music-sound-the-same-because-the-same-people-make-it-8368714.html Why does today's pop music sound the same? Because the same people make it]. The Independent. 29 November 2012. *[https://www.reuters.com/article/lifestyle/science/pop-music-too-loud-and-all-sounds-the-same-official-idUSBRE86P0R9/ Pop music too loud and all sounds the same: official]. Reuters. 26 July 2012. *[https://theconversation.com/from-art-form-to-asset-our-study-found-popular-songs-are-becoming-more-generic-266097 From art form to asset: our study found popular songs are becoming more generic]. The Conversation. 3 October 2025. Conferences: *International Music Industry Conference. 1971: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=tggEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA29#v=onepage&q&f=false] Laserdisc/Karaoke/CES *Billboard. Karaoke. 1992: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jg8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA41-IA1#v=onepage&q&f=false] **CES and Karaoke. 1994. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UggEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA77#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Laserdisc. 1995. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7AsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA67#v=onepage&q&f=false] **Laserdisc/Karaoke. 1996: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iQ8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA59#v=onepage&q&f=false] Classical music *Billboard spotlights: 1995 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1g0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false] (9 September 1995) **"Classical Music Recording Market". Billboard. 12 April 1980. pp C-1 to C-12 and p 32. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Classical Music: Discovering New Dimensions". Billboard. 10 September 1983. pp C-1 to C-18. (A Billboard Spotlight). *"Classical" section, and "Best Selling Classical LPs" chart, in Billboard Jazz *[[w:en:All About Jazz|All About Jazz]] Oldies *"Oldies stations find their place in radio market". Star-News. 13 March 1988. pp 1D & [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OoyAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA16#v=onepage&q&f=false 6D]: "Oldies". *Billboard. 15 April 1972. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a0UEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT7#v=onepage&q&f=false p 47]. *Billboard. 17 April 1961, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JiIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1]. *Billboard. 4 January 1960, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Ch8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false p 1] Nostalgia See also [[Universal Bibliography/Nostalgia]] *"A Perspective on the Future of Nostalgia". Billboard. 4 May 1974. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cgkEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false N-1] to N-54 and two more pages. *Carr. Nostalgia, Song and the Quest for Home: Production, Text, Reception. 2025. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xz1jEQAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Charts *Carroll, " Did Billboard, Cash Box, and Record World Charts Tell the Same Story? Perception and Reality, 1960-1979"(2022) 9 Rock Music Studies [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19401159.2022.2054107 199] Periodicals; Magazines See also [[w:Category:Music magazines]] *Billboard. Google: [https://books.google.co.uk/books/serial/ISSN:00062510?rview=1&lr=&sa=N&start=2770 1942] onwards *Perfect Beat: The Pacific Journal of Research Into Contemporary Music and Popular Culture (1992 onwards) Department of Contemporary Music Studies, Macquarie University. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RpQJAQAAMAAJ] Published by Equinox from 2009 onwards. Commentary: Jennifer Post, Ethnomusicology: A Research and Information Guide, 2004, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=u9-SAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q&f=false p 84]. ==Japanese and Japan== *The Ashgate Research Companion to Japanese Music. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W2JTgQGc99EC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4tINDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Billboard. Spotlight on Japan. 1970: 19 December 1970 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mSkEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1971: 11 December 1971 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Fg8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1973: 17 February 1973 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=QEUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT25#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1977: 30 April 1977 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=USMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT46#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1979: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_iQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT48#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1982:[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=byQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT38#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1985: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=1CQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT65#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1986:[https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-CMEAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1993: 12 June 1993 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=9A8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA57#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1995: 5 August 1995 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xwsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA52-IA1#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1996: 31 August 1996 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vwcEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1997: 30 August 1997 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_gkEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA61#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1998: 26 September 1998 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GgoEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA117#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2000: 9 September 2000 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aREEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA65#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2002: 7 September 2002 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-QwEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 2003: 5 July 2003 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3w0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q&f=false]. **"Japan in 1974: Business Bristles While Shortages Are Met". Billboard. 23 February 1974. pp J-1 to J-30. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Made in Japan: A Dynamic Music Industry". Billboard. 1 March 1975. pp J-1 to J-23. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Japan '76". Billboard. 17 April 1976. pp 36 to 59. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Japanese Music: The Challenge of Recession". Billboard. 27 May 1978. pp J-1 to J-31. (A Billboard Spotlight). **"Music in Japan: Industry Views 1981 With Quiet Optimism". Billboard. 30 May 1981. pp J-1 to J-18. **"Japan: Where Technology Greets Tradition". (An International Market Profile). Billboard. 21 May 1983. pp J-1 to J-13. Follows p 34. **"Billboard Spotlight on Japan: VCRs and CDs Will Be Pacemakers". Billboard. 26 May 1984. pp J-1 to J-11. Follows p 38. **"Spotlight on Japan". Billboard. 6 June 1987. pp J-1 to J-12. **"Japan '88". Billboard. 9 July 1988. pp J-1 to J-11. (A Billboard International Spotlight). **"Japan". ("Japan '89"/"Spotlight on Japan"). Billboard. 3 June 1989. pp J-1 to J-20. (International Spotlight). **"Japan". ("International Spotlight"/"A Billboard Spotlight"). Billboard. 25 May 1991. pp J-1 to J-26. Follows p 50. Called "Japan '91" on front page. **"Japan: Uncovering the Future". Billboard. 31 July 1999. pp [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lQgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA53#v=onepage&q&f=false 53] to 66. *[[w:The Best Ten|The Best Ten]] (ザ・ベストテン). [Television programme]. [https://www.tbs.co.jp/tbs-ch/special/the_bestten/ Episodes]. *[[w:ja:Music Station|Music Station]]. [Television programme]. Episodes: [https://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/music/contents/m_lineup/0003/index.html episode 1] etc. *Hisao Tanabe. Japanese Music. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (The Society for International Cultural Relations). Tokyo. 1st Ed: 1929. **Reprints: 1st Ed: 1936. 2nd Ed: 1937. 3rd Ed: 1939: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S4kHAQAAMAAJ]. **2nd Revised Ed: 1959. *Wade. Music in Japan: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XXYIAQAAMAAJ] *Malm. Japanese Music & Musical Instruments. 1959. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QkTaAAAAMAAJ] *[[w:Francis Taylor Piggott|Pigott]]. The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan. 1893 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=ttKTUwmjzMwC&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false]. 1909. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MAM5AAAAIAAJ] *Robert C Provine, Yoshiko Tokumaru and J Lawrence Witzleben. "Japan". East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea. The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, vol 7. Routledge. 2002. ISBN 0-8240-6041-5. Part 4. pp 531 to 800. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-J1ADwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Toru Mitsui. "Interactions of Imported and Indigenous Musics in Japan: A Historical Overview of the Music Industry". Fouli T Papageorgiou (ed). Whose Master's Voice?: The Development of Popular Music in Thirteen Cultures. Chapter 9. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xHrDEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA152#v=onepage&q&f=false p 152]. Bibliography *Tsuge. Japanese Music: An Annotated Bibliography. 1986. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YCsKAQAAMAAJ] *[[w:ja:三井徹|Tōru Mitsui]]. Popyurā Ongaku Kankei Tosho Mokuroku: Ryūkōka, Jazu, Rokku, J-poppu no Hyakunen. (Japanese: ポピュラー音楽関係図書目録: 流行歌、ジャズ、ロック、Jポップの百年). Nichigai Associates. 2009. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=dSAxAQAAIAAJ]. Catalogues: [https://search.worldcat.org/title/406243182] [https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1970586434933272116] *[https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/rnavi/avmaterials/post_572 音楽に関する文献を探すには（主題書誌）]. NDL. Dictionaries *[[w:ja:下中弥三郎|Shimonaka Yasaburo]] (ed). Ongaku Jiten. Heibonsha. Review: (1959) 18 Journal of Asian Studies 295 [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/abs/ongaku-jiten-dictionary-of-music-ed-shimonaka-yasaburo-tokyo-heibonsha-195557-12-volumes-900-yen-per-volume/F3067B1CE61B5B2C647091E69CE8C8DD] [https://read.dukeupress.edu/journal-of-asian-studies/article-abstract/18/2/295/322980/Ongaku-jiten-Dictionary-of-Music?redirectedFrom=fulltext] History *Eta Harich-Schneider. A History of Japanese Music. 1973. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3AraAAAAMAAJ] *Koh-ichi Hattori. 123 Years of Japanese Music: The Culture of Japan Through a Look at Its Music. 2004. [https://books.google.com/books?id=znzsAAAAMAAJ] **Koh-ichi Hattori. 36,000 Days of Japanese Music: The Culture of Japan Through A Look At Its Music. Pacific Vision. Pierce, Southfield, Michigan. 1996. ISBN 0965364208. *Shinpan Nihon Ryūkōkashi. (Japanese: 新版日本流行歌史). [[w:ja:社会思想社|Shakaishisosha]]. 1994. Review: [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XQdIAAAAMAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/en/books/R100000002-I000002420287] **新版日本流行歌史: 1960-1994. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_b4pAQAAIAAJ] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=nb4pAQAAIAAJ]. **新版日本流行歌史: 1938-1959 **1867-1937 *Mehl. Music and the Making of Modern Japan: Joining the Global Concert. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P3QMEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false] Annuals, yearbooks *Ongaku-Nenkan (Japanese: 音楽年鑑) (English: "Music Year Book", "Music Yearbook", "Yearbook of Music"). [[w:ja:音楽之友社|Ongaku No Tomo Sha]]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=BhoKAQAAMAAJ 1960] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-bXPAAAAMAAJ 1968] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yNAJAQAAMAAJ 1992]. Catalogues: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN0029282X] [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN11185209] Modern, contemporary, today *Johnson. Handbook of Japanese Music in the Modern Era. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KNP7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Matsue. Focus: Music in Contemporary Japan. 2016. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AQgtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Music of Japan Today. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YZQYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Popular music *Mitsui (ed). Made in Japan: Studies in Popular Music. 2014. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YWQKBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Stevens. Japanese Popular Music: Culture, Authenticity and Power. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OHMkdcL9DAMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Mitsui. Popular Music in Japan: Transformation Inspired by the West. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FpbqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Nagahara. Tokyo Boogie-Woogie: Japan’s Pop Era and Its Discontents. 2017. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iTxYDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Patterson. Music and Words: Producing Popular Songs in Modern Japan, 1887–1952. 2019. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=P0FvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *James Stanlaw. "Using English identity markers in Japanese Popular Music". English in East and South Asia. Chapter 14. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=88A1EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT109#v=onepage&q&f=false] *"Japanese Popular Music in Singapore". Asian Music. vol 34. No 1: Fall/Winter 2002/2003. p 1. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_D4JAQAAMAAJ] *Steve McClure. Nipponpop. Tuttle Publishing. 1998. ISBN 9780804821070. ISBN 0804821070. [Sometimes called "Nippon Pop"]. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/title/Nipponpop/oclc/247384040] Review: (1998) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=f9egmeZ8YywC 245] The Publishers Weekly 2 From folk to J-pop *[[w:ja:富澤一誠|Issei Tomizawa]]. Ano subarashii kyoku o mō ichido: fōku kara J-poppu made. (Japanese: あの素晴しい曲をもう一度: フォークからJポップまで). [[w:Shinchosha|Shinchosha]]. 2010. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ju9MAQAAIAAJ]. Catalogue: [https://search.worldcat.org/title/501749494]. Commentary on book: [https://www.ytv.co.jp/michiura/time/2010/01/j2010110.html]. Review of the CD: [https://www.cdjournal.com/i/disc/great-agefree-music-forever-and-great-music-are-o/4109110788]. J-pop *Bourdaghs. Sayonara Amerika, Sayonara Nippon: A Geopolitical Prehistory of J-pop. 2012. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=K_y88JwibrMC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *"The Rise of J-Pop in Asia and Its Impact" (2004) Japan Spotlight. vol 23. p 24. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=i7C0AAAAIAAJ] *Terence Lancashire. "J-pop's elusive J: Is Japanese popular music Japanese?" (2008) Perfect Beat. vol 9. No 1. p 38. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5No4AQAAIAAJ] *Tetsu Misaki. J-poppu no Nihongo: kashiron. (Japanese: Jポップの日本語: 歌詞論). [[w:ja:彩流社|彩流社 (Sairyusha)]]. 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dsMpAQAAIAAJ] [https://search.worldcat.org/ja/title/J-:/oclc/52005194] *[[w:ja:烏賀陽弘道|Hiromichi Ugaya]]. Jpoppu Towa Nanika: Kyodaikasuru Ongaku Sangyō. (Japanese: Jポップとは何か: 巨大化する音楽産業). 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TLlOAAAAMAAJ] catalogue [https://search.worldcat.org/ja/title/J-:/oclc/676652594] [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA71618018] Japanese rock *Takarajima Special Edition: Encyclopedia of Japanese Rock 1955-1990. Nihon rokku daihyakka: Rokabirī kara bando būmu made. (Japanese: 日本ロック大百科 [年表編] ロカビリーからバンド・ブームまで 1955〜1990). [[w:ja:JICC出版局|JICC Shuppankyoku]]. 1992. ISBN 9784796602907. ISBN 4796602909. Catalogues: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BN07889172] [https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/catalog/2263400]. *Japanese Rock: Standard: 1967-1985. 日本のロック名曲徹底ガイド: 名曲263決定盤846. CDJournal. 2008. ISBN 9784861710469. ISBN 4861710464. [https://www.cdjournal.com/Company/products/mook.php?mno=20081002]. Catalogue: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA8932668X?l=en]. *Kojima Satoshi (Japanese: 小島智). 検証・80年代日本のロック. アルファベータブックス. 2024. ISBN 9784865981179. ISBN 4865981179. [https://books.google.com/books?id=0gbl0AEACAAJ]. Review: [https://mainichi.jp/articles/20241026/ddm/015/070/005000c]. Jazz *[[w:ja:スイングジャーナル|Swing Journal]] (1947 to 2010) Commentary: [https://www.allaboutjazz.com/news/swing-journal-long-standing-jazz-magazine-to-be-suspended-in-june/] Japanese fusion: *THE DIG presents 日本のフュージョン. Shinko Music Mook. Released 19 April 2013. Commentary: [https://www.cdjournal.com/news/casiopea/50967]. No II. Released 23 October 2014. Commentary: [https://www.cdjournal.com/news/takanaka-masayoshi/62225] Classical *[[w:ja:ぶらあぼ|Bravo]] (Japanese: ぶらあぼ) ebravo.jp *[[w:ja:音楽芸術 (雑誌)|Ongaku Geijutsu]] (Japanese: 音楽芸術) Magazines For Japanese music magazines, see [[w:ja:日本の音楽雑誌]]. *Music Periodicals in Japan — A Comprehensive List (1988) 35 Fontes Artis Musicae 116 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507222] [https://books.google.com/books?id=qHYWAAAAIAAJ] **Kishimoto, "Additional Corrections and Alphabetical Title Index" (1989) 36 Fontes Artis Musicae 38 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507313] [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7XYWAAAAIAAJ] *Special Bibliography: A Bibliography of Japanese Magazines and Music (1959) 3 Ethnomusicology 76 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/924290] *A Historical Survey of Music Periodicals in Japan: 1881—1920 (1989) 36 Fontes Artis Musicae 44 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23507314] *[[w:ja:篠原章|Akira Shinohara]]. 日本ロック雑誌クロニクル. [[w:en:Ohta Publishing|Ohta Publishing]]. 2005. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=L8opAQAAIAAJ] *[[w:Oricon|Oricon]] (オリコン) **[https://web.archive.org/web/19970412131857/http://www.999.com/Oricon/index.html Oricon Music Site]. Commentary: [https://internet.watch.impress.co.jp/www/article/980309/oms.htm]. *[[w:Billboard Japan|Billboard Japan]] (ビルボード・ジャパン) **Music Labo (ミュージック・ラボ) (1970 to 1994) *Music Research (ミュージック・リサーチ) ["Weekly Music Magazine"]. Catalogue: [https://web.archive.org/web/20260319070908/https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000039804]. *Rolling Stone Japan *新譜ジャーナル (Shinpu Journal). Catalogue: [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000012315]. Began 1968 [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=L8opAQAAIAAJ], later called シンプジャーナル **シンプジャーナル *Myūjikku mansurī [ミュージック・マンスリー]  [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/AN00396190] *カセットライフ. (Cassette Life). [[w:ja:シンコーミュージック・エンタテイメント|Shinko Music Entertainment]] *[[w:ja:CDジャーナル|CDJournal]] *[[w:ja:Rockin'on Japan|Rockin'on Japan]]. (ロッキング・オン・ジャパン). (1986 onwards) *[[w:ja:Rooftop|Rooftop]] (1976 onwards) *[[w:ja:FOOL'S MATE|Fool's Mate]] *Record Monthly (レコード・マンスリー). From 日本レコード振興株式会社. Catalogues: [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/AA11433275] [https://ndlsearch.ndl.go.jp/books/R100000002-I000000027924] *[[w:ja:WHAT's IN?|What's In?]] (1988 to 2016) Columns in periodicals *"Japanese Newsnotes". Billboard. (eg 17 April 1961, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JiIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA13#v=onepage&q&f=false p 13].) Websites *[[w:ja:ナタリー (ニュースサイト)|Natalie]] (ナタリー) *[[w:ja:BARKS|Barks]] *OKMusic. Commentary: [https://xtech.nikkei.com/it/article/NEWS/20120626/405442/]. Charts For Japanese music charts, see [[w:ja:日本の音楽チャート]] Chart books *Oricon Chart Book (Japanese: オリコンチャート・ブック) **1987 to 1998 Oricon Chart Book. All Albums. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KvEoNwAACAAJ] **Album Chart Book Complete Edition 1970〜2005. Catalogue:[https://www.tosyokan.pref.shizuoka.jp/licsxp-opac/WOpacMsgNewListToTifTilDetailAction.do?tilcod=1000610247212] *澤山博之. ミュージック・ライフ 東京で1番売れていたレコード 1958~1966. Shinko Music Entertainment. 2019. [Charts published in Music Life from 1958 onwards]. Commentary: [https://mikiki.tokyo.jp/articles/-/20952 Mikiki] Number ones *Oricon No.1 Hits 500. Clubhouse (Japanese: クラブハウス). 1994. 1998. **[https://books.google.com/books?id=GlsnNwAACAAJ vol 1 (1968~1985)]. ISBN 9784906496129. **[https://books.google.com/books?id=icInNwAACAAJ vol 2 (1986~1994)]. ISBN 9784906496136. Awards Japan Record Awards *輝く!日本レコード大賞 公式データブック: 放送60回記念: TBS公認. Shinko Music Entertainment. ISBN 9784401647019. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JcDqvwEACAAJ] [https://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BB2773137X] Traditional, Hogaku *Malm. Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Yn3VQbqywCsC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Miyuki Yoshikami. Japan's Musical Tradition: Hogaku from Prehistory to the Present. 2020. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X3XTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false] *Hughes. Traditional Folk Song in Modern Japan: Sources, Sentiment and Society. 2008. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=yfV5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=false] Koto: *Tokyo Academy of Music. Collection of Japanese Koto Music. 1888. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RncQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP13#v=onepage&q&f=false][https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044040839565&seq=1] Exam guides: For the 音楽CD検定 exam on music CDs: *音楽CD検定公式ガイドブック. 2007. [[w:ja:音楽出版社 (企業)|Ongaku Shuppansha Co Ltd]] (音楽出版社). [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sbjdeDJMkQcC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 1]. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AoFgIowII48C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false vol 2]. Commentary: [https://www.cdjournal.com/i/news/-/15303] [https://www.oricon.co.jp/news/46065/full/] [https://allabout.co.jp/gm/gc/57723/] [https://www.oricon.co.jp/news/45388/full/]. Film *Tak Shindo. "Japanese Film Music". Film Journal. No 11: October 1958. p 21. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=YF9AIcnhKTIC] Animation *Marco Pellitteri (ed). The Palgrave Handbook of Music and Sound in Japanese Animation. 2024. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=4FIhEQAAQBAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false] Anime songs *USEN アニソン研究所！ **2002: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/seednaruto2002.html USEN アニソン研究所！ #010]. 2001: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/2001.html #009]. 2000: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/-19981999.html #008]. 1998 & 1999: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/-19961997-1.html #007]. 1996 & 1997: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/-19961997.html #006]. 1994 & 1995: [https://e.usen.com/feature/feature-series/-19941995.html #005]. Children's music *Elizabeth May. The Influence of the Meiji Period on Japanese Children's Music. University of California Press. 1963. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=54cHAQAAMAAJ] **Japanese Children's Music Before and After Contact with the West. University of California at Los Angeles. 1958. (doctoral dissertation). DJs *Masahiro Yasuda, "How Japanese DJs cut across Market Boundaries" (1999) [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H5QJAQAAMAAJ 4] Perfect Beat 45 Duration of songs *[https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20260213/p2a/00m/0et/002000c Japanese hit songs trimming intros, getting to chorus faster, Nara student finds]. The Mainichi. 14 February 2026. Diaspora *Dale Olsen. The Chrysanthemum and the Song: Music, Memory, and Identity in the South American Japanese Diaspora. 2004. [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=3WloQgAACAAJ] [[Category:Music resources]] 5gckymqolw9oh9wmd8e8pblvumnihwo 0 328204 2842753 2842631 2026-10-27T02:52:55Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Hellenized Jews */ 2842753 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archealogy = 45hul55fr649kzabny3bilepj66h2wl 2842754 2842753 2026-10-27T02:54:28Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Archealogy */ 2842754 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archealogy = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temples) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2900–2350 BC)'' | Platform expansions (Later capped by Ur III ziggurat) | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | Elite sacred precinct remains | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | Only platform remains (Mainly religious functions) | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples V–I''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels XII–VI''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples XI–VI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XVII–XIII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) |- | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XVI–XII''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | Unoccupied (Virgin soil) |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVIII–XVII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | Unoccupied (Virgin soil) | Unoccupied (Virgin soil) |} o9fdjxdil3drvztizelxmq9jvmxzi1o 2842755 2842754 2026-10-27T02:54:46Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Archealogy */ 2842755 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archeology = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temples) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2900–2350 BC)'' | Platform expansions (Later capped by Ur III ziggurat) | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | Elite sacred precinct remains | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | Only platform remains (Mainly religious functions) | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples V–I''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels XII–VI''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples XI–VI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XVII–XIII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) |- | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XVI–XII''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | Unoccupied (Virgin soil) |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVIII–XVII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | Unoccupied (Virgin soil) | Unoccupied (Virgin soil) |} 17d61sri9z536s6xcnd5mtebrjinocx 2842756 2842755 2026-10-27T02:55:40Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Archeology */ 2842756 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archeology = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temples) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2900–2350 BC)'' | Platform expansions (Later capped by Ur III ziggurat) | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | Elite sacred precinct remains | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | Only platform remains (Mainly religious functions) | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples V–I''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels XII–VI''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples XI–VI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XVII–XIII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) |- | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XVI–XII''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | - (Virgin soil) |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVIII–XVII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | - (Virgin soil) | - (Virgin soil) |} koxxg73r58stczyd7v4mqcbu23jmxig 2842757 2842756 2026-10-27T02:56:14Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Archeology */ 2842757 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archeology = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temples) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2900–2350 BC)'' | Platform expansions (Later capped by Ur III ziggurat) | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | Elite sacred precinct remains | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | Only platform remains (Mainly religious functions) | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples V–I''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels XII–VI''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples XI–VI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XVII–XIII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) |- | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XVI–XII''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | - |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVIII–XVII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | - | - |} guf7femye0q2578rxm5406ux1lf6fgo 2842758 2842757 2026-10-27T03:01:54Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Archeology */ 2842758 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archeology = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temples) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2900–2350 BC)'' | Platform expansions (Later capped by Ur III ziggurat) | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | Elite sacred precinct remains | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | Only platform remains (Mainly religious functions) | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples V–I''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels XII–VI''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples XI–VI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XVII–XIII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) |- | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XVI–XII''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | – |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVIII–XVII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | – | – |} 4bgy38k3walfag1vyobwkyqgf7svt3h 2842759 2842758 2026-10-27T03:03:18Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Archeology */ 2842759 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archeology = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temples) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2900–2350 BC)'' | Platform expansions (Later capped by Ur III ziggurat) | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | Elite sacred precinct remains | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | Only platform remains (Mainly religious functions) | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples V–I''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels XII–VI''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples XI–VI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XVII–XIII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XVI–XII''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | style="text-align: center;" | – |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVIII–XVII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | – | style="text-align: center;" | – |} lbfursdspaukpy8icqpegtih8g7c57l 2842760 2842759 2026-10-27T03:04:12Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Archeology */ 2842760 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archeology = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temples) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2900–2350 BC)'' | Platform expansions (Later capped by Ur III ziggurat) | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | Elite sacred precinct remains | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | Only platform remains (Mainly religious functions) | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples V–I''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels XII–VI''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples XI–VI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XVII–XIII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) |- | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XVI–XII''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | style="text-align: center;" | – |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVIII–XVII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | style="text-align: center;" | – |} lfvdqee3j1vys0ppqmsjrjr5bweew5p 2842761 2842760 2026-10-27T03:05:23Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Archeology */ 2842761 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archeology = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temples) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2900–2350 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – (Later capped by Ur III ziggurat) | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – (Mainly religious functions) | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples V–I''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels XII–VI''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples XI–VI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XVII–XIII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) |- | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XVI–XII''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | style="text-align: center;" | – |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVIII–XVII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | style="text-align: center;" | – | style="text-align: center;" | – |} aqs9q6qa5hz5t9lg8mdksuat0y51kew 2842762 2842761 2026-10-27T03:05:56Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Archeology */ 2842762 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archeology = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temples) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2900–2350 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples V–I''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels XII–VI''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples XI–VI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XVII–XIII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) |- | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XVI–XII''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | style="text-align: center;" | – |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVIII–XVII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | style="text-align: center;" | – | style="text-align: center;" | – |} 6kutzmqy8lr7mehcjtnrgzd9zkjf8ww 2842763 2842762 2026-10-27T03:08:03Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Archeology */ 2842763 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archeology = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temples) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2900–2350 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples I–V''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels VI–XII''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples VI–XI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XIII–XVII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) |- | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XII–XVI''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | style="text-align: center;" | – |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVII–XVIII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | style="text-align: center;" | – | style="text-align: center;" | – |} 66ulyatqgkpdpl1np63ou45l6lwcj7m 2842764 2842763 2026-10-27T03:22:34Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Archeology */ 2842764 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archeology = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temple) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2900–2350 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples I–V''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels VI–XII''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples VI–XI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XIII–XVII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) |- | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XII–XVI''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | style="text-align: center;" | – |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVII–XVIII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | style="text-align: center;" | – | style="text-align: center;" | – |} nesd1bp41xbh7izgh2mkx2okdxnxnrk 2842766 2842764 2026-10-27T03:29:26Z Unitfreak 695864 /* Archeology */ 2842766 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archeology = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temple) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2350-2900 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples I–V''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels VI–XII''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples VI–XI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XIII–XVII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) |- | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XII–XVI''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | style="text-align: center;" | – |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVII–XVIII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | style="text-align: center;" | – | style="text-align: center;" | – |} 514axundr3etgawubc4y33euzifj0pg 2842767 2842766 2026-10-27T03:34:57Z Unitfreak 695864 Revert 2842767 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class=table style="width:100%;" |- | {{Original research}} |- | {{RoundBoxTop}} Notice: This article was researched and written by a human author, with editing assistance provided by [https://gemini.google.com Google "Gemini, your personal AI assistant"]{{RoundBoxBottom}} |} This page extends the mathematical insights presented in the 2017 article, [https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ ''Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs''] by Paul D. While the original article offers compelling arguments, this analysis provides additional evidence and demonstrates that the underlying numerical data is even more robust and systematic than initially identified. == Summary of Main Arguments == The ages of the patriarchs in Genesis are not historical records, but are a symbolic mathematical structure. Key points include: * '''Artificial Mathematical Design:''' Patriarchal lifespans and event years are based on symbolic or "perfect" numbers (such as 7, 49, and 60) rather than biological or historical reality. * '''The Universal Flood as a Later Insertion:''' Evidence suggests the universal scope of Noah's Flood was a later addition to a patriarchal foundation story. This insertion disrupted the original timelines, forcing recalibrations in the Masoretic Text (MT), Samaritan Pentateuch (SP), and Septuagint (LXX) to avoid chronological contradictions. * '''Chronological Overlaps:''' In the original numerical framework (prior to recalibration for a universal flood), four patriarchs survived beyond the date of the Flood. * '''Alignment with Sacred Cycles:''' The chronologies are designed to align significant events—such as the Exodus and the dedication of Solomon’s Temple—with specific "years of the world" (''Anno Mundi''), synchronizing human history with a divine calendar. = ''Arichat Yamim'' (Long Life) = Most of the patriarchs' lifespans in the Hebrew Bible exceed typical human demographics, and many appear to be based on rounded multiples of 101 years. For example, the combined lifespans of Seth, Enosh, and Kenan total '''2,727 years''' (27 × 101). Likewise, the sum for Mahalalel, Jared, and Enoch is '''2,222 years''' (22 × 101), and for Methuselah and Noah, it is '''1,919 years''' (19 × 101). This phenomenon is difficult to explain, as no known ancient number system features "101" as a significant unit. However, a possible explanation emerges if we assume the original chronographer arrived at these figures through a two-stage process: an initial prototype relying on Mesopotamian sexagesimal numbers, followed by a refined prototype rounded to the nearest Jubilee cycle. In his 1989 London Bible College thesis, ''The Genealogies of Genesis: A Study of Their Structure and Function'', Richard I. Johnson argues that the cumulative lifespans of the patriarchs from Adam to Moses derive from a "perfect" Mesopotamian value: seven ''šar'' (7 × 3,600) or 420 ''šūši'' (420 × 60), divided by two. Using the sexagesimal (base-60) system, the calculation is structured as follows: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7\,\text{šar}}{2} &= \frac{420\,\text{šūši}}{2} \\ &= 210\,\,\text{šūši} \\ &= \left(210 \times 60 \,\text{years} \right) \\ &= 12,600 \, \text{years} \end{aligned} </math> This 12,600-year total was partitioned into three allotments, each based on a 100-Jubilee cycle (4,900 years) but rounded to the nearest Mesopotamian ''šūši'' (multiples of 60). ==== Prototype 1: Initial "Mesopotamian" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #f0f4f7; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #009688;"> The initial "PT1" framework partitioned the 12,600-year total into three allotments based on 100-Jubilee cycles (rounded to the nearest ''šūši''): * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Six patriarchs allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. This approximates 100 Jubilees (82 × 60 ≈ 100 × 49). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' These 17 patriarchs were also allotted a combined sum of '''82 ''šūši'' (4,920 years)'''. * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Methuselah, Lamech, and Noah were allotted the remaining '''46 ''šūši'' (2,760 years)''' (12,600 − 4,920 − 4,920). </div> ---- ==== Prototype 2: Refined "Jubilee" Allocation ==== ---- <div style="background-color: #fdf7ff; padding: 15px; border-left: 5px solid #9c27b0;"> Because the rounded Mesopotamian sums in Prototype 1 were not exact Jubilee multiples, the framework was refined by shifting 29 years from the "Remainder" to each of the two primary groups. This resulted in the "PT2" figures as follows: * '''Group 1 (Seth to Enoch):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 2 (Adam, plus Shem to Moses):''' Increased to '''4,949 years''' (101 × 49-year Jubilees). * '''Group 3 (The Remainder):''' Decreased by 58 years to '''2,702 years''' (12,600 − 4,949 − 4,949). </div> ---- '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="width:100%; color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in a patriarch surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Prototype Chronologies (Age at death) |- ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e0f2f1; border-bottom:2px solid #009688;" | PROTOTYPE 1<br/>(PT1) ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PROTOTYPE 2<br/>(PT2) |- | rowspan="6" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 1}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|45 šūši}}<br/><small>(2700)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2727</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|37 šūši}}<br/><small>(2220)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 15 <small>(900)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2222</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 6 <small>(360)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 365 |- | rowspan="3" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 3}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|46 šūši}}<br/><small>(2760)</small></div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|32 šūši}}<br/><small>(1920)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2702</div> | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1919</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 14 <small>(840)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 783 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 |- | rowspan="18" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|Group 2}}</div> | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|82 šūši}}<br/><small>(4920)</small></div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|40 šūši}}<br/><small>(2400)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 16 <small>(960)</small> | rowspan="18" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">4949</div> | rowspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">2401</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 10 <small>(600)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 438 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 7 <small>(420)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 433 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|25 šūši}}<br/><small>(1500)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 8 <small>(480)</small> | rowspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1525</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 464 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 4 <small>(240)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 239 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 230 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 148 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">{{nowrap|17 šūši}}<br/><small>(1020)</small></div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | rowspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | <div style="display:inline-block; transform:rotate(270deg);">1023</div> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 3 <small>(180)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 147 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Levi | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 137 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kohath | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 133 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Amram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 131 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 2 <small>(120)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | 120 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="2" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="6" | 210 šūši<br/><small>(12,600 years)</small> |} ==Mesopotamian Derived Lifespans== [[File:Diagram of the Supplementary Hypothesis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Diagram of the [[w:supplementary_hypothesis|supplementary hypothesis]], a popular model of the [[w:composition_of_the_Torah|composition of the Torah]]. The Priestly source is shown as '''P'''.]] Many scholars believe the biblical chronology was developed by an individual or school of scribes known as the [[w:Priestly_source|Priestly source]] (see diagram). Deprived of a physical Temple, the Judean elite focused on transforming oral traditions into a permanent, 'portable' written Law. To do so, scribes likely adopted the prestigious sexagesimal (base-60) mathematical system of their captors, codifying a history that would command respect within a Mesopotamian intellectual context. The presence of these mathematical structures provides strong evidence that these lifespans were integrated into the biblical narrative during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity (c. 586–538 BCE). The following comparison illustrates how the '''Prototype 1''' chronology utilized timespans found in the [[w:Sumerian_King_List|Sumerian King List (SKL)]]. The longest lifespans in this chronology—960 and 900 years—are figures well-represented as Sumerian kingship durations. * '''16 ''šūši'' (960 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Kullassina-bel|Kullassina-bel]], [[w:Kalibum|Kalibum]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Adam, Jared, Methuselah, Noah * '''15 ''šūši'' (900 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Zuqaqip|Zuqaqip]], [[w:Melem-Kish|Melem-Kish]], [[w:Ilku|Ilku]], [[w:Enmebaragesi|Enmebaragesi]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel * '''10 ''šūši'' (600 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:Atab|Atab]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Shem * '''7 ''šūši'' (420 years)''' ** SKL: [[w:En-tarah-ana|En-tarah-ana]], [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]] ** '''Prototype 1''': Arpachshad, Shelah The precise alignment of these four distinct groupings suggests that the Prototype 1 Chronology was not merely inspired by Mesopotamian traditions, but was mathematically calibrated to synchronize with them. Notably, in his work ''[[w:Antiquities_of_the_Jews|Antiquities of the Jews]]'', [[w:Josephus|Flavius Josephus]] characterizes several pre-flood (antediluvian) patriarchs as having explicit leadership or ruling roles, further mirroring the regal nature of the Sumerian list. ==The Grouping of Adam== The placement of Adam in Group 2 for lifespan allotments is surprising given his role as the first human male in the Genesis narrative. Interestingly, Mesopotamian mythology faces a similar ambiguity regarding the figure Adapa. In [[w:Apkallu#Uanna_(Oannes)_or_Adapa?|some inscriptions (click here)]], the word "Adapa" is linked to the first sage and associated with the first pre-flood king, Ayalu (often identified as [[w:Alulim|Alulim]]). In [[w:Adapa#Other_myths|other myths (click here)]], Adapa is associated with the post-flood king, [[w:Enmerkar|Enmerkar]]. In the [[w:Apkallu#Uruk_List_of_Kings_and_Sages|"Uruk List of Kings and Sages"]] (165 BC), discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid-era temple of Anu in Bīt Rēš, the text documents a clear succession of divine and human wisdom. It consists of a list of seven antediluvian kings and their associated semi-divine sages (apkallū), followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see [[w:Gilgamesh_flood_myth|Gilgamesh flood myth]]). After this break, the list continues with eight more king-sage pairs representing the post-flood era, where the "sages" eventually transition into human scholars. A tentative translation reads: *During the reign of [[w:Alulim|'''Ayalu''', the king, '''Adapa''' was sage]]. *During the reign of [[w:Alalngar|'''Alalgar''', the king, '''Uanduga''' was sage]]. *During the reign of '''Ameluana''', the king, '''Enmeduga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Amegalana''', the king, '''Enmegalama''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeusumgalana''', the king, '''Enmebuluga''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Dumuzi''', the shepherd, the king, '''Anenlilda''' was sage. *During the reign of '''Enmeduranki''', the king, '''Utuabzu''' was sage. *After the flood, during the reign of '''Enmerkar''', the king, '''Nungalpirigal''' was sage . . . *During the reign of '''Gilgamesh''', the king, '''Sin-leqi-unnini''' was scholar. . . . This list illustrates the traditional sequence of sages that parallels the biblical patriarchs, leading to several specific similarities in their roles and narratives. ==== Mesopotamian Similarities ==== *[[w:Adapa#As_Adam|Adam as Adapa]]: Possible parallels include the similarity in names (potentially sharing the same linguistic root) and thematic overlaps. Both accounts feature a trial involving the consumption of purportedly deadly food, and both figures are summoned before a deity to answer for their transgressions. *[[w:En-men-dur-ana#Myth|Enoch as Enmeduranki]]: Enoch appears in the biblical chronology as the seventh pre-flood patriarch, while Enmeduranki is listed as the seventh pre-flood king in the Sumerian King List. The Hebrew [[w:Book of Enoch|Book of Enoch]] describes Enoch’s divine revelations and heavenly travels. Similarly, the Akkadian text ''Pirišti Šamê u Erṣeti'' (Secrets of Heaven and Earth) recounts Enmeduranki being taken to heaven by the gods Shamash and Adad to be taught the secrets of the cosmos. *[[w:Utnapishtim|Noah as Utnapishtim]]: Similar to Noah, Utnapishtim is warned by a deity (Enki) of an impending flood and tasked with abandoning his possessions to build a massive vessel, the Preserver of Life. Both narratives emphasize the preservation of the protagonist's family, various animals, and seeds to repopulate the world. Utnapishtim is the son of [[w:Ubara-Tutu|Ubara-Tutu]], who in broader Mesopotamian tradition was understood to be the son of En-men-dur-ana, who traveled to heaven. Similarly, Noah is a descendant (the great-grandson) of Enoch, who was also taken to heaven. ==== Conclusion ==== The dual association of Adapa—as both the first antediluvian sage and a figure linked to the post-flood king Enmerkar—provides a compelling mythological parallel to the numerical "surprise" of Adam’s grouping. Just as Adapa bridges the divide between the primordial era and the post-flood world, Adam’s placement in Group 2 suggests a similar thematic ambiguity. This pattern is further reinforced by the figure of Enoch, whose role as the seventh patriarch mirrors Enmeduranki, the seventh king; both serve as pivotal links between humanity and the divine realm. Together, these overlaps imply that the biblical lifespan allotments were influenced by ancient conventions that viewed the progression of kingship and wisdom as a fluid, structured tradition rather than a strictly linear history. ==The Universal Flood== In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, four pre-flood patriarchs—[[w:Jared (biblical figure)|Jared]], [[w:Methuselah|Methuselah]], [[w:Lamech (Genesis)|Lamech]], and [[w:Noah|Noah]]—are attributed with exceptionally long lifespans, and late enough in the chronology that their lives overlap with the Deluge. This creates a significant anomaly where these figures survive the [[w:Genesis flood narrative|Universal Flood]], despite not being named among those saved on the Ark in the biblical narrative. It is possible that the survival of these patriarchs was initially not a theological problem. For example, in the eleventh tablet of the ''[[w:Epic of Gilgamesh|Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the hero [[w:Utnapishtim|Utnapishtim]] is instructed to preserve civilization by loading his vessel not only with kin, but with "all the craftsmen." Given the evident Mesopotamian influences on early biblical narratives, it is possible that the original author of the biblical chronology may have operated within a similar conceptual framework—one in which Noah preserved certain forefathers alongside his immediate family, thereby bypassing the necessity of their death prior to the deluge. Alternatively, the author may have envisioned the flood as a localized event rather than a universal cataclysm, which would not have required the total destruction of human life outside the Ark. Whatever the intentions of the original author, later chronographers were clearly concerned with the universality of the Flood. Consequently, chronological "corrections" were implemented to ensure the deaths of these patriarchs prior to the deluge. The lifespans of the problematic patriarchs are detailed in the table below. Each entry includes the total lifespan with the corresponding birth and death years (Anno Mundi, or years after creation) provided in parentheses. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Bible Chronologies: Lifespan (Birth year) (Death year) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | 847 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1307)</small> | 962 <br/><small>(460)<br/>(1422)</small> | colspan="2" | 962 <br/><small>(960)<br/>(1922)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1556)</small> | 720 <br/> <small>(587)<br/>(1307)</small> | 969 <br/> <small>(687)<br/>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 969 <br/><small>(1287)<br/>(2256)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 783 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1437)</small> | 653 <br/> <small>(654)<br/>(1307)</small> | 777 <br/> <small>(874)<br/>(1651)</small> | 753 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2207)</small> | 723 <br/> <small>(1454)<br/>(2177)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(707)<br/>(1657)</small> | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1056)<br/>(2006)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 950 <br/> <small>(1642)<br/>(2592)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | The Flood | colspan="2" | <small>(1307)</small> | <small>(1656)</small> | colspan="2" |<small>(2242)</small> |} === Samaritan Adjustments === As shown in the table above, the '''Samaritan Pentateuch''' (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech while leaving their birth years unchanged (460 AM, 587 AM, and 654 AM respectively). This adjustment ensures that all three patriarchs die precisely in the year of the Flood (1307 AM), leaving Noah as the sole survivor. While this mathematically resolves the overlap, the solution is less than ideal from a theological perspective; it suggests that these presumably righteous forefathers were swept away in the same judgment as the wicked generation, perishing in the same year as the Deluge. === Masoretic Adjustments === The '''Masoretic Text''' (MT) maintains the original lifespan and birth year for Jared, but implements specific shifts for his successors. It moves Methuselah's birth and death years forward by exactly '''one hundred years'''; he is born in year 687 AM (rather than 587 AM) and dies in year 1656 AM (rather than 1556 AM). Lamech's birth year is moved forward by '''two hundred and twenty years''', and his lifespan is reduced by six years, resulting in a birth in year 874 AM (as opposed to 654 AM) and a death in year 1651 AM (as opposed to 1437 AM). Finally, Noah's birth year and the year of the flood are moved forward by '''three hundred and forty-nine years''', while his original lifespan remains unchanged. These adjustments shift the timeline of the Flood forward sufficiently so that Methuselah's death occurs in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death occurs five years prior, effectively resolving the overlap. However, this solution is less than ideal because it creates significant irregularities in the ages of the fathers at the birth of their successors (see table below). In particular, Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech are respectively '''162''', '''187''', and '''182''' years old at the births of their successors—ages that are notably higher than the preceding patriarchs Adam, Seth, Enosh, Kenan, Mahalalel, and Enoch, who are respectively '''130''', '''105''', '''90''', '''70''', '''65''', and '''65''' in the Masoretic Text. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" | 67 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="2" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" | 53 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 |} === Septuagint Adjustments === In his article ''[https://isthatinthebible.wordpress.com/2017/08/24/some-curious-numerical-facts-about-the-ages-of-the-patriarchs/ Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]'', the author Paul D makes the following statement regarding the Septuagint (LXX): <blockquote>“The LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begat his son. Adam begat Seth at age 230 instead of 130, and so on. This had the result of postponing the date of the Flood by 900 years without affecting the patriarchs’ lifespans, which he possibly felt were too important to alter. Remarkably, however, the editor failed to account for Methuselah’s exceptional longevity, so old Methuselah still ends up dying 14 years after the Flood in the LXX. (Whoops!)”</blockquote> The Septuagint solution avoids the Samaritan issue where multiple righteous forefathers were swept away in the same year as the wicked. It also avoids the Masoretic issue of having disparate fathering ages. However, the Septuagint solution of adding hundreds of years to the chronology subverts mathematical motifs upon which the chronology was originally built. Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 is presented as a miraculous event within the post-flood Abraham narrative; yet, having a long line of ancestors who begat sons when well over a hundred and fifty significantly dilutes the miraculous nature of Isaac's birth. {{RoundBoxTop}} ====The "Whoops Theory": A Digression==== Paul D.’s "Whoops Theory" suggests the LXX editor added 100 years to the age at which each patriarch begot his son, intending to "fix" the timeline, but somehow failed in the case of Methuselah. Fortunately, in addition to the biblical text traditions themselves, the writings of early chronographers provide insight into how these histories were developed. The LXX was the favored source for most Christian scholars during the early church period. Consider the following statement by Eusebius in his ''Chronicon'': <blockquote>"Methusaleh fathered Lamech when he was 167 years of age. He lived an additional 802 years. Thus he would have survived the flood by 22 years."</blockquote> This statement illustrates that Eusebius, as early as 325 AD, was aware of these chronological tensions. If he recognized the discrepancy, it is highly probable that earlier chronographers would also have been conscious of the overlap, suggesting it was not part of the earliest traditions but was a later development. ==== Demetrius the Chronographer ==== Writing in the late 3rd century BC (c. 221 BC), '''Demetrius the Chronographer''' stands as the earliest known witness to biblical chronological calculations. Despite the fragmentary nature of his work, his data remains pivotal; Demetrius explicitly calculated 2,264 years between the creation of Adam and the Flood, a total that inherently supports a longer chronology where Methuselah’s fathering age is '''187''' years rather than '''167'''. In the original article's comments, a debate surfaced regarding this longer chronology and the '''187''' year fathering age for Methuselah. Paul D. defends his "Whoops Theory" by systematically challenging the validity of early witnesses, particularly those that support the longer timeline: * '''Josephus:''' Characterized as being dependent on the Masoretic tradition rather than an independent witness. * '''Pseudo-Philo:''' Dismissed entirely due to severe textual corruption (described as "a real mess"). * '''Julius Africanus:''' Questioned because his records survive only through a later intermediary, Syncellus. * '''Demetrius:''' Rejected as a witness because his chronology contains an additional two years whose precise placement remains unknown. * '''Codex Alexandrinus:''' Identified as the lone legitimate witness to the 187-year fathering age. The dismissal of Julius Africanus due to his survival through an intermediary, or the disqualification of Demetrius based on a two-year uncertainty, is arguably overstated. As shown in the comparative tables below, there is remarkably little variation in the "LONG CHRONOLOGY" begettal ages. They are identical for Adam through Enoch, with some variation in the last few patriarchs prior to the flood. The below reconstructed Demetrius chronology employs a plausible explanation for the 2-year discrepancy: the ambiguity surrounding the precise timing of the Flood in relation to the births of Shem and Arphaxad. As explored later in this resource, chronographers frequently differ on whether Arphaxad was born two years after the Flood (Gen 11:10) or in the same year—a nuance that can account for such variances without necessitating the rejection of the witness. Given that Demetrius operates within the longest known chronological framework, the suggestion that he utilized longer begettal ages for earlier patriarchs while failing to apply the correction for Methuselah—the very figure requiring it most in such an expanded timeline—is statistically and logically improbable. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop}} '''Table Legend:''' * <span style="color:#b71c1c;">'''Red Cells'''</span> indicate figures that result in patriarchs surviving beyond the date of the Flood. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Flood Adjustment Summary === In summary, there was no ideal methodology for accommodating a universal flood within the various textual traditions. * In the '''Prototype 2''' chronology, multiple ancestors survive the flood alongside Noah. This dilutes Noah's status as the sole surviving patriarch, which in turn weakens the legitimacy of the [[w:Covenant_(biblical)#Noahic|Noahic covenant]]—a covenant predicated on the premise that God had destroyed all humanity in a universal reset, making Noah a fresh start in God's relationship with humanity. * The '''Samaritan''' solution was less than ideal because Noah's presumably righteous ancestors perish in the same year as the wicked, which appears to undermine the discernment of God's judgments. * The '''Masoretic''' and '''Septuagint''' solutions, by adding hundreds of years to begettal ages, normalize what is intended to be the miraculous birth of Isaac when Abraham was an hundred years old. == Additional Textual Evidence == Because no single surviving manuscript preserves the original PT2 in its entirety, it must be reconstructed using internal textual evidence. As described previously, a primary anchor for this reconstruction is the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Seth-to-Enoch group (Group 1), which is preserved across nearly all textual traditions. Also, where traditions diverge from this sum, they do so in patterns that preserve underlying symmetries and reveal the editorial intent of later redactors, as shown in the following tables. (The '''Armenian Eusebius''' chronology does not explicitly record lifespans for Levi, Kohath, and Amram. These specific values are assumed to be shared across other known ''Long Chronology'' traditions.) === Lifespan Adjustments by Individual Patriarch === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Individual Patriarch Lifespans) |- ! rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | Patriarch ! colspan="1" rowspan = "2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (Armenian) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 800}} <br/>= 930 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|230 + 700}} <br/>= 930 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|105 + 807}} <br/>= 912 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|205 + 707}} <br/>= 912 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|90 + 815}} <br/>= 905 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|190 + 715}} <br/>= 905 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 840}} <br/>= 910 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|170 + 740}} <br/>= 910 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 830}} <br/>= 895 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 730}} <br/>= 895 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|62 + 900}} <br/>= 962 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 | {{nowrap|62 + 785}} <br/>= 847 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|162 + 800}} <br/>= 962 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|65 + 300}} <br/>= 365 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|165 + 200}} <br/>= 365 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|67 + 902}} <br/>= 969 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|187 + 782}} <br/>= 969 | {{nowrap|67 + 653}} <br/>= 720 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|167 + 802}} <br/>= 969 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|53 + 730}} <br/>= 783 | {{nowrap|182 + 595}} <br/>= 777 | {{nowrap|53 + 600}} <br/>= 653 | {{nowrap|188 + 565}} <br/>= 753 | {{nowrap|188 + 535}} <br/>= 723 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|502 + 448}} <br/>= 950 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|500 + 450}} <br/>= 950 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem | colspan="5" style="background-color:#ffcdd2; color:#b71c1c; font-weight:bold; border:2px solid #ef5350;" | {{nowrap|100 + 500}} <br/>= 600 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arpachshad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|35 + 403}} <br/>= 438 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|135 + 303}} <br/>= 438 | {{nowrap|135 + 400}} <br/>= 535 | {{nowrap|135 + 403}} <br/>= 538 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan (II) | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | — | 460 | — |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 403}} <br/>= 433 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 303}} <br/>= 433 | {{nowrap|130 + 330}} <br/>= 460 | {{nowrap|130 + 406}} <br/>= 536 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|34 + 430}} <br/>= 464 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|134 + 270}} <br/>= 404 | {{nowrap|134 + 433}} <br/>= 567 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 209}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 109}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 209}} <br/>= 339 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|32 + 207}} <br/>= 239 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|132 + 107}} <br/>= 239 | {{nowrap|132 + 207}} <br/>= 339 | {{nowrap|135 + 207}} <br/>= 342 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|30 + 200}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|130 + 100}} <br/>= 230 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|130 + 200}} <br/>= 330 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|? + ?}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|29 + 119}} <br/>= 148 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|79 + 69}} <br/>= 148 | {{nowrap|179 + 125}} <br/>= 304 | {{nowrap|79 + 119}} <br/>= 198 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 | {{nowrap|70 + 75}} <br/>= 145 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|70 + 135}} <br/>= 205 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abraham | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|100 + 75}} <br/>= 175 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Isaac | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|60 + 120}} <br/>= 180 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jacob..Moses | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8; font-weight:bold; color:#555;" | {{nowrap|345 + 323}} <br/>= 668 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|560 + 114}} <br/>= 674 | colspan="1" | {{nowrap|345 + 328}} <br/>= 673 | colspan="2" | {{nowrap|345 + 324}} <br/>= 669 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! style="text-align:left; color:black;" | LIFESPAN<br/>DURATION<br/>SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | colspan="1" | 11,991 | colspan="1" | 13,551 | colspan="1" | 13,200 |} === Samaritan Adjustment Details === As noted previously, the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) systematically reduces the total lifespans of Jared, Methuselah, and Lamech so that all three die precisely in the year of the Flood, leaving Noah as the sole survivor. The required reduction in Jared's lifespan was '''115 years'''. Interestingly, the Samaritan tradition also reduces the lifespans of later patriarchs by a combined total of 115 years, seemingly to maintain a numerical balance between the "Group 1" and "Group 2" patriarchs. Specifically, this balance was achieved through the following adjustments: * '''Eber''' and '''Terah''' each had their lifespans reduced by 60 years (one ''šūši'' each). * '''Amram's''' lifespan was increased by five years. This net adjustment of 115 years (60 + 60 - 5) suggests a deliberate schematic balancing. === Masoretic Adjustment Details === In the 2017 article, "[https://wordpress.com Some Curious Numerical Facts about the Ages of the Patriarchs]," Paul D. describes a specific shift in Lamech's death age in the Masoretic tradition: <blockquote>"The original age of Lamech was 753, and a late editor of the MT changed it to the schematic 777 (inspired by Gen 4:24, it seems, even though that is supposed to be a different Lamech: If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold). (Hendel 2012: 8; Northcote 251)"</blockquote> While Paul D. accepts 753 as the original age, this conclusion creates significant tension within his own numerical analysis. A central pillar of his article is the discovery that the sum of all patriarchal ages from Adam to Moses totals exactly '''12,600 years'''—a result that relies specifically on Lamech living 777 years. To dismiss 777 as a late "tweak" in favor of 753 potentially overlooks the intentional mathematical architecture that defines the Masoretic tradition. As Paul D. acknowledges: <blockquote>"Alas, it appears that the lifespan of Lamech was changed from 753 to 777. Additionally, the age of Eber was apparently changed from 404 (as it is in the LXX) to 464... Presumably, these tweaks were made after the MT diverged from other versions of the text, in order to obtain the magic number 12,600 described above."</blockquote> ==== ''Lectio Difficilior Potior'' ==== The principle of ''[[Wikipedia:Lectio difficilior potior|Lectio Difficilior Potior]]'' (the "harder reading is stronger") suggests that scribes tend to simplify or "smooth" texts by introducing patterns. Therefore, when reconstructing an earlier tradition, the critic should often favor the reading with the least amount of artificial internal structure. This concept is particularly useful in evaluating major events in Noah's life. In the Samaritan Pentateuch (SP) tradition, Noah is born in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:28,31%7Cversion=SPE Lamech’s 53rd year and Lamech dies when he is 653]. In the Septuagint tradition Lamech dies [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:31%7Cversion=AB when he is 753, exactly one hundred years later than the Samaritan tradition]. If we combine that with the 500-year figure for Noah's age at the birth of his sons, a suspiciously neat pattern emerges: * '''Year 500 (of Noah):''' Shem is born. * '''Year 600 (of Noah):''' The Flood occurs. * '''Year 700 (of Noah):''' Lamech dies. This creates a perfectly intervalic 200-year span (500–700) between the birth of the heir and the death of the father. Such a "compressed chronology" (500–600–700) is a hallmark of editorial smoothing. Applying ''Lectio Difficilior'', one might conclude that these specific figures (653, and 753) are secondary schematic developments rather than original data. In the reconstructed prototype chronology (PT2), it is proposed that Lamech's original lifespan was '''783 years'''—a value not preserved in any surviving tradition. Under this theory, Lamech's lifespan was reduced by six years in the Masoretic tradition to reach the '''777''' figure described previously, while Amram's was increased by six years in a deliberate "balancing" of total chronological years. === Armenian Eusebius Adjustments === Perhaps the most surprising adjustments of all are those found in the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology. Eusebius's original work is dated to 325 AD, and the Armenian recension is presumed to have diverged from the Greek text approximately a hundred years later. It is not anticipated that the Armenian recension would retain Persian-era mathematical motifs; however, when the lifespan durations for all of the patriarchs are added up, the resulting figure is 13,200 years, which is exactly 600 years (or 10 ''šūši'') more than the Masoretic Text. Also, the specific adjustments to lifespans between the Prototype 2 (PT2) chronology and the Armenian recension of Eusebius's Long Chronology appear to be formulated using the Persian 60-based system. Specifically, the following adjustments appear to have occurred for Group 2 patriarchs: * '''Arpachshad''', '''Peleg''', and '''Serug''' each had their lifespans increased by 100 years. * '''Shelah''', '''Eber''', and '''Reu''' each had their lifespans increased by 103 years. * '''Nahor''' had his lifespan increased by 50 years. * '''Amram''' had his lifespan increased by 1 year. === Lifespan Adjustments by Group === {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center;" |+ Comparison of Chronological Traditions (Patriarch Group Lifespan Duration Sum) |- ! rowspan="2" | Patriarch Groups ! rowspan="2" style="background-color:#f3e5f5; border-bottom:2px solid #9c27b0;" | PT2 ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="2" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic<br/>(MT) ! style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan<br/>(SP) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint<br/>(LXX) ! style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius<br/>(325 AD) |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 1: Seth to Enoch<br/><small>(6 Patriarchs)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 3: Methuselah, Lamech, Noah<br/><small>(The Remainder)</small> | style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2702 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2696<br/><small>(2702 - 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2323<br/><small>(2702 - 379)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2672<br/><small>(2702 - 30)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 2642<br/><small>(2702 - 60)</small> |- | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Group 2: Adam & Shem to Moses<br/><small>(The "Second Half")</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold;" | 4949 | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4955<br/><small>(4949 + 6)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 4834<br/><small>(4949 - 115)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5930<br/><small>(4949 + 981)</small> | style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 5609<br/><small>(4949 + 660)</small> |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:14px;" ! LIFESPAN DURATION SUM | colspan="2" | 12,600 | 11,991 | 13,551 | 13,200 |} * '''The Masoretic Text (MT):''' This tradition shifted 6 years from the "Remainder" to Group 2. This move broke the original symmetry but preserved the '''4,949-year sum''' for the Group 1 block. * '''The Samaritan Pentateuch (SP):''' This tradition reduced both Group 1 and Group 2 by exactly 115 years each. While this maintained the underlying symmetry between the two primary blocks, the 101-Jubilee connection was lost. * '''The Septuagint (LXX):''' This tradition adds 981 years to Group 2 while subtracting 30 years from the Remainder. This breaks the symmetry of the primary blocks and subverts any obvious connection to sexagesimal (base-60) influence. * '''The Armenian Eusebius Chronology:''' This tradition reduced the Remainder by 60 years while increasing Group 2 by 660 years. This resulted in a net increase of exactly 600 years, or '''10 ''šūši''''' (base-60 units). The use of rounded Mesopotamian figures in the '''Armenian Eusebius Chronology''' suggests it likely emerged prior to the Hellenistic conquest of Persia. Conversely, the '''Septuagint's''' divergence indicates a later development—likely in [[w:Alexandria|Alexandria]]—where Hellenized Jews were more focused on correlating Hebrew history with Greek and Egyptian chronologies than on maintaining Persian-era mathematical motifs. The sum total of the above adjustments amounts to 660 years, or 11 ''šūši''. When combined with the 60-year reduction in Lamech's life (from 783 years to 723 years), the combined final adjustment is 10 ''šūši''. = It All Started With Grain = [[File:Centres_of_origin_and_spread_of_agriculture_labelled.svg|thumb|500px|Centres of origin of agriculture in the Neolithic revolution]] The chronology found in the ''Book of Jubilees'' has deep roots in the Neolithic Revolution, stretching back roughly 14,400 years to the Black Desert of Jordan. There, Natufian hunter-gatherers first produced flatbread by grinding wild cereals and tubers into flour, mixing them with water, and baking the dough on hot stones. This original flour contained a mix of wild wheat, wild barley, and tubers like club-rush (''Bolboschoenus glaucus''). Over millennia, these wild plants transformed into domesticated crops. The first grains to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent, appearing around 10,000–12,000 years ago, were emmer wheat (''Triticum dicoccum''), einkorn wheat (''Triticum monococcum''), and hulled barley (''Hordeum vulgare''). Early farmers discovered that barley was essential for its early harvest, while wheat was superior for making bread. The relative qualities of these two grains became a focus of early biblical religion, as recorded in [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Lev.23:10-21 Leviticus 23:10-21], where the people were commanded to bring the "firstfruits of your harvest" (referring to barley) before the Lord: <blockquote>"then ye shall bring a sheaf of the firstfruits of your harvest unto the priest: And he shall wave the sheaf before the Lord"</blockquote> To early farmers, for whom hunger was a constant reality and winter survival uncertain, that first barley harvest was a profound sign of divine deliverance from the hardships of the season. The commandment in Leviticus 23 continues: <blockquote>"And ye shall count unto you from the morrow after the sabbath, from the day that ye brought the sheaf of the wave offering; seven sabbaths shall be complete: Even unto the morrow after the seventh sabbath shall ye number fifty days; and ye shall offer a new meat offering unto the Lord. Ye shall bring out of your habitations two wave loaves of two tenth deals; they shall be of fine flour; they shall be baken with leaven; they are the firstfruits unto the Lord."</blockquote> [[File:Ghandum_ki_katai_-punjab.jpg|thumb|500px|[https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day.]] These seven sabbaths amount to forty-nine days. The number 49 is significant because wheat typically reaches harvest roughly 49 days after barley. This grain carried a different symbolism: while barley represented survival and deliverance from winter, wheat represented the "better things" and the abundance provided to the faithful. [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Deu.16:9-10 Deuteronomy 16:9-10] similarly commands the people to count seven weeks from the time the sickle is first put to the standing grain, celebrating the feast on the fiftieth day. This 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests was so integral to ancient worship that it informed the timeline of the Exodus. Among the plagues of Egypt, [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Exo.9:31-32 Exodus 9:31-32] describes the destruction of crops: <blockquote>"And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled. But the wheat and the rye <small>(likely emmer wheat or spelt)</small> were not smitten: for they were not grown up."</blockquote> This text establishes that the Exodus—God's deliverance from slavery—began during the barley harvest. Just as the barley harvest signaled the end of winter’s hardship, it symbolized Israel's release from bondage. The Israelites left Egypt on the 15th of Nisan (the first month) and arrived at the Wilderness of Sinai on the 1st of Sivan (the third month), 45 days later. In Jewish tradition, the giving of the Ten Commandments is identified with the 6th or 7th of Sivan—exactly 50 days after the Exodus. Thus, the Exodus (deliverance) corresponds to the barley harvest and is celebrated as the [[wikipedia:Passover|Passover]] holiday, while the Law (the life of God’s subjects) corresponds to the wheat harvest and is celebrated as [[wikipedia:Shavuot|Shavuot]]. This pattern carries into Christianity: Jesus was crucified during Passover (barley harvest), celebrated as [[wikipedia:Easter|Easter]], and fifty days later, the Holy Spirit was sent at [[wikipedia:Pentecost|Pentecost]] (wheat harvest). === The Mathematical Structure of Jubilees === The chronology of the ''Book of Jubilees'' is built upon this base-7 agricultural cycle, expanded into a fractal system of "weeks": * '''Week of Years:''' 7¹ = 7 years * '''Jubilee of Years:''' 7² = 49 years * '''Week of Jubilees:''' 7³ = 343 years * '''Jubilee of Jubilees:''' 7⁴ = 2,401 years The author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology envisions the entirety of early Hebraic history, from the creation of Adam to the entry into Canaan, as occurring within a Jubilee of Jubilees, concluding with a fiftieth Jubilee of years. In this framework, the 2,450-year span (2,401 + 49 = 2,450) serves as a grand-scale reflection of the agricultural transition from the barley of deliverance to the wheat of the Promised Land. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology]] The above diagram illustrates the reconstructed Jubilee of Jubilees fractal chronology. The first twenty rows in the left column respectively list 20 individual patriarchs, with parentheses indicating their age at the birth of their successor. Shem, the 11th patriarch and son of Noah, is born in reconstructed year 1209, which is roughly halfway through the 2,401-year structure. Abram is listed in the 21st position with a 77 in parentheses, indicating that Abram entered Canaan when he was 77 years old. The final three rows represent the Canaan, Egypt, and 40-year Sinai eras. Chronological time flows from the upper left to the lower right, utilizing 7x7 grids to represent 49-year Jubilees within a larger, nested "Jubilee of Jubilees" (49x49). Note that the two black squares at the start of the Sinai era mark the two-year interval between the Exodus and the completion of the Tabernacle. * The '''first Jubilee''' (top-left 7x7 grid) covers the era from Adam's creation through his 49th year. * The '''second Jubilee''' (the adjacent 7x7 grid to the right) spans Adam's 50th through 98th years. * The '''third Jubilee''' marks the birth of Seth in the year 130, indicated by a color transition within the grid. * The '''twenty-fifth Jubilee''' occupies the center of the 49x49 structure; it depicts Shem's birth and the chronological transition from pre-flood to post-flood patriarchs. {{RoundBoxTop}} ==== The Birth of Shem (A Digression) ==== Were Noah's sons born when Noah was 500 or 502? While [https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.5:32 Genesis 5:32] states that "Noah was 500 years old, and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth," this likely indicates the year Noah ''began'' having children rather than the year all three were born. Shem’s specific age can be deduced by comparing other verses: # Noah was 600 years old when the floodwaters came ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.7:6 Genesis 7:6]). # Shem was 100 years old when he fathered Arpachshad, two years after the flood ([https://www.stepbible.org/?q=reference=Gen.11:10 Genesis 11:10]) '''The Calculation:''' If Shem was 100 years old two years after the flood, he was 98 when the flood began. Subtracting 98 from Noah’s 600th year (600 - 98) results in '''502'''. This indicates that either Japheth or Ham was the eldest son, born when Noah was 500, followed by Shem two years later. Shem is likely listed first in the biblical text due to his status as the ancestor of the Semitic peoples. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Mathematical relationship between 40 and 49 == As noted previously, the ''Jubilees'' author envisions early Hebraic history within a "Jubilee of Jubilees" fractal chronology (2,401 years). Shem is born in year 1209, which is a nine-year offset from the exact mathematical center of 1200. To understand this shift, one must look at a mathematical relationship that exists between the foundational numbers 40 and 49. Specifically, 40 can be expressed as a difference of squares derived from 7; using the distributive property, the relationship is demonstrated as follows: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} (7-3)(7+3) &= 7^2 - 3^2 \\ &= 49 - 9 \\ &= 40 \end{aligned} </math> The following diagram graphically represents the above mathematical relationship. A Jubilee may be divided into two unequal portions of 9 and 40. [[File:Jubilee_to_Generation_Division.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram illustrating the division of a Jubilee into unequal portions of 9 and 40.]] Shem's placement within the structure can be understood mathematically as the first half of the fractal plus nine pre-flood years, followed by the second half of the fractal plus forty post-flood years, totaling the entire fractal plus one Jubilee (49 years): [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Book_of_Jubilees_Early_Patriarchs_split.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of early Hebraic history as envisioned by the author of the ''Jubilees'' chronology with a split fractal framework]] <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan)''' ** Pre-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 - 1}{2} + 3^2 &= 1200 + 9 \\ &= 1209 \end{aligned} </math> ** Post-Flood Patriarch years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \frac{7^4 + 1}{2} + (7^2 - 3^2) &= 1201 + 40 \\ &= 1241 \end{aligned} </math> ** Total Years: *:<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> </div> == The Samaritan Pentateuch Connection == Of all biblical chronologies, the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' share the closest affinity during the pre-flood era, suggesting that the Jubilee system may be a key to unlocking the SP’s internal logic. The diagram below illustrates the structural organization of the patriarchs within the Samaritan tradition. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Jubilees mathematical framework]] === Determining Chronological Priority === A comparison of the begettal ages in the above Samaritan diagram with the Jubilees diagram reveals a deep alignment between these systems. From Adam to Shem, the chronologies are nearly identical, with minor discrepancies likely resulting from scribal transmission. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, Shem, Ham, and Japheth are born in year 1207 (with Shem's reconstructed birth year as 1209), maintaining a birth position within the 25th Jubilee—the approximate center of the 49x49 "Jubilee of Jubilees." This raises a vital question of chronological priority: which system came first? Shem’s placement at the center of the 49x49 grid suggests that the schematic framework of the Book of Jubilees may have influenced the Samaritan Pentateuch's chronology, even if the latter's narratives are older. It is highly probable that Shem's "pivot" position was an intentional design feature inherited or shared by the Samaritan tradition, rather than a coincidental alignment. === The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension === Post-flood begettal ages differ significantly between these two chronologies. In the Samaritan Pentateuch, the ages of six patriarchs at the birth of their successors are significantly higher than those in the ''Book of Jubilees'', extending the timeline by exactly 350 years (assuming the inclusion of a six-year conquest under Joshua, represented by the black-outlined squares in the SP diagram). This extension appears to be a deliberate, symmetrical addition: a "week of Jubilees" (343 years) plus a "week of years" (7 years). <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> </div> === Mathematical Structure of the Early Samaritan Chronology === To understand the motivation for the 350-year variation between the ''Book of Jubilees'' and the SP, a specific mathematical framework must be considered. The following diagram illustrates the Samaritan tradition using a '''40-year grid''' (4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks each): * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) contains 25 blocks, representing exactly '''1,000 years'''. * '''The second cluster''' represents a second millennium. * '''The final set''' contains 20 blocks (4x5), representing '''800 years'''. Notably, when the SP chronology is mapped to this 70-unit format, the conquest of Canaan aligns precisely with the end of the 70th block. This suggests a deliberate structural design—totaling 2,800 years—rather than a literal historical record. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Samaritan Pentateuch'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] == The Masoretic text Variation == [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Early_Patriarchs_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Diagram of Hebraic history as presented in ''the Masoretic Text'' chronology, organized into a Generational (4x10 year blocks) mathematical framework]] === Mathematical Structure of the Masoretic Chronology === The above diagram maps the Masoretic chronology using the identical grid framework applied to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Red circles indicate specific chronological points where the Masoretic timeline diverges from the Samaritan tradition. Key textual and numerical variations include: ==== The Universal Flood Adjustment (+349 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology postpones the birth of Noah and the onset of the Deluge by '''349 years''' relative to the Samaritan tradition. As outlined in the above "Masoretic Adjustments" section, this structural shift ensures that Noah's antediluvian ancestors do not survive past the date of the universal flood. This timeline was achieved by adding 100 years to Jared's paternal age, 120 years to Methuselah's, and 129 years to Lamech's. Consequently, these calculations place Methuselah's death precisely in the year of the Flood and Lamech's death five years prior. ==== The Smoothing of Noah's Life (-2 yrs) ==== The Masoretic chronology reduces Noah's age at the birth of Shem from 502 years (as found in the Samaritan Pentateuch) to 500 years. As discussed in the "Lectio Difficilior Potior" and "The Birth of Shem (A Digression)" sections, this change represents "scribal smoothing." This editorial process rounded major milestones in Noah's life to the nearest century: his sons are born in his 500th year, the Deluge occurs in his 600th year, and his father Lamech dies in his 700th year. ==== Post-Flood Patriarchal Lifespans (-650 yrs) ==== Seven post-flood patriarchs (Arpachshad through Nahor) exhibit reduced ages at the birth of their firstborn sons within the Masoretic chronology, resulting in a cumulative deficit of 650 years compared to the Samaritan Pentateuch. Specifically, the paternal ages of Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Reu, and Serug are each lower by exactly 100 years, while Nahor's age is reduced by 50 years. Given the uniform, rounded values of these variations, a direct dependency exists; either the Masoretic chronologist systematically deflated these ages, or the Samaritan chronologist systematically inflated them. The Masoretic use of young fathering ages for these specific patriarchs may preserve an older tradition. The narrative theme of Abraham fathering Isaac at the age of 100 serves as a central literary and mathematical motif that likely predates the Babylonian exile. Consequently, the lower paternal ages in the Masoretic lineage may intentionally highlight this milestone, ensuring that a fatherhood age of 100 remains an extraordinary, miraculous exception within the broader genealogical timeline. Under this proposed framework, Arpachshad (or Cainan) originally functioned not as a standard descendant of Shem, but as the progenitor of a distinct nine-generation patriarchal line culminating in the miraculous birth of Isaac. During the Babylonian exile, the Priestly source ("P") may have adapted this older Abrahamic lineage, appending earlier primeval generations to mirror Mesopotamian creation and flood epics. Consequently, Mesopotamian archetypes—such as Adapa, Enmeduranki, and Utnapishtim—were synthesized with preexisting Hebrew traditions to form the composite figures of Adam, Enoch, and Noah. These composite primeval figures were subsequently integrated into a single, seamless genealogical chain spanning from creation to the foundations of Israel. ==== The Final Masoretic Adjustment (+215 yrs) ==== As will be explained later in this resource, it is proposed that a final 215 years was added to the Masoretic chronology to arrive at the 2666-year total. The Samaritan Pentateuch, the Septuagint, and the Book of Jubilees all claim that the Patriarchs were in Canaan for 215 years, followed by 215 years of Israelite slavery in Egypt. The Masoretic text increases the period of Egyptian slavery by 215 years, for a total of 430 years of slavery. This increase to 430 years is difficult to reconcile with the Moses narrative, which claims that Moses was the great-grandson of Levi on the paternal line and the grandson on the maternal line. Levi entered Egypt as an adult and a free man. Moses led the children of Israel out of Egypt at eighty years old. For Moses to be a maternal grandson, his mother would have been hundreds of years old when she gave birth to him and his older siblings, Aaron and Miriam. ==== The 2800-Year to 2666-Year Transition ==== Within the Masoretic chronology, the Exodus is situated inside the third 800-year epoch, occurring precisely in the year 2666 after creation (Anno Mundi). This placement represents a deliberate scribal design choice rather than an organic chronological coincidence. <div style="line-height: 1.5;"> * '''Book of Jubilees (Adam to Canaan):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 7^4 + 7^2 &= 2401 + 49 \\ &= 2450 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Samaritan Pentateuch (Adam to Conquest):''' :<math display="block"> \begin{aligned} \text{(Base 49): } & 7^4 + 7^3 + 7^2 + 7^1 \\ &= 2401 + 343 + 49 + 7 \\ &= 2800 \\ \text{(Base 40): } & 70 \times 40 \\ &= 2800 \end{aligned} </math> * '''Masoretic Text (Adam to Exodus):''' :<math display="block"> (2800 - 46) + (349) - (2) - (650) + (215) = 2666</math> </div> As detailed in "The 350-Year Symmetrical Extension," the timeline found in the Book of Jubilees likely served as the foundational model, positioning Shem at the exact midpoint of its 2,450-year chronology. The Samaritan Pentateuch appears to be a direct derivative of this Jubilees framework. Scribes systematically appended exactly 350 years to the post-Flood era, shifting the completion of the Conquest to a precise macro-structural target of 2,800 years after creation. Envisioning the process that transitioned from the 2,800-year Samaritan chronology to the Masoretic framework presents a distinct mathematical challenge. Tracking the adjustments step-by-step from the Samaritan baseline reveals a precise transition: * '''Samaritan Baseline (Conquest Completion):''' 2,800 years * '''Minus Wandering and Conquest Era:''' −46 years (2,754) * '''Plus Masoretic Flood Adjustment:''' +349 years (3,103) * '''Minus Noah's Life Smoothing:''' −2 years (3,101) * '''Minus Post-Flood Patriarchal Reductions:''' −650 years (2,451) * '''The Final Masoretic Adjustment:''' +215 years (2,666) This calculation yields exactly 2,666 years. Because individual components were dictated by rigid external theological and narrative constraints, it is surprising that the final adjustment yields exactly 2,666 years, but it also remains difficult to isolate where scribes might have executed fine-tuning to bring about this exact value and bridge the 2,800-year and 2,666-year macro-structures. === Mathematical Structure of the Septuagint Chronology === As was explained above in "Septuagint Adjustments", the LXX’s editor methodically added 100 years to each pre-flood patriarch. The purpose of this adjustment was to ensure that Noah would be the exclusive survivor of the flood. As shown in the tables below, post-flood "Long Chronology" variations are seen to be either identical to or derived from "Short Chronology" values. {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Pre-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! rowspan="2" colspan="1" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Adam | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 230 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Seth | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 105 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 205 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enosh | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 90 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 190 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Kenan | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 170 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Mahalalel | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 66 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Jared | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 162 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Enoch | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 65 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 165 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Methuselah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 65 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 67 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 187 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 167 / 187 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Lamech | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 55 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 53 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 188 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 182 / 188 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Noah | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 602 | rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 600 | rowspan="2" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shem |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood TOTAL | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%; font-family:sans-serif; font-size:13px; text-align:center; table-layout:fixed;" |+ Comparison of Post-Flood Chronological Traditions (Age at birth of son) |- ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" | Patriarch ! colspan="3" style="background-color:#e3f2fd; border-bottom:2px solid #2196f3;" | SHORT CHRONOLOGY ! colspan="6" style="background-color:#fff3e0; border-bottom:2px solid #ff9800;" | LONG CHRONOLOGY |- ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Jubilees <br/> (Jub) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Masoretic <br/> (MT) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#e3f2fd;" | Samaritan <br/> (SP) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Demetrius <br/> (204 BC) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Africanus <br/> (221 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Theophilus <br/> (192 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Septuagint <br/> (LXX) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Eusebius <br/> (325 AD) ! colspan="1" style="background-color:#fff3e0;" | Josephus <br/> (94 AD) |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | Pre-Flood | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 1656 | colspan="1" | 1309 | colspan="1" | 2264 | colspan="1" | 2262 | colspan="1" | 2242 | colspan="3" | Varied |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Arphaxad | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 66 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 35 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Cainan II | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 130 | colspan="2" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | - |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Shelah | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 71 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Eber | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 64 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 34 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 134 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Peleg | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 61 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="7" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Reu | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 59 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 32 | colspan="5" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 135 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Serug | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 57 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 30 | colspan="6" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 130 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 132 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Nahor | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 62 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 29 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 / 179 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 79 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 120 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Terah | colspan="9" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 70 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Abram | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 78 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 75 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Canaan | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 218 | colspan="8" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Egypt | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 238 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 430 | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 215 |- ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; background-color:#f9f9f9;" | Sinai +/- | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | 40 | colspan="1" style="background-color:#f9f9f9;" | - | colspan="3" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 46 | colspan="4" style="background-color:#e8e8e8;" | 40 |- style="background-color:#333; color:white; font-weight:bold; font-size:15px;" ! colspan="1" style="text-align:left; color:black;" | GRAND TOTAL | colspan="1" | 2450 | colspan="1" | 2666 | colspan="1" | 2800 | colspan="1" | 3885 | colspan="1" | 3754 | colspan="1" | 3938 | colspan="3" | Varied |} == Living in the Rough == [[File:Samaritan Passover sacrifice IMG 1988.JPG|thumb|350px|A Samaritan Passover Sacrifice 1988]] As explained previously, 49 (a Jubilee) is closely associated with agriculture and the 49-day interval between the barley and wheat harvests. The symbolic origins of the number '''40''' (often representing a "generation") are less clear, but the number is consistently associated with "living in the rough"—periods of trial, transition, or exile away from the comforts of civilization. Examples of this pattern include: * '''Noah''' lived within the ark for 40 days while the rain fell; * '''Israel''' wandered in the wilderness for 40 years; * '''Moses''' stayed on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights without food or water. Several other prophets followed this pattern, most notably '''Jesus''' in the New Testament, who fasted in the wilderness for 40 days before beginning his ministry. In each case, the number 40 marks a period of testing that precedes a new spiritual or national era. Another recurring theme in the [[w:Pentateuch|Pentateuch]] is the tension between settled farmers and mobile pastoralists. This friction is first exhibited between Cain and Abel: Cain, a farmer, offered grain as a sacrifice to God, while Abel, a pastoralist, offered meat. When Cain’s offering was rejected, he slew Abel in a fit of envy. The narrative portrays Cain as clever and deceptive, whereas Abel is presented as honest and earnest—a precursor to the broader biblical preference for the wilderness over the "civilized" city. In a later narrative, Isaac’s twin sons, Jacob and Esau, further exemplify this dichotomy. Jacob—whose name means "supplanter"—is characterized as clever and potentially deceptive, while Esau is depicted as a rough, hairy, and uncivilized man, who simply says what he feels, lacking the calculated restraint of his brother. Esau is described as a "skillful hunter" and a "man of the field," while Jacob is "dwelling in tents" and cooking "lentil stew." The text draws a clear parallel between these two sets of brothers: * In the '''Cain and Abel''' narrative, the plant-based sacrifice of Cain is rejected in favor of the meat-based one. * In the '''Jacob and Esau''' story, Jacob’s mother intervenes to ensure he offers meat (disguised as game) to secure his father's blessing. Through this "clever" intervention, Jacob successfully secures the favor that Cain could not. Jacob’s life trajectory progresses from the pastoralist childhood he inherited from Isaac toward the most urbanized lifestyle of the era. His son, Joseph, ultimately becomes the vizier of Egypt, tasked with overseeing the nation's grain supply—the ultimate symbol of settled, agricultural civilization. This path is juxtaposed against the life of Moses: while Moses begins life in the Egyptian court, he is forced into the wilderness after killing a taskmaster. Ultimately, Moses leads all of Israel back into the wilderness, contrasting with Jacob, who led them into Egypt. While Jacob’s family found a home within civilization, Moses was forbidden to enter the Promised Land, eventually dying in the "rough" of the wilderness. Given the contrast between the lives of Jacob and Moses—and the established associations of 49 with grain and 40 with the wilderness—it is likely no coincidence that their lifespans follow these exact mathematical patterns. Jacob is recorded as living 147 years, precisely three Jubilees (3 x 49). In contrast, Moses lived exactly 120 years, representing three "generations" (3 x 40). The relationship between these two "three-fold" lifespans can be expressed by the same nine-year offset identified in the Shem chronology: <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 3(49 - 9) &= 3(40) \\ 147 - 27 &= 120 \end{aligned} </math> [[File:Three_Jubilees_vs_Three_Generations.png|thumb|center|500px|Jacob lived for 147 years, or three Jubilees of 49 years each as illustrated by the above 7 x 7 squares. Jacob's life is juxtaposed against the life of Moses, who lived 120 years, or three generations of 40 years each as illustrated by the above 4 x 10 rectangles.]] Samaritan tradition maintains a unique cultural link to the "pastoralist" ideal: unlike mainstream Judaism, Samaritans still practice animal sacrifice on Mount Gerizim to this day. This enduring ritual focus on meat offerings, rather than the "grain-based" agricultural system symbolized by the 49-year Jubilee, further aligns the Samaritan identity with the symbolic number 40. Building on this connection to "wilderness living," the Samaritan chronology appears to structure the era prior to the conquest of Canaan using the number 40 as its primary mathematical unit. === A narrative foil for Joshua === As noted in the previous section, the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' structures the era prior to Joshua using 40 years as a fundamental unit; in this system, Joshua completes his six-year conquest of Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after the creation of Adam. It was also observed that the Bible positions Moses as a "foil" for Jacob: Moses lived exactly three "generations" (3x40) and died in the wilderness, whereas Jacob lived three Jubilees (3x49) and died in civilization. This symmetry suggests an intriguing possibility: if Joshua conquered Canaan exactly 70 units of 40 years (2,800 years) after creation, is there a corresponding "foil" to Joshua—a significant event occurring exactly 70 Jubilees (3,430 years) after the creation of Adam? <math display="block"> \begin{aligned} 49 - 9 &= 40 \\ 70(49 - 9) &= 70(40) \\ 3,430 - 630 &= 2,800 \end{aligned} </math> Unfortunately, unlike mainstream Judaism, the Samaritans do not grant post-conquest writings the same scriptural status as the Five Books of Moses. While the Samaritans maintain various historical records, these were likely not preserved with the same mathematical rigor as the ''Samaritan Pentateuch'' itself. Consequently, it remains difficult to determine with certainty if a specific "foil" to Joshua existed in the original architect's mind. The Samaritans do maintain a continuous, running calendar. However, this system uses a "Conquest Era" epoch—calculated by adding 1,638 years to the Gregorian date—which creates a 1639 BC (there is no year 0 AD) conquest that is historically irreconcilable. The [[w:Amarna letters|Amarna Letters]] (c. 1360–1330 BC) describe a Canaan still governed by local city-states under Egyptian influence. If the Samaritan chronology were a literal historical record, the Israelite conquest would have occurred centuries before these letters; yet, neither archaeological nor epistolary evidence supports such a massive geopolitical shift in the mid-17th century BC. There is, however, one more possibility to consider: what if the "irreconcilable" nature of this running calendar is actually the key? What if the Samaritan chronographers specifically altered their tradition to ensure that the Conquest occurred exactly 2,800 years after Creation, and the subsequent "foil" event occurred exactly 3,430 years after Creation? As it turns out, this is precisely what occurred. The evidence for this intentional mathematical recalibration was recorded by none other than a Samaritan High Priest, providing a rare "smoking gun" for the artificial design of the chronology. === A Mystery Solved === In 1864, the Rev. John Mills published ''Three Months' Residence at Nablus'', documenting his time spent with the Samaritans in 1855 and 1860. During this period, he consulted regularly with the High Priest Amram. In Chapter XIII, Mills records a specific chronology provided by the priest. The significant milestones in this timeline include: * '''Year 1''': "This year the world and Adam were created." * '''Year 2801''': "The first year of Israel's rule in the land of Canaan." * '''Year 3423''': "The commencement of the kingdom of Solomon." According to 1 Kings 6:37–38, Solomon began the Temple in his fourth year and completed it in his eleventh, having labored for seven years. This reveals that the '''3,430-year milestone'''—representing exactly 70 Jubilees (70 × 49) after Creation—corresponds precisely to the midpoint of the Temple’s construction. This chronological "anchor" was not merely a foil for Joshua; it served as a mathematical foil for the Divine Presence itself. In Creation Year 2800—marking exactly 70 "generations" of 40 years—God entered Canaan in a tent, embodying the "living rough" wilderness tradition symbolized by the number 40. Later, in Creation Year 3430—marking 70 "Jubilees" of 49 years—God moved into the permanent Temple built by Solomon, the ultimate archetype of settled, agricultural civilization. Under this schema, the 630 years spanning Joshua's conquest to Solomon's temple are not intended as literal history; rather, they represent the 70 units of 9 years required to transition mathematically from the 70^th generation to the 70^th Jubilee: :<math>70 \times 40 + (70 \times 9) = 70 \times 49</math> === Mathematical Structure of the Later Samaritan Chronology === The following diagram illustrates 2,400 years of reconstructed chronology, based on historical data provided by the Samaritan High Priest Amram. This system utilizes a '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 10 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,400''' after Creation. The 70th generation and 70th Jubilee are both marked with callouts in this diagram. There is a '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''', which is composed of: * The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness; * The 6 years of the initial conquest; * The 630 years between the conquest and the completion of Solomon’s Temple. Following the '''676-year "Tabernacle" era''' is a '''400-year "First Temple" era''' and a '''70-year "Exile" era''' as detailed in the historical breakdown below. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Samaritan_Pentateuch_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Samaritan chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Book of Daniel states: "In the third year of the reign of Jehoiakim king of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came to Jerusalem and besieged it" (Daniel 1:1). While scholarly consensus varies regarding the historicity of this first deportation, if historical, it occurred in approximately '''606 BC'''—ten years prior to the second deportation of '''597 BC''', and twenty years prior to the final deportation and destruction of Solomon’s Temple in '''586 BC'''. The '''539 BC''' fall of Babylon to the Persian armies opened the way for captive Judeans to return to their homeland. By '''536 BC''', a significant wave of exiles had returned to Jerusalem—marking fifty years since the Temple's destruction and seventy years since the first recorded deportation in 606 BC. A Second Temple (to replace Solomon's) was completed by '''516 BC''', seventy years after the destruction of the original structure. High Priest Amram places the fall of Babylon in year '''3877 after Creation'''. If synchronized with the 539 BC calculation of modern historians, then year '''3880''' (three years after the defeat of Babylon) corresponds with '''536 BC''' and the initial return of the Judeans. Using this synchronization, other significant milestones are mapped as follows: * '''The Exile Period (Years 3810–3830):''' The deportations occurred during this 20-year window, represented in the diagram by '''yellow squares outlined in red'''. * '''The Desolation (Years 3830–3880):''' The fifty years between the destruction of the Temple and the initial return of the exiles are represented by '''solid red squares'''. * '''Temple Completion (Years 3880–3900):''' The twenty years between the return of the exiles and the completion of the Second Temple are marked with '''light blue squares outlined in red'''. High Priest Amram places the founding of Alexandria in the year '''4100 after Creation'''. This implies a 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning years 3900 to 4100). While this duration is not strictly historical—modern historians date the founding of Alexandria to 331 BC, only 185 years after the completion of the Second Temple in 516 BC—it remains remarkably close to the scholarly timeline. The remainder of the diagram represents a 300-year "Second Temple Hellenistic Era," which concludes in '''Creation Year 4400''' (30 BC). === Competing Temples === There is one further significant aspect of the Samaritan tradition to consider. In High Priest Amram's reconstructed chronology shown above, the year '''4000 after Creation'''—representing exactly 100 generations of 40 years—falls precisely in the middle of the 200-year "Second Temple Persian Era" (spanning creation years 3900 to 4100, or approximately 516 BC to 331 BC). This alignment suggests that the 4000-year milestone may have been significant within the Samaritan historical framework. According to the Book of Ezra, the Samaritans were excluded from participating in the reconstruction of the Jerusalem Temple: <blockquote>"But Zerubbabel, and Jeshua, and the rest of the chief of the fathers of Israel, said unto them, Ye have nothing to do with us to build an house unto our God; but we ourselves together will build unto the Lord God of Israel" (Ezra 4:3).</blockquote> After rejection in Jerusalem, the Samaritans established a rival sanctuary on '''[[w:Mount Gerizim|Mount Gerizim]]'''. [[w:Mount Gerizim Temple|Archaeological evidence]] suggests the original temple and its sacred precinct were built around the mid-5th century BC (c. 450 BC). For nearly 250 years, this modest 96-by-98-meter site served as the community's religious center. However, the site was transformed in the early 2nd century BC during the reign of '''Antiochus III'''. This massive expansion replaced the older structures with white ashlar stone, a grand entrance staircase, and a fortified priestly city capable of housing a substantial population. [[File:Archaeological_site_Mount_Gerizim_IMG_2176.JPG|thumb|center|500px|Mount Gerizim Archaeological site, Mount Gerizim.]] This era of prosperity provides a plausible window for dating the final '''[[w:Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan Pentateuch]]''' chronological tradition. If the chronology was intentionally structured to mark a milestone with the year 4000—perhaps the Temple's construction or other significant event—then the final form likely developed during this period. However, this Samaritan golden age had ended by 111 BC when the Hasmonean ruler '''[[w:John Hyrcanus|John Hyrcanus I]]''' destroyed both the temple and the adjacent city. The destruction was so complete that the site remained largely desolate for centuries; consequently, the Samaritan chronological tradition likely reached its definitive form sometime after 450 BC but prior to 111 BC. = The Rise of Zadok = The following diagram illustrates 2,200 years of reconstructed Masoretic chronology. This diagram utilizes the same system as the previous Samaritan diagram, '''40-year grid''' (modeled on 4x10 year blocks) organized into 5x5 clusters (25 blocks per cluster), where each cluster represents exactly 1,000 years: * '''The first cluster''' (outlined in dark grey) spans years '''2,000 to 3,000''' after Creation. * '''The second cluster''' spans years '''3,000 to 4,000''' after Creation. * '''The final set''' contains 5 individual blocks representing the period from '''4,000 to 4,200''' after Creation. The Masoretic chronology has many notable distinctions from the Samaritan chronology described in the previous section. Most notable is the absence of important events tied to siginificant dates. There was nothing of significance that happened on the 70th generation or 70th Jubilee in the Masoretic chronology. The 40 years of wandering in the wilderness and Conquest of Canaan are shown in the diagram, but the only significant date associated with these events in the exodus falling on year 2666 after creation. The Samaritan chronology was a collage of spiritual history. The Masoretic chronology is a barren wilderness. To understand why the Masoretic chronology is so devoid of featured dates, it is important to understand the two important dates that are featured, the exodus at 2666 years after creation, and the 4000 year event. [[File:Schematic_Diagram_Masoretic_Text_Late_Era_40.png|thumb|center|500px|Schematic of later Hebraic history based on Masoretic chronology, demonstrating a generational mathematical framework.]] The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) was a successful Jewish rebellion against the Seleucid Empire that regained religious freedom and eventually established an independent Jewish kingdom in Judea. Triggered by the oppressive policies of King Antiochus IV Epiphanes, the uprising is the historical basis for the holiday of Hanukkah, which commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after its liberation. In particular, Hanukkah celebrates the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, which took place in 164 BC, cooresponding to creation year 4000. = Hellenized Jews = Hellenized Jews were ancient Jewish individuals, primarily in the Diaspora (like Alexandria) and some in Judea, who adopted Greek language, education, and cultural customs after Alexander the Great's conquests, particularly between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE. While integrating Hellenistic culture—such as literature, philosophy, and naming conventions—most maintained core religious monotheism, avoiding polytheism while producing unique literature like the Septuagint. [[Category:Religion]] = Archeology = {| class="wikitable sortable" ! Historical Period & Approximate Dates ! Eridu Stratigraphy (Temples) ! Uruk Stratigraphy (Eanna District) ! Shuruppak Stratigraphy (Tell Fara) |- | '''Early Dynastic I–III''' ''(c. 2900–2350 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Levels II–I''' (Constructed massive city walls) | '''Domestic Layers''' (Peak urban phase, famous Fara tablets) |- | '''Jemdet Nasr''' ''(c. 3100–2900 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Level III''' (Archaic administrative complex) | '''Jemdet Nasr Levels''' (Earliest major urban silos, severe flood deposit) |- | '''Late Uruk''' ''(c. 3400–3100 BC)'' | style="text-align: center;" | – | '''Levels V–IV''' (Monumental architecture, proto-writing) | Prehistoric village remains (Scattered Uruk IV hamlet clusters) |- | '''Early & Middle Uruk''' ''(c. 3800–3400 BC)'' | '''Temples V–I''' (Diminishing monumental layers) | '''Levels XII–VI''' (Emergence of the true city) | '''Kilns Strata''' (Early pottery production) |- | '''Ubaid 3 & 4 (Late Ubaid)''' ''(c. 4500–3800 BC)'' | '''Temples XI–VI''' (Classic tripartite temples) | '''Levels XVII–XIII''' (Gradual village growth) | Deep prehistoric debris (Scattered huts and burials) |- | '''Ubaid 2 (Hajji Muhammad)''' ''(c. 5000–4500 BC)'' | '''Temples XVI–XII''' (Early Ubaid development) | '''Level XVIII''' (Initial founding of the site) | style="text-align: center;" | – |- | '''Ubaid 1 (Eridu)''' ''(c. 5300–5000 BC)'' | '''Temples XVIII–XVII''' (Earliest mudbrick cellas) | style="text-align: center;" | – | style="text-align: center;" | – |} 6kutzmqy8lr7mehcjtnrgzd9zkjf8ww 0 330078 2842800 2839558 2026-10-27T08:33:04Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2842800 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine:<br> How does the brain's reward system generate motivation through expected rather than experienced pleasure?}} __TOC__ ==Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=12}} ;Scenario - Wanting without liking [[File:Cartoon describing the vaporization process of e-cigarette.webp|thumb|right|170px|'''Figure 1'''. Illustration of the vaporisation process of an electronic cigarette.]] Imagine somebody who frequently uses a {{ic|what sort of?}} vape. They're having a long day at work that feels as if it's never-ending, stressful and overwhelming. After going several hours at work without vaping, the overwhelming stress creates a strong nicotine craving. They anticipate that using their vape will feel satisfying and provide them with a sense of relief from this long day; the expectation of relief grows stronger and harder to ignore. Eventually, they use their vape. However, the experience is overall pretty disappointing; the taste is unpleasant, they feel nauseous, and the expected pleasure is short-lived and underwhelming. Despite these feelings of disappointment, the craving later returns. Why can a pleasurable experience create such a strong motivation when the actual experience itself provides little pleasure? {{RoundBoxBottom}} *''' Pleasure anticipation and Consummatory pleasure''' - Pleasure anticipation (Anticipatory Pleasure) refers to the expectation of a future rewarding experience. On the other side of the spectrum, we have Consummatory pleasure, which only occurs when a reward is actually being experienced. (Gard et al., 2006). *'''Impact of Anticipated pleasure on motivating behaviour -''' The expectations of a future pleasurable experience can directly influence how willing an individual may be to expand their efforts to obtain a potential reward. (Geaney et al., 2015). *'''Dopamine contributions to reward prediction -''' Dopamine prediction error helps update expectations when there is a defined difference between expected and experienced reward. This may further lead to changes in future reward-seeking behaviour. (Nasser et al., 2017) *''' Wanting vs Liking''' - Incentive salience theory proposes that motivational 'wanting' can often become separated from pleasurable 'liking', helping explain why a reward may remain strongly desired despite it providing limited experienced pleasure. (Berridge & Robinson, 2016). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} '''Focus questions''' * How does anticipating pleasure generate motivation? * What role does dopamine play in reward anticipation? * How can incentive salience explain the difference between 'wanting' and 'liking' a reward? * How does pleasure anticipation influence reward-seeking behaviours such as gambling, substance abuse and sexual desire? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==Pleasure anticipation and motivation == Pleasure anticipation plays a crucial role in reward-based motivation as it influences how individuals respond to expected future rewards {{f}}. According to Gard et al. (2006), rewarding experiences are underlined by unique anticipatory and consummatory elements that ensure the ability to differentiate the feelings of experienced pleasure while anticipating a reward, and the pleasure experienced once consuming the actual reward. Research also suggests that anticipating pleasure can also affect an individual's willingness to expend effort to obtain a rewarding experience, highlighting a relationship between expected pleasure and motivational behaviour. (Geaney et al., 2015) {{g}} === Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure === Two separate aspects of reward processing are consummatory and anticipatory pleasure {{f}}. Consummatory pleasure is the positive feeling during the rewarding experience itself, while anticipatory pleasure is the positive feeling when anticipating a rewarding occurrence in the future. (Gard et al., 2006). Gard et al.,2006 {{g}} created a self-reporting psychological questionaire designed to measure these two key aspects of pleasure. From TEPS, while a positive correlation between both aspects was found, the findings also suggested that they reflected distinct facets of pleasure individually as well. This distinction suggests that pleasure associated with expecting a reward is not always the same as the pleasure experienced when receiving it. The distinction between anticipatory and consummatory pleasure is further supported by Sherdell et al. (2012), {{G}} who examined reward-related motivation in individuals with (''n'' = 38) and without (''n'' = 30) Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). The findings in this study displayed that those individuals experiencing [[wikipedia:Major_depressive_disorder|MDD]] reported reduced levels of anticipatory pleasure; however, their enjoyment of experienced rewards did not differ significantly compared to the comparison group. These findings indicate that difficulties in anticipating pleasure may occur even when the ability to experience pleasure remains relatively present. One potential limitation of this particular study is that the sample size is relatively small (''n'' = 68). This small sample size may limit the generalisability of the findings when compared to a broader population of individuals experiencing MDD. === Pleasure and behavioural motivation === Anticipating pleasure can influence an individual's motivation to engage in reward-seeking behaviours, particularly their willingness to expend effort to obtain a potential reward. In a study conducted by Geaney et al. (2015) {{g}} this relationship was thoroughly investigated {{how}}. The study's findings indicated that individuals who had reported higher levels of anticipatory pleasure were also more willing to pursue reward tasks that typically required more effort, even if the presented probability of obtaining the reward was low. These results suggest that oftentimes motivated behaviour is linked to anticipated pleasure even when receiving a reward is uncertain. However, these findings do not prove that directly expecting pleasure leads to an increase in motivation, as the study only assesses the relationship between individual differences in anticipatory pleasure and effort. The results found in Geaney et al. (2015) and Sherdell et al. (2012) collectively suggest that anticipated pleasure is heavily associated with motivation for pursuing rewards. While Sherdell et al. (2012) explained that anticipatory pleasure predicted reward-related motivation among people with MDD, Geaney et al. (2015) established this association through differences in effort expenditure. When assessing both studies, both relevant findings point to a possibility that expecting pleasure can play a significant role in driving a person's behaviour {{vague}}. Although it must be noted that both studies were conducted with laboratory-based tasks in controlled environments, this may limit the ability to capture the complexity of motivation in real-world settings {{g}}. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key points''' * Anticipatory pleasure refers to the positive experience expected from a future reward. * Consummatory pleasure refers to enjoyment experienced while receiving a reward. * Anticipated pleasure can motivate individuals to pursue rewards before experiencing them. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Dopamine and reward anticipation == [[wikipedia:Dopamine|Dopamine]] plays a crucial role in reward anticipation, learning and motivated behaviour. The signalling of dopamine can respond to environmental cues associated with future rewards. This allows the brain to develop expectations based around future rewarding outcomes. The differences between expected and experienced rewards can generate reward prediction errors. These errors contribute to learning and updating future reward expectations. (Nasser et al., 2017) {{g}} === The brains {{g}} reward system and dopamine === The brain's reward system involves several interconnected regions, all contributing to reward anticipation, learning and motivated behaviour. One key region of the brain is the [[wikipedia:Ventral_tegmental_area|Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)]], located on the floor of the midbrain that serves as the primary region of the brain's major dopamine pathways; it contains dopamine-producing neurons that project to other brain regions {{f}}. Some of these areas of projection include the [[wikipedia:Nucleus_accumbens|nucleus accumbens]] (NAc), which contributes to reward processing and motivated behaviour. (Klawonn & Malenka, 2019), and the [[wikipedia:Prefrontal_cortex|prefrontal cortex]] (PFC), which contributes to evaluating rewards and guiding goal-driven behaviour. These connections combined form part of the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine pathways, allowing reward-related information to influence motivation. (Watabe-Uchida et al., 2017). {{g}} [[File:Dopamine reward pathways.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Simple illustration of the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine pathways, presenting projections from the (VTA) to (NAc) and (PFC).|340x340px]] Schultz et al. (1997) discussed research conducted on {{ic|how many?}} monkeys, assessing how dopamine neurons respond on unexpected rewards. It was found that while the monkeys initially responded to only unexpected rewards, as time went on and the monkeys learned to associate particular cues and rewards, dopamine neuron activity shifted towards the cues that indicated a particular reward. This indicates that dopamine signalling is not only limited to receiving rewards, but also reflects learned expectations about future rewards. While these findings are based on animal research, they still provide valuable insight into how the {{what}} brain can respond to rewards even before the reward is experienced. === Reward prediction and learning === Reward prediction error occurs when there is a difference between the expected reward and the reward that's actually received. Nasser et al. (2017) assess that dopamine signalling plays an important role in defining and communicating these differences in order for future learning and updates in expectations for future rewards. When an outcome is greater than initially predicted, a positive prediction error occurs, while on the other end of the spectrum, if an outcome is worse than expected, a negative prediction error is produced {{f}}. These reward prediction errors support learning by updating an individual's predictions of future rewards by allowing the brain to adjust its expectations based on previous experiences. When an outcome strongly differs from what was initially predicted, the difference can influence how strongly an individual associates a particular cue with a reward. Over time, these adjustments can help an individual make more calculated decisions about pursuing future rewards. (Nasser et al. 2017). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} ''' Key points ''' *Dopamine plays a crucial role in reward anticipation, motivation and learning, not just pleasure *Reward pathways involving the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA), Nucleus Accumbens (NAc) and Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) all contribute to reward-related motivation *Reward prediction error occurs when an outcome result differs from what was expected; this helps the brain update future reward predictions. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Wanting, liking and incentive salience == While dopamine plays a crucial role in reward-based motivation, the desire to want a reward does not directly correlate to enjoying it. Berridge and Robinson (2016) distinguish 'wanting', which refers to one's motivation to obtain a rewarding experience or feeling, and 'liking', referring to the actual pleasurable sensation associated with receiving the reward. The distinction between these can assist in explaining why an individual may feel strongly motivated to pursue something even when the real experience of it provides less pleasure than anticipated. === Wanting versus liking === While the feelings of 'wanting' and 'liking' often go hand in hand and can occur together, they involve separate, distinct psychological and neural processes {{f}}. Berridge and Robinson's (2016) review {{ic|of what?}} explains that dopamine itself is more closely tied to 'wanting', therefore motivating an individual to pursue a reward, while 'liking ' is more closely associated with specialised regions of the brain known as [https://sites.lsa.umich.edu/berridge-lab/research-overview/neuroscience-of-linking-and-wanting/ hedonic hotspots]. This distinction further explains how an individual can both experience a strong motivation to obtain a reward and not necessarily enjoy the reward to the level that was previously anticipated. In a practical setting, an individual may strongly crave a sweet snack and feel a strong motivation to obtain it, even if they're not very hungry. However, after obtaining and eating the sweet snack they anticipated to be delicious, they may find it actually is less pleasurable than they originally thought. In this example, the motivation to pursue the reward (wanting) was much stronger than the pleasure experience when receiving it (liking). === Incentive salience theory-Berridge & Robinson 2016 === Incentive salience refers to the motivational significance that the brain assigns to certain cues that may be associated to rewards {{f}}. The motivational value of these reward-related cues is highly driven by mesolimbic dopamine systems inside the brain. (Berridge & Robinson, 2016) {{g}}. Through the process of learning, previously experienced cues can be linked to rewarding experiences and can trigger feelings of 'wanting' when cued again, like smelling your favourite dessert in the oven may create a sudden desire to eat even when you're not hungry. {{f}} Incentive salience theory can become extremely helpful in trying to understand addiction and the brain functionality of those experiencing it {{f}}. When reward-related cues trigger intense feelings of 'want' even when the reward itself is unpleasant or not healthy, this is where the addiction loop can often begin {{f}}. This illustrates how incentive motivation can become separate from pleasure, potentially contributing to a repeated cycle of reward-seeking behaviour {{f}}. This can make breaking the cycle extremely difficult; for example, if a recovering drug addict has a genuine desire to abstain from using, but still 'wants' to use, it becomes extremely easy to relapse when exposed to drug-related cues. (Berridge & Robinson, 2016). {{g}} {{ic|Add an APA style table caption.}} {| class="wikitable" |+Comparison of terminology !Concept !Meaning !Example |- |Anticipatory pleasure |Pleasure expected from gaining a future reward |Looking forward to graduating from university |- |Consummatory pleasure |Pleasure experienced while receiving a reward |Enjoyment felt when graduating from university |- |Wanting |Motivation to obtain a reward |Feeling driven to complete coursework to a high standard to graduate from university |- |Liking |Pleasure produced by a reward |Feeling a sense of enjoyment and pride after producing a quality assessment |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ''' Key points ''' *'Wanting' refers to the desire one may have to obtain a reward, whereas 'liking' refers to the actual pleasure experienced from it *Dopamine is more closely associated with reward-based 'wanting' rather than 'liking'. *Incentive salience explains how reward-associated cues can often trigger strong desires, even when the reward offers little pleasure. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Pleasure anticipation and human behaviour == When actively seeking rewarding experiences, the role of pleasure anticipation often determines an individual's level of motivation. This, along with environmental stimuli associated with pleasurable experiences, may also increase one's motivation to follow through and pursue rewarding outcomes. These relationships between both anticipated pleasure and motivated behaviour can be explored through real-world experiences such as [[wikipedia:Sexual_desire|sexual desire]], [[wikipedia:Gambling|gambling]] and [https://www.verywellmind.com/substance-use-4014640 substance use]. These demonstrate how the expectation of desired rewards may influence an individual's behaviour. {{f}} === Sexual desire and pleasure === Sexual desire can provide an example of how anticipated pleasure can influence an individual's behaviour. Agmo & Laan (2023), {{g}} describe the sexual incentive motivation model, a model that proposes that sexual motivation can arise when individuals encounter stimuli they perceive as rewarding. These stimuli may generate strong feelings of sexual desire, encouraging individuals to seek sexual experiences even if that individual has never experienced sexual pleasure in the past. However, previous sexual encounters that have been deemed as pleasurable can also make related cues seem more enticing and increase future sexual desire. {{f}} While the sexual incentive motivation model does help explain how sexual cues can generate motivation, Agmo & Laan (2023) also note that sexual desire is not determined by anticipated pleasure alone; rather, sexual motivation is influenced by both sexual incentives and the individual's internal state. This suggests that the same sexual incentive may produce different motivational outcomes between individuals based on their personal circumstances and past experiences. === Gambling, reward, and uncertainty === Gambling is a great example of how anticipated rewards can influence motivation, especially when the outcome of the rewards is uncertain or not guaranteed. The unpredictable rewards may make gambling-related cues more motivating, further inspiring individuals to seek rewards or potential success {{f}}. Clark et al.(2009) investigated the effects of '[[wikipedia:Near-miss_effect|near misses']] during a stimulated slot machine experiment in which the participants experienced outcomes that were close to winning but not provide any monetary reward {{g}}. The findings suggested that near misses increased the participants' self-reported desire to continue gambling, despite a reward being absent. However, it is crucial to note that while Clark's study did demonstrate that near misses can increase motivation to continue gambling, this study used a simulated slot machine in a controlled environment. This proves a limitation in how confidently the findings can be generalised to real-world settings, where financial consequences and emotional responses are taken into consideration. Regardless of this, the findings to still provide valuable insight and evidence into problem gambling and that near misses can influence reward-seeking motivation. {{ic|One way to deal with the limitations of a single study is to drawn on meta-analyses and systematic reviews about the topic.}} === Substance use and addiction === Substance use and addiction provide another example of how reward anticipation can influence behaviour. Berridge & Robinson's incentive sensitisation theory {{f}} proposes that repeated exposure to addictive substances sensitises the brain systems involved in incentive motivation. As a result of this, any cues associated with these addictive substances can trigger intense cravings (wanting) of the substance even if the individual knows the substance provides (experienced) limited pleasure, further demonstrating how 'liking' and 'wanting' can often times be seperate. While incentive sensitisation theory can explain how drug-related cues can trigger craving despite reduced pleasure, it does not fully take into account the other complex processes involved with addiction {{f}}. Over time, when the brain's reward systems are exposed to numerous instances of substance use, often intense changes can be made, sometimes permanent {{f}}. After repeated exposure, the brain starts to adapt to the high levels of artificial dopamine being produced by substances, while slowly reducing its own dopamine receptors {{f}}. When this occurs, an individual will often find that normal activities no longer feel fulfilling or enjoyable; this can create a substance dependence {{f}}. This pattern, along with, habits, withdrawal symptoms and individual circumstances, may also contribute to persistent substance-seeking behaviour {{f}}. Heightened feelings of 'wanting' provide an important explanation for addictive behaviour but should not be considered the absolute sole cause {{f}}. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}} ''' Key points ''' *Anticipated sexual desire can motivate individuals to pursue rewards even before pleasure is actually experienced. *Uncertain rewards and 'near misses' can often increase an individual's desire to continue gambling, even when no reward is received. * Substance-related cues can trigger strong cravings and persistent reward-seeking behaviours, even when there are limited pleasurable experiences from the substance. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display="simple"> {What is anticipatory pleasure? |type="()"} - Experienced pleasure only AFTER receiving a reward + Pleasure associated with expecting a future reward - The lack of motivation for a reward - Pleasure that is only experienced while experiencing a pleasurable reward {When does a positive reward prediction error occur? |type="()"} + When a reward is greater than expected - When a reward is equal to what was expected - When a reward is less than what was expected - When there is no reward granted {According to incentive salience theory, what does "wanting" refer to? |type="()"} - The pleasure experienced when receiving a reward - The absence of reward anticipation - Having a fear of rewarding stimuli + The motivation to pursue a reward {Which example best demonstrates "wanting" without "liking"? |type="()"} - Enjoying a reward you originally weren't anticipating you would enjoy - Avoiding the reward as you don't anticipate you will enjoy it + Strongly craving a substance despite experiencing little pleasure from it - Receiving a pleasurable unexpected reward </quiz> ==Conclusion== Pleasure anticipation plays a key role in the process of motivation by encouraging individuals to pursue rewards before they're experienced. Modern research distinguishes between anticipatory pleasure, which refers to the emotions felt when predicting a future rewarding experience, and consummatory pleasure, being the enjoyment felt after obtaining the reward itself. Dopamine heavily contributes to this process through reward prediction, learning and incentive motivation, rather than just simply producing pleasure. These distinctions between 'wanting' and 'liking' highlight that individuals can be strongly motivated to seek a rewarding experience, even when the experience itself provides limited pleasure. The influence of anticipated pleasure can be easily observed across typical human behaviours like sexual desire, gambling and substance use. These behaviours involve expectations of reward, further altering and encouraging motivation, even if the reward is not guaranteed or particularly enjoyable. However, motivation is also influenced by numerous other external factors such as individual differences, environmental circumstances and other psychological processes. To conclude, understanding the relationship between dopamine, reward anticipation and motivational behaviour proves that the desire to obtain a reward is not always the same as enjoying the reward. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Reward prediction error|Reward Prediction Error]] (Book chapter, 2026) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Pleasure anticipation and dopamine|Pleasure anticipation and dopamine]] (Book chapter, 2025) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Dopamine and motivation|Dopamine and Emotions]] (Book chapter, 2014) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Ågmo, A., & Laan, E. (2023). The sexual incentive motivation model and its clinical applications. ''The Journal of Sex Research'', ''60''(7), 969–988. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2022.2134978 Berridge, K. C., & Robinson, T. E. (2016). 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Nucleus Accumbens Modulation in Reward and Aversion. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol. 2018;83:119-129. doi: 10.1101/sqb.2018.83.037457. Epub 2019 Jan 23. PMID: 30674650; PMCID: PMC6650377. Nasser, H. M., Calu, D. J., Schoenbaum, G., & Sharpe, M. J. (2017). The dopamine prediction error: Contributions to associative models of reward learning. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''8''. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00244 National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2020, July). Drugs and the brain. National Institute on Drug Abuse. https://nida.nih.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drugs-brain Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science, 275(5306), 1593-1599. Sherdell, L., Waugh, C. E., & Gotlib, I. H. (2012). Anticipatory pleasure predicts motivation for reward in major depression. Journal of abnormal psychology, 121(1), 51. Spielberg JM, Stewart JL, Levin RL, Miller GA, Heller W. Prefrontal Cortex, Emotion, and Approach/Withdrawal Motivation. Soc Personal Psychol Compass. 2008 Jan 1;2(1):135-153. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00064.x. PMID: 20574551; PMCID: PMC2889703. Watabe-Uchida M, Eshel N, Uchida N. Neural Circuitry of Reward Prediction Error. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2017 Jul 25;40:373-394. doi: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-072116-031109. Epub 2017 Apr 24. PMID: 28441114; PMCID: PMC6721851. }} ==External links== * [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/dopamine Dopamine] * [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/gambling-addiction Gambling Addiction] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters/Dopamine]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Pleasure]] 4l2hbwofvxjbq04pxjp38uazkedvcyu 10 330232 2842747 2842640 2026-10-27T01:17:44Z Jtneill 10242 #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more extensive and/or be descriptive 2842747 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more extensive and/or be descriptive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors). ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more extensive and/or descriptive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors).## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> 3e9e3l6u2mobrz2p42rqxgmdh4lqxdl 2842748 2842747 2026-10-27T01:26:10Z Jtneill 10242 2842748 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more extensive and/or be descriptive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid directional phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors). ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more extensive and/or descriptive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and explained, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid directional phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors).## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> gzh8ikn85dmpc8ej2t6q4d8h6yamkcu 2842750 2842748 2026-10-27T01:42:46Z Jtneill 10242 2842750 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more descriptive and extensive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and applied, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid directional phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors). ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more descriptive and extensive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and applied, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Develop more of the bullet point statements into full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid directional phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors).## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> l0zwjbbl26blhnks6u9dydwug73cbs2 2842765 2842750 2026-10-27T03:26:39Z Jtneill 10242 2842765 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more descriptive and extensive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and applied, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Use full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid directional phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors). ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more descriptive and extensive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and applied, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Use full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid directional phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors).## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> jc16rxrsad59ay9lozhrobrwkb3wz6x 2842797 2842765 2026-10-27T07:50:49Z Jtneill 10242 # Convert the explanation of the problem from bullet-points into sentences and paragraphs 2842797 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more descriptive and extensive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Insufficient explanation of the psychological problem or phenomenon # Clarity of written expression can be improved # Convert the explanation of the problem from bullet-points into sentences and paragraphs <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and applied, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Use full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid directional phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors). ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more descriptive and extensive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Insufficient explanation of the psychological problem or phenomenon # Clarity of written expression can be improved # Convert the explanation of the problem from bullet-points into sentences and paragraphs <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and applied, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Use full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid directional phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors).## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> kirb7i5gyrist92ynl0e1y8y9suz7if 2842798 2842797 2026-10-27T08:21:50Z Jtneill 10242 # Basic, formulaic integration of theory and research 2842798 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more descriptive and extensive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Insufficient explanation of the psychological problem or phenomenon # Clarity of written expression can be improved # Convert the explanation of the problem from bullet-points into sentences and paragraphs <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and applied, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # Basic, formulaic integration of theory and research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Use full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid directional phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors). ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more descriptive and extensive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Insufficient explanation of the psychological problem or phenomenon # Clarity of written expression can be improved # Convert the explanation of the problem from bullet-points into sentences and paragraphs <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and applied, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # Basic, formulaic integration of theory and research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Use full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st of 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid directional phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors).## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> qihkryx1h40meas9v74tv0z8oeuxag0 2842799 2842798 2026-10-27T08:27:41Z Jtneill 10242 ### More copy editing is needed to fix formatting inconsistencies 2842799 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>Feedback [[wikiversity:FAQ/Template|template]] for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] exercise for the [[motivation and emotion]] unit. Designed to be [[Help:Transclusion|transcluded]] on a chapter [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. __NOTOC__</noinclude><includeonly> ==[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]] review and feedback== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}} This chapter has been reviewed according to the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. Written feedback is provided below, plus there is a [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Feedback|general feedback]] page. Please also check the chapter's [[Help:Page history|page history]] to check for editing changes made whilst reviewing through the chapter. Chapter marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} along with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Social contribution|social contribution]] marks and feedback. Keep an eye on Announcements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=}}[[File:Wikiuutiset logo typewriter.png|right|85px]] ===Overall=== {{{1|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Overview (5%)|Overview]]=== {{{2|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Theory (20%)|Theory]]=== {{{3|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Research (25%)|Research]]=== {{{4|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Integration (10%)|Integration]]=== {{{5|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Conclusion (5%)|Conclusion]]=== {{{6|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Style (20%)|Style]]=== {{{7|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Learning features (5%)|Learning features]]=== {{{8|No comment}}} ===[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Marking criteria#Social contribution (10%)|Social contribution]]=== {{{9|No comment}}} {{RoundBoxBottom}}</includeonly><noinclude>{{collapse top|Simple example}} ==Simple example== See also [[#Detailed example|detailed example]] <pre> <!-- Official feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} ~~~~ </pre> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # |2= <!-- Overview comments... --> # |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # |4= <!-- Research comments... --> # |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # |7= <!-- Style comments... --> # |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) {{Collapse bottom}} ==Detailed example== Example use of the template, with some common feedback comments: <small><small><small><pre> <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more descriptive and extensive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Insufficient explanation of the psychological problem or phenomenon # Clarity of written expression can be improved # Convert the explanation of the problem from bullet-points into sentences and paragraphs <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and applied, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # Basic, formulaic integration of theory and research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. Instead, it is more interesting for the the content/key point to be communicated, with the citation included along the way or, more typically, in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] at the end of the sentence. <!-- Written expression – Paragraphs --> ## Some paragraphs are overly long. Communicate one key idea per paragraph in three to five sentences. ## Avoid one sentence paragraphs. Communicate one idea per paragraph using three to five sentences. ## Bullet points are overused. Use full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid directional phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. ## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bold, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors). ## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent ### More copy editing is needed to fix formatting inconsistencies <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} ~~~~ </pre></small></small></small> gives <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an outstanding chapter that successfully integrates psychological theory and research in a highly readable way to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is an excellent chapter that successfully uses psychological theory and research to address a practical, real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a very good chapter that makes very good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a reasonably good chapter that makes good use of psychological theory and research to address a real-world phenomenon or problem # This is a basic chapter # This is an insufficient chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* tackle the target topic more directly; this chapter [[wikt:beat around the bush|beats around the bush]] #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits #* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Edit summaries]] are used to communicate the changes for most edits, but would ideally be more descriptive and extensive #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is appropriately acknowledged #* In some places, there is overreliance on genAI #* There is insufficient acknowledgement in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] when adding [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; this violates academic integrity principles #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult # All citations need to be in the References <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [ these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Underdeveloped <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Basic scenario or case study # Use a more practical, real-life scenario; move review of research into a subsequent section # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) # Add an engaging case study or scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario # Figure 1 could be more relevant to the scenario # Instead of a diagram, use an image which illustrates the scenario taking a place; use the diagram in a subsequent section # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box # Put the scenario in a feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Clearly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon reasonably well/in a basic way # Briefly explains the psychological problem or phenomenon; provide more detail # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simpler way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Insufficient explanation of the psychological problem or phenomenon # Clarity of written expression can be improved # Convert the explanation of the problem from bullet-points into sentences and paragraphs <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant)/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/promising/insufficient # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## being [[w:Open-ended question|open-ended]] rather than [[w:Closed-ended question|closed-ended]] ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions ## using bullet points as taught in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## being presented in a feature box to help guide the reader (fixed) # Add focus questions in a feature box # See copyedits for examples of possible improvements |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Excellent—key theories are very well explained and applied # Very good—key theories are well explained and applied; minor areas for improvements # Reasonably good—relevant theories are selected, described, and applied, with some room for improvement # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement # A promising range of ideas are presented but it is far from clear how this material is derived from a first person reading of the best peer-reviewed psychological theory and research about this topic # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds exceptionally well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds reasonably well on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds in a basic way on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Builds on one [[w:|Wikipedia]] article and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insightful/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Key citations are well used # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source (e.g., ?), cite it as a [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/secondary-sources secondary source] # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Consider using more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Insufficient use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient review of relevant research # Excellent emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Some emphasis on systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses; more emphasis would be ideal # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # Claims are well referenced # In some/many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # Basic, formulaic integration of theory and research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic summary and conclusion # Insufficient as a cohesive summary of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlights the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised # Key points are summarised in a basic way # Summarise key points <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed # Take-away messages for each focus question could be spelt out more clearly # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) # Somewhat clear take-home message(s) # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Not counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic ## The quality of written expression is OK but there are several aspects which are below professional standard ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ## Use active (e.g., "this chapter explores" or "this chapter explored") rather than passive voice (e.g., "this chapter will explore" or "this chapter has explored") [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/grammar/active-passive-voice][https://www.grammarly.com/blog/active-vs-passive-voice/] ## Target an ''international'' rather than domestic national audience. [http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/australia-population/ Only 0.3% of the world human population lives in Australia]. ## Reduce excessive use of bold font <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some/Many sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression ## Some/Many sentences are overly long. Strive for the simplest expression. Consider splitting longer sentences into two shorter sentences. Shorter words and sentences are more [[w:Readability|readable]]. Try conducting a readability analysis such as via https://www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/. This chapter gets a score of . Aim for 50+. ## Avoid starting sentences with a citation unless the author is particularly pertinent. 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If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]].## Embed direct quotes within sentences and paragraphs, rather than presenting them [[wikt:holus-bolus|holus-bolus]] ## "Individuals" is overused. "People" is usually a clearer term than "individuals". Use ''individuals'' to highlight each person separately (e.g., “individual test scores”) and ''people'' when referring to humans more generally. ## Remove [[w:weasel words|weasel words]]—they add bulk without improving meaning ## Use permanent, rather than relative, time references. For example, instead of "20 years ago", refer to something like "at the beginning of the 21st century". In this way, the text will survive better into the future, without needing to be rewritten. ## Avoid overly emotive language (e.g,. *) in science-based communication <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## The headings could be more clearly aligned with the focus questions ## The structure is overly complicated; simplify and integrate ## The structure is overly complicated; aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Introduction and Conclusion ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Avoid having sections with 1 sub-heading – use 0 or 2+ sub-headings ## Use the default heading style (e.g., remove additional numbers, italics, bo]ld, and/or change in font size) ## See earlier comment about [[#Heading casing|heading casing]] ## Provide more descriptive headings ## Move links from headings into their first mention in text ## Remove abbreviations/citations from headings ## Include an introductory paragraph before branching into the sub-sections (see {{expand}} tags) ## Integrate learning features rather than having it as a stand-alone section ## The Overview and Conclusion should not have subheadings (fixed) ## Remove colons (:) from the ends of headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar and spelling are excellent # Grammar ## The grammar for some/many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Improve the clarity and flow of the writing by checking and correct use of commas. See [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/comma/ Grammarly's guide to using commas]. ## Check and make correct use of [https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/em-dash-en-dash-how-to-use em dashes (instead of hyphens)] to set off an amplifying or explanatory element ## [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/punctuation-capitalization/possessive-apostrophe/ Possessive apostrophes] are not used correctly (e.g., cats vs cat's vs cats') ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=grammar+that+vs+who that vs. who] ## Check and correct use of [https://www.google.com.au/search?q=affect+vs.+effect+grammar affect vs. effect] ## Check and correct use of [http://www.colonsemicolon.com/ semicolons (;) and colons (:)] ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Abbreviations --> ## Abbreviations ### Only use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., et al., etc. inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]], otherwise spell them out ### Check and correct formatting of abbreviations (such as e.g., i.e., etc.) ### Use abbreviations sparingly. Do not use abbreviations for minor/infrequently used terms. ### Spell out abbreviations on their first use, to explain them to the reader ### Once an abbreviation has been established (e.g., PTSD), use it consistently afterwards ### Only introduce abbreviations which are subsequently used <!-- Written expression – Spelling --> # Spelling ## Use [https://www.abc.net.au/education/learn-english/australian-vs-american-spelling/11244196 Australian spelling] (e.g., hypothesize vs. hypothesise; behavior vs. behaviour) ## Some words are misspelt (e.g., see the {{sp}} tags). Spell-checking tools are available in most internet browsers and word processing software packages. <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors).## Remove unnecessary capitalisation – [https://polishedpaper.com/blog/capitalization-apa-style more info] <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] ## [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers Express numbers under 10 using words (e.g., two) and 10 and over using numerals (e.g., 99)] <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## "Use quotation marks only for the first occurrence of the word or phrase, not for subsequent occurrences" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Direct quotes need page numbers—even better, communicate about concepts in your own words ## Direct quotes are overused—it is better to communicate about concepts in your own words <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief captions; provide more detail to help connect the figure to the text ### Use this format for captions: '''Figure X'''. Descriptive caption goes here in sentence casing. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Figures|See example]]. ### Add captions <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Figure is referred to at least once within the main text. Refer to each Figure using APA style (e.g., "(see Figure 1)"; do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation). ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Figures - Other --> ### Some image uploads were removed because of a lack of sufficient/appropriate copyright information ### Numbering needs correcting ### Adjust some image sizes to make them easier to read (increase size) and/or less dominant (decrease size) <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Very well/Well/Reasonably well captioned ### Brief caption(s); provide more explanatory detail about the table ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text using APA style ### Each Table is referred to at least once within the main text ### Refer to each Table using APA style (e.g., do not use bold, italics, check and correct capitalisation) ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use excellent [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # Citations use very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In some/many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses ## List multiple citations in alphabetical order by first author surname (e.g., Giraffe, 2024; Zebra & Aardvark, 2020) ## A full stop is needed after "et al" (i.e., "et al.") because it is an abbreviation of [[wikt:et alii|et alii]] ## Use a comma between the author(s) and year for citations in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] ## Select up to a maximum of three citations per point (i.e., avoid citing four or more citations to support a single point) ## Check and correct placement of full-stops ## Move embedded links to academic peer-reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] as APA style citations with hyperlinked dois ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources # For citations, use APA style or wiki style, but not both # Secondary citations are overused; strive to consult primary sources <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use excellent/very good/good/reasonably good/basic/poor APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation ### Check and correct use of capitalisation[https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization] ### Separate page numbers using an [[w:Dash#En dash|en dash]] (–) rather than a hyphen (-) ### Include dois where available ### Hyperlink dois for 1-click access ### Provide the full titles of journals ### Remove "Retrieved from " ### Use alphabetical order ### Move Wikipedia links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ### Move non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ### Remove bullet-points; add hanging indent ### More copy editing is needed to fix formatting inconsistencies <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. # Use [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] (rather than external links) to Wikipedia articles, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Excellent use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] # Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/One use of embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. # Use in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]], rather than external links to Wikiversity chapters, per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # Move embedded links to non-peer-reviewed sources to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of figure(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/No use of table(s) # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of feature box(es) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # No use of scenarios, case studies, or examples, other than opening scenario <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be improved by being more focused on the key points and/or take-home messages # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end # The reflection questions could be made more interactive by using a drop-down box that the reader can expand to see an answer/prompt to figure out the answers to the questions (e.g., see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Immersive therapy for PTSD treatment|this chapter]]) # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#See also|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use internal linking style per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Also include links to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|related book chapters]] ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move peer-reviewed articles into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Move external links into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|External links]] section ## Add more links # [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient/No use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Rename links per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Move Wikipedia/Wikiversity links to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Move peer-reviewed articles to the [[{{PAGENAME}}#References|References]] section and cite ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic # [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section not counted for marking purposes due to being over the maximum word count |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~ logged, useful, mostly minor/moderate/major contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~ logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the Wiki Commons uploads # Thanks very much for your extensive contributions # Use a numbered list per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 09:47, 10 October 2026 (UTC) ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter guidelines]] * [[Template:METF]] * [[Template:MEMF]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Admin/2026]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter]] </noinclude> 4dtphuio2lr5na5ag99mc5xunccjiy1 0 331090 2842646 2839750 2026-10-26T12:23:07Z U3275992 3106315 /* Aggression */ fixed a typo 2842646 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Irritability:<br>What is irritability, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be managed?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Case Study''' [[File:Angry man.svg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Tom in a bad mood]] Tom wakes up in a bad mood (see Figure 1). When he goes to the kitchen to eat breakfast before school, he snaps at his dad for putting too much salt on his eggs. Later, when he tries to brush his teeth, he finds his sibling has taken over the bathroom. He snaps at his sibling too. This is not the first time Tom has woken up in a bad mood. In fact, he always seems to be in a bad mood lately. This bad mood could be described as irritability. But what is irritability? And why does Tom struggle with it? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Irritability|Irritability]] can be defined in different ways. One way to conceptualise it is a state where a person experiences more negative emotions than usual and has difficulty controlling them (Saatchi et al., 2023). There are different ways to categorise irritability such as tonic or phasic as well as abnormal or normative. People who experience high levels of irritability or [[wikipedia:Abnormality_(behavior)|abnormal]] irritability, might be more likely to engage in aggressive behaviors and experience [[wikipedia:Mental_disorder|mental disorders]]. Due to these potential negative consequences, researchers have conducted studies to uncover potential causes and ways to manage irritability. The ways a person might react to social situations and underlying mechanisms in the brain may contribute to irritability. Taking care of physical and mental health, using emotion regulation skills as well as going to therapy may help a person such as Tom (see Case Study) manage irritability. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is irritability? * What are some of the different explanations of what might cause irritable? * What are the negative consequences of irritability? * How can people manage irritability? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What causes Irritability? == There is no clear consensus on what irritability is. Different researchers have come up with different and sometimes conflicting definitions on what irritability is. To try and fix this, Saatchi et al. (2023) conducted a concept analysis where they looked at what the concept of irritability to finally condense it into a singular definition. They settled on irritability being a chronic or temporary state of experiencing increased levels of negative emotions, such as annoyance, along with increased difficulty in controlling emotions. This is the definition that will be used throughout this chapter. === What Irritability is Not: === One way to make is easier to understand what irritability is can be to define what irritability is not. It can often be confused with anger and aggression. However, while they are similar concepts, they are not the same. Smedslund (1993) defined [[wikipedia:Anger|anger]] as an emotion experienced when a person perceives someone they care about, which may include their own self, has received unjust treatment. In contrast, irritability is a state where a person may be more likely to experience anger as well as other negative emotions, but it is not anger itself (Saatchi et al., 2023). [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Aggression|Aggression]] on the other hand, refers specifically to a behaviour that is performed with the aim of causing harm to someone else (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Again, while irritability may increase the chance someone will engage in aggression (Saatchi et al., 2023), they are two separate concepts. === Classifying Irritability === Irritability can be classified and sorted in different ways. Some ways to do this include categorising it as tonic or phasic, or alternatively, as normative or abnormal. ==== Tonic vs Phasic Irritability ==== Irritability can last different lengths of time. Some people may experience irritability for temporary periods of time (e.g. a few hours) while other may feel irritable for years on end. This is described as phasic and tonic irritability respectively. Phasic irritability is described as presenting in outbursts that are out of proportion for a person's age (Leibenluft, 2017). On the other hand, tonic irritability refers to irritability presenting through a persistent angry mood (Leibenluft, 2017). ==== Normative vs Abnormal Irritability ==== The dimensional approach of irritability views it as a spectrum, where people can experience mild, or normal levels of irritability all the way to abnormal levels of irritability (Alam et al., 2023). Determining the point at where irritability becomes abnormal can be difficult. However, one way to do this is by assessing the level of impairment accompanying the irritability, with one study using impairment to decide cutoff scores for an irritability screener (Alam et al., 2023). Essentially, it is the question of whether irritability has a large enough negative effect on a person's quality of life or not. == What causes Irritablity? == There are multiple theories and perspectives that explain what might cause irritability. Some might focus on the role of the environment and explain irritability as a reaction to an external event. Others will focus on potential mechanisms in the brain and hypothesise about what might be happening on a neuropsychology level. While this chapter cannot cover every theory, it will focus on covering the social information processing theory and the translational model. === Social Information Processing Theory === Social information processing theory refers to how the way a person processes social cues can impact how effective they are at responding to social situations (McFall, 1982; McFall & Dodge, 1982, as cited in Dodge & Crick 1990). Key processes in this theory include how a person may encode or store information from social cues in their memory, as well as how they chose to respond to the social cue in question. There are five steps on how social information is processed, as set out in Table 1 (Dodge et al. 1986, as cited in Dodge & Crick 1990). '''Table 1.''' The five steps for processing social information {| class="wikitable" |'''Step 1''' |Encode what information is important from the present external cues |- |'''Step 2''' |Represent the encoded information in your long-term memory and interpret it |- |'''Step 3''' |Access one or more potential responses from your memory |- |'''Step 4''' |Choose which response to make based on rules or criteria to evaluate them |- |'''Step 5''' |Make the response |} This theory can be applied to irritability. Specifically, the way a person processes social cues may contribute to experiencing irritability. For example, if a person leaves the house for the day, they may notice people briefly glance at them. If this is processed and interpreted as regular, normal glances, the person may choose to respond by ignoring the looks and carrying about with their day. However, if the person interprets the glances as other people judging them, they may become irritable. Numerous studies have investigated how the processing of social cues may influence irritability. Deveney et al. (2019) provided participants multiple scenarios describing characters going through social situations and asked them to answer questions on the character's thinking and behaviour. The more threatening participants described a social situation as, the more likely they were to have higher irritability scores. Additionally, Salum et al., (2017) examined whether the level of irritability children had would impact whether or not their attention was biased towards angry facial expressions. They reported that children who were often irritable had higher attention bias towards angry faces compared to children who were not irritable. The results from these studies suggest that the social information processing can be used to explain why irritability may occur. It is possible that at step 1 in the social information processing theory (see Table 1), people high in irritability may be more likely to attend to threatening cues compared to those low in irritability. At step 2, they may be more likely to interpret cues as threatening, potentially resulting in irritability. Finally, at later steps, their response may be influenced by feelings of irritability. For example, they may be more likely to lash out at another person compared to those low in irritability. === Translational Model === The Translational Model, as described by Brotman et al. (2017), is a model that combines previous neuroscience research to explain why young people might experience abnormal irritability. It focuses on the processes happening in the brain and how dysfunction in these processes may result in irritability. According to the model, pathological irritability is due to an abnormal response to one or both of the following: *Frustrative non-reward *Potential threats [[File:Euro coins and banknotes.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' Money is a common reward]] ==== Frustrative non-reward: ==== Frustrative non-reward refers to the response a person or animal might have to a situation where an expected reward (see Figure 2) was either not received or delayed (Amsel, 1958). According to Brotman et al. (2017), abnormal responses to frustrative non-reward may occur due to abnormal processing of rewards. Highly irritable young people may struggle to learn about when rewards are likely to occur and adjust their expectations when situations no longer provide rewards that used to be given. They may then experience higher levels of irritability as they keep getting frustrated due to failing to learn a situation has stopped providing the reward. Irritable young people may also experience stronger responses to receiving and not receiving a reward. This could result in events where the expected reward is not received being experienced as more frustrating compared to young people lower in irritability, leading to abnormal irritability. Frustration may also be experienced in a cycle, where in irritable young people, frustration may influence how they respond to rewards, increasing the likelihood of experiencing frustration in the future. Finally, irritable young people may have learned to experience frustration in certain situations, and therefore, be conditioned to experience it again when faced with the situation once again. ==== Potential threats ==== [[File:Angry-2766265 960 720.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' An angry face]] Another potential reason why young people may experience pathological levels of irritability is abnormal responses to potential threats, as described by Brotman et al. (2017). Irritable young people may focus more attention on potential threats, such as angry faces (see Figure 3), compared to those low in irritability. They may also have a hostile attribution bias, where a person is biased towards interpreting a stimulus as threatening. Adding to this is potential difficulties processing emotions, where ambiguous emotions are more likely to be rated as threatening compared to young people with lower irritability == The Bad Side of Irritability == Irritability is typically not a pleasant state to experience. It might result in negative consequences to a persons life. Some people might find themselves engaging in more aggressive behaviours, such as snapping at people or getting into physical fights. Irritability has also been associated with mental disorders. Therefore, experiencing high levels of irritability may put a person at higher risk of developing a mental disorder. === Aggression === [[File:Griffion vulture fighting.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 4.''' Animals engaging in aggression]] Aggression (see Figure 4) can be a problematic behaviour, as it can result in negative consequences. As an example, children who aggress may be less likely to be accepted or liked by their peers (Wang et al., 2019). Experiencing irritability may increase the chance of engaging in this problematic behaviour. One study by Perhamus et al. (2024) measured physical and relational aggression in children, and checked whether it would be associated with irritability, as recorded by teachers. Children high in irritability were reported to engage in more physical aggression compared to those low in irritability. Similarly, another study investigated the association between irritability and aggression in response to social rejection, this time in teenagers and young adults through a virtual reality experiment (Quarmley et al., 2023). Again, higher levels of irritability predicted more aggressive behaviour. But why might irritability play a role in causing aggression? Research doesn't have a clear answer for this yet, but frustration may play a role. Frustration is experienced when the pursuit of a goal is interrupted due to inference from other factors (Dollard et al., 1939, as cited in Kruglanski et al., 2023). It is likely associated with irritability, with Tseng et al. (2023) reporting frustration to be a central node or construct of irritability, after conducting a network analysis of the concept of irritability in young people. According to a revision of the frustration-aggression hypothesis, frustration can result in aggression if certain conditions are met, such as frustration negatively impacting a person's perceived social worth (Kruglanski et al., 2023). In essence, irritability may make a person more likely to experience frustration. This frustration the irritability may cause might then increase aggressive behaviour. === Mental Disorders === [[File:Brain Drawing.svg|thumb|'''Figure 5.''' Mental disorders involve the brain]] Irritability is suggested to be a risk factor for multiple mental disorders (Hawes et al., 2020) (see Figure 5). Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD) is described as a long-term pattern of severe irritability (American Psychiatric Association, 2022). It incorporates both temper outbursts and long-term irritable moods, (American Psychiatric Association, 2022) suggesting it includes both tonic and phasic irritability. DMDD is associated with negative outcomes in adulthood, such as engaging in risky behaviour, lower education levels, difficulties in keeping a job and more (Copeland et al., 2014). Other mental disorders are also associated with irritability such as bipolar disorder. One study found that participants experiencing mixed symptoms, where depressive and manic symptoms are experienced at the same time, were more likely to experience irritability than those without mixed symptoms (Bell et al., 2026). This research suggests that high levels of irritability may be a factor in developing a mental illness. However, it is also possible that it goes the other way round, such that the mental illness itself is what causes the irritability. === Is Irritability Always a Bad Thing? === Does irritability always have negative consequences or can it sometimes be beneficial? If say, you were in a dangerous environment, would irritability prepare you to engage in survival responses as as fight or flight quicker? Unfortunately there does not appear to be much research on potential benefits. At least, not yet. However, there is some research on the benefits of anger. Anger may be beneficial for achieving goals, with one study finding that experiencing anger increased performance on completing goals, if the goals were challenging (Lench et al., 2024). While anger and irritability are not the same concept, they are somewhat related (Tseng et al., 2023) so it is possible these benefits might apply to irritability. But future research is needed here. == How to Manage Irritability == Due to the potential negative impacts of irritability, implementing strategies to manage it may be important. Sometimes irritability can be prevented or reduced by taking care of physical and mental health. Other times a person may need strategies to manage irritability in the moment, such as using emotional regulation strategies. For people with abnormal levels of irritability, a professional intervention such as CBT may be required. === Take Care of the Mind and Body === [[File:Bed in hotel room 5.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 6.''' Sleep may reduce irritability]]Sometimes, not taking care of physical health can increase the chance a person may experience irritability. Irritability has been associated with poor sleep (Whiting et al., 2023) and experiencing hunger (Swami et al., 2022). Therefore, getting enough good quality sleep (see Figure 6) and ensuring adequate food intake may be important in reducing the chance of feeling irritable. Mental health is also important to consider. Irritability has been associated with increased stress levels based on a study conducted on adolescents (Harrison et al., 2025), suggesting that stress might contribute to entering an irritable state. While stress is not always a bad thing, keeping stress levels manageable may help reduce irritability. === Emotion Regulation: === Irritability may result in a person experiencing negative emotions such as anger more frequently (Saatchi et al., 2023). Therefore, techniques that help with emotional regulation may help a person manage and cope with the negative emotions that may arise as a result of the irritability. [[wikipedia:James_Gross|Gross]] (1998, as cited in Gross, 2015) created the process model of emotion regulation that describes the steps of emotion regulation (see Table 2). '''Table 2.''' Process model of emotion regulation {| class="wikitable" !Steps !Definition !Example |- |Situation selection |Choosing a situation to be in based on the emotion a person believes it might elicit |A person choosing to read a book instead of going to a party because they believe it will make them feel more calm |- |Situation modfication |Changing the situation in a way that would change the emotional impact it would elicit |Changing the sad music being listened to while completing an assignment to happy music |- |Attentional deployment |Where a person chooses to focus their attention on in order to impact their emotions |Focusing on the taste of a good cup of coffee rather than the heavy rain pouring down |- |Cognitive change |A person changing the way they think about a situation to influence the emotions they feel |Changing thinking from 'This lecture is so boring' to 'This lecture is teaching me new things' |- |Response modulation |Directly trying to influence the emotion response when you are actively experiencing the emotion |Going on a run while feeling sad to change the emotion to a more energised emotion |} === Therapeutic Interventions === For some people with severe or pathological irritability, taking care of physical mental health and using emotional regulation strategies may not be enough. In those cases, they may benefit from a therapeutic intervention such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) (see Figure 7). [[File:Cognitive behavioral therapy - basic tenets.svg|thumb|'''Figure 7.''' CBT can help reduce irritability]] CBT appears to be the intervention with the most research behind it to treat irritability. CBT is a type of therapy that helps clients become aware of and change how they think and behave in order to improve their wellbeing (Fenn & Byrne, 2013). There are different ways of implementing CBT. For example, Naim et al. (2024) conducted CBT with a focus on exposure techniques, where participants are exposed to their feelings of irritability. The treatment was effective, with a significant reduction in irritability reported. This exposure may help participants become more familiar with irritability and increase their ability to cope with it. CBT has also been used as treatment for DMDD, which, as mentioned before, is a long-term pattern of severe irritability (American Psychiatric Association, 2022). Soleimani-Rad et al. (2025) applied a randomised control trial of CBT on children with DMDD aged seven to twelve years. Compared to those who were on the waitlist, the children who did CBT had significantly lower irritability after receiving the therapy. === Quiz === <quiz display="simple"> {Which of the following options according to this book chapter might help you reduce irritability?: |type="()"} + Getting enough sleep - Watching a sci-fi TV show - Filling in your tax return </quiz> == Conclusion == Irritability is a temporary or chronic state where a person may have the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger, that are difficult to manage. There are multiple reasons why a person may experience irritability. The social information processing theory suggests irritability may be caused by interpreting a social situation as threatening. The translational model states irritability is due to abnormal responses in the brain towards frustrative nonreward and potential threats. There are negative consequences to experiencing irritability such as being at a higher risk of engaging in aggression and developing a mental disorder. However, there are also multiple ways to manage irritability. This includes taking care of physical and mental health, using emotional regulation skills and seeking out therapeutic support. ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Irritability|Irritability]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Alam, T., Kirk, N., Hirsch, E., Briggs‐Gowan, M., Wakschlag, L. S., Roy, A. K., & Wiggins, J. L. (2023). Characterizing the spectrum of irritability in preadolescence: Dimensional and pragmatic applications. 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Network analysis of ecological momentary assessment identifies frustration as a central node in irritability. ''Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry'', ''64''(8), 1212–1221. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13794 Wang, M., Wang, J., Deng, X., & Chen, W. (2019). Why are empathic children more liked by peers? The mediating roles of prosocial and aggressive behaviors. Personality and Individual Differences, 144, 19–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.02.029 Whiting, C., Bellaert, N., Deveney, C., & Tseng, W.-L. (2023). Associations between sleep quality and irritability: Testing the mediating role of emotion regulation. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''213'', 112322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112322 }} ==External links== * [https://youngmindsnetwork.com.au/coping-with-irritability-when-everything-gets-on-your-nerves/ Coping with irritability: when everything gets on your nerves] (Young Minds Network) * [https://open.spotify.com/episode/3ZeTcHbe9iIdJlrTMqAjIS Minding your Mind podcast episode - irritability] (Spotify) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Irritability]] jrs475vgnz3j5zxyt1n3qb5ylwe5zke 0 331258 2842685 2842591 2026-10-26T17:56:58Z U3263365 3104938 added table description 2842685 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour<br>How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} [[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]] ;Scenario Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.” {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like [https://www.simplypsychology.org/primary-and-secondary-emotions.html secondary emotions], are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning. To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023). Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as [[w:Guilt_(emotion)|guilt]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Shame|shame]], [[w:Embarrassment|embarrassment]], and authentic [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Pride|pride]] - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including [[w:Compassion|compassion]], [[w:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[w:Elevation_(emotion)|elevation]]/ [[w:Awe|awe]], along with contempt, disgust and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} * What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? <br> * How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?<br> * How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour? * How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are moral emotions?== Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue. === Historical development === In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published "The moral Judgement of the child" which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026). Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as "emotion–cognition hybrids" that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that provide functional roles that motivate ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki & Stella, 2025). === Basic emotions build moral ones === [[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|379x379px|Figure 2. Four components of emotion]] Reeve (2022) explains emotions as innate, universal patterns of feeling and bodily responses that arise automatically in response to significant life events which motivate the body for adaptive action, using expressive behaviours by individuals to navigate the environment around them. Reeve identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) as fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and distinguishes first order and second order stages, that are rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants with Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivate responses to violations of autonomy, community and divinity (Haidt, 2003). Additionally, moral emotions emerge when basic affective emotions are enriched by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness transforming universal emotional responses into context sensitive judgments of right and wrong (Zaki &Stella, 2025) == How moral emotions arise and motivate action == Moral emotions develop when emotional reactions—such as anger, disgust, empathy, and admiration—are shaped by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and social norms. These appraisals give universal emotional responses moral meaning and turn them into motivations for ethical action (see table 1). As Haidt emphasises that moral emotions can be distinguished by two prototypical features; ''elicitors'' and ''action tendencies''. (Haidt, 2003). Moral emotions arise when the basic emotions families are extrapolated into social-moral context and are grouped into four distinct families (Haidt, 2003). Contemporary views highlight that they bridge feeling and doing, explaining how emotional experiences motivate ethical action and shape moral behaviour in everyday life (Zaki & Stellar, 2025). === Prototypical features === Haidt (2003) argues that moral emotions can be identified by two prototypical features that distinguish them from basic emotions. First, they are triggered by ''disinterested elicitors''—events that do not directly affect the self but carry moral significance, such as witnessing injustice, cruelty, kindness, or moral excellence. Second, they generate ''prosocial action tendencies,'' motivating behaviours that uphold or restore the moral order, including helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, repairing harm, or aspiring to moral ideals. These features show how moral emotions transform basic affective reactions into ethical motivations, making them central drivers of moral behaviour. ''"Emotions high in both disinterested elicitors and prosocial action tendencies are prototypical moral emotions."'' (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015). === Four families of moral emotions === Haidt (2003) groups moral emotions arise when the basic emotions are extrapolated into social- moral context that can be grouped into four cognitively complex functional families that * '''Self‑conscious emotions:''' guilt, shame, and embarrassment. * '''Other‑condemning emotions:''' anger, contempt, and disgust. * '''Other‑praising emotions:''' awe, gratitude and elevation. * '''Other‑suffering emotions:''' compassion. === How moral emotions are felt and the action they motivate === {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: emotional experience and motivational urges |'''Emotion type''' |'''Emotion''' |'''Bodily response''' |'''Motivational direction''' |- |Self-conscious |Guilt |Stomach discomfort, tension, lowered gaze |Repair harm, apologise, confess |- |Self-conscious |Shame |Collapsed posture, avoidance gaze, heat in face |Withdraw, hide, conform to norms |- |Self-conscious |Embarrassment |Blushing, nervous laughter, gaze aversion |Appease others, restore social acceptance |- |Other-focused |Empathy/Compassion |Softened facial muscles, warm affect, parasympathetic activation |Help, comfort, support |- |Other-focused |Moral Outrage |Increased heart rate, clenched jaw, sympathetic arousal |Punish, protest, advocate |- |Other-focused |Gratitude |Relaxed posture, warmth, prosocial activation |Reciprocate, strengthen bonds |- |Other-focused |Moral Elevation |Warmth in chest, tears, uplifted posture |Emulate virtue, act altruistically |} === Moral identity === [[w:Moral_identity|Moral identity]] refers to how central morality is to one’s self‑concept. Lefebvre et al.’s (2019) meta‑analysis shows that individuals with a strong moral identity experience more intense and more frequent moral emotions, particularly guilt, compassion, and gratitude. Moral identity acts as an amplifier of moral emotions by: * increasing sensitivity to moral cues, * strengthening appraisals of responsibility and fairness, * enhancing prosocial action tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, and reciprocating kindness. Thus, moral identity shapes not only ''how'' moral emotions arise but also ''how strongly'' they motivate behaviour. === Moral emotion development === Moral emotions develop through a gradual integration of children’s emerging affective capacities with increasingly sophisticated social‑cognitive skills. Early in life, infants display basic precursors of empathy, but young children often struggle to coordinate their own perspective with that of others, leading to patterns such as the “[[w:Happy_victimizing|happy victimizer]]” phenomenon, where they may feel good after wrongdoing because they do not yet fully appreciate the victim’s emotional experience (Malti & Dys, 2013). As children’s [[w:Theory_of_mind|theory of mind]] and emotion understanding advance, they become better able to interpret intentions, consequences, and others’ internal states, supporting the emergence of more complex moral emotions such as guilt, sympathy, and compassion (Lane et al., 2010). By adolescence, these capacities enable meta‑perspective taking—reflecting on moral ideals, trust, and social expectations—which contributes to more stable anticipatory moral emotions, including guilt and pride, and a stronger integration of moral emotions with moral reasoning and identity (Malti & Dys, 2013). === Environmental influences === Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) concluded that secure attachment is consistently linked to healthier moral‑emotion development, including empathy, guilt, forgiveness, and emotion regulation. Secure attachment fosters the emotional competencies necessary for prosocial behaviour, while insecure attachment increases vulnerability to maladaptive moral affect (e.g., shame, emotional withdrawal). Understanding these pathways is essential for supporting children’s emotional, relational, and academic wellbeing. [[w:Adverse_childhood_experiences|Adverse childhood experiences]] (ACE) undermine the development of moral-motivational systems, pushing individuals towards shame based identity, interpersonal conflict and disengagement rather than guilt based repair or prosocial action (Wojcik, K., D., 2019). Furthermore, childhood abuse and neglect foster chronic, identity‑based shame, with dissociation partially mediating the trauma–shame link by fragmenting self‑representations and preventing integration of painful moral emotions (Santoro, G., et al., 2025) . Dissociation thereby reinforces shame‑laden self‑schemas and disrupts adaptive moral regulation, aligning with Tangney’s account of shame’s tendency to derail empathy and promote defensive avoidance rather than moral repair (Tangey, J., et al., 2007) == Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour == Self conscious emotions arise from three source of self reflection ( === Pride === === Guilt === Guilt motivates ethical behaviour by compelling individuals to repair harm, apologize, confess, and restore relationships after causing distress or violating communal expectations. (Haidt, 2003) Explore the following ''"Guilt is recognized as a social and moral emotion that drives prosocial behaviour, typically through actions to repair relationships with victims, often at a personal cost" .('' Kinosada, Y., et al, 2026, p.1) === Shame === Shame motivates ethical behaviour by pushing individuals to withdraw, hide, and correct perceived defects in the self to avoid social condemnation and restore moral standing (Haidt, 2003). === Embarrassment === Embarrassment motivates prosocial behaviour by signaling appeasement and recognition of minor social‑conventional violations, helping maintain smooth social interactions and group harmony (Haidt, 2003). === Quiz === <quiz display="simple"> {Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self. |type="()"} + True - False {Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Other- focused moral emotions and prosocial behaviour == === Anger, contempt, and disgust === Anger, contempt and disgust all have basic and more complex (moral) forms and to explain the motivation of prosocial behaviour, distinguishing them is required. Moral anger motivates ethical behaviour by driving people to confront and correct perceived injustices, even on behalf of others, making it a prototypical moral enforcer, whereas disgust prompts avoidance of actions or individuals as degrading or violating social behaviours, mainly regarding the body (Haidt, 2003). Haidt (2003) continues highlight that (moral) contempt is the "middle brother" between anger and disgust, with motivating individuals holding contempt to another they deem as inferior or unworthy, reducing warmth and respect toward them and reinforcing social standards and hierarchy as they do not "measure up" to societal norms. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Moral outrage|Moral outrage]] is further indicated as motivating prosocial behaviour and distinguished from anger when an individual witnesses an injustice to that harms another person, without affecting the self (Van de Vyver & Abrams, 2015). Moral outrage elicits justice-orientated prosocial action. Research has shown that === Awe, elevation and gratitude - === Elevation motivates prosocial behaviour by inspiring people to emulate moral exemplars, broaden their moral aspirations, and engage in altruistic or cooperative actions. Gratitude encourages reciprocity and strengthens social bonds with others which in turn reinforces cooperation and prosocial exchanges (Haidt, 2003). Awe is elicited by exposure to beauty and perfection, making people stop, admire and open their hearts and mind. Moral elevation arises when people witness moral virtue, creating a warm, inspired feeling that motivates benevolent helping. Studies have shown, elevation increased charitable donations, showing a clear effect on kindness‑focused prosocial behaviour (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015). When witnessing moral excellence—acts of charity, fidelity, generosity, or virtue, it produces a warm, uplifted feeling in the chest and a sense of becoming “less selfish”. Crucially, elevation triggers a specific action tendency: emulation—the desire to “do charitable and grateful acts also” (Algoe & Haidt, 2009). Empirical evidence shows elevation motivates prosocial behaviour, including nurturant caregiving and spontaneous helping of others . In short, elevation motivates people to imitate virtue and act kindly toward others. Gratitude is triggered when one perceives being the beneficiary of another’s intentional kindness. Its motivational core is relationship enhancement: gratitude motivates people to repay, acknowledge, or reward the benefactor’s actions . Beyond simple reciprocity, gratitude broadens interpersonal thinking, motivating behaviours that increase closeness, such as spending time together or offering friendship and loyalty. Empirical work shows gratitude predicts improved relationship quality over time. Thus, gratitude’s motivational mechanism is to build and strengthen social bonds with responsive, benevolent others (Algoe and Haidt, 2009). Algoe and Haidt (2009) further explore admiration, claiming it arises when witnessing non‑moral excellence—extraordinary skill, talent, or achievement. It produces feelings of inspiration, awe, and energized approval. The motivational mechanism of admiration is self‑improvement: it inspires people to work harder, develop their own abilities, and pursue excellence, which builds pro social interactions. Theoretical work indicates that followers feel admiration and seek proximity to role models to learn from them and cultivate their own skills. Empirical studies show admiration increases motivation toward academic, professional, or personal success. In essence, admiration motivates aspiration and personal growth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ;Let's look back at the scenario You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion === Compassion motivates prosocial behaviour by creating a desire to alleviate others’ suffering through helping, comforting, and caregiving actions (Haidt, 2003). Empathy (feelings of sympathy, tenderness, and warmth) and compassion are tightly connected because empathy produces the emotional state that compassion ''is'' — an other‑oriented feeling of concern, tenderness, and warmth toward someone who is suffering. Stocks et al. (2009) describe empathy as an emotional response “congruent with the perceived welfare of another person”, evoking altruistic motive to reduce the victim’s suffering, not an egoistic motive to reduce one’s own discomfort. Stocks et al. (2009) show that empathic individuals help even when psychological escape is easy, meaning helping cannot be explained by egoistic arousal‑reduction motives. Empathy therefore motivates prosocial behaviour because it creates a commitment to the victim’s welfare, not simply a desire to escape one’s own aversive feelings. == Maladaptive moral affect == While moral emotions regulate ethical and prosocial behaviour, it is important to recognise that distortions of these emotions can develop via adverse childhood experiences and trauma predict antisocial outcomes, with maladaptive forms of guilt and shame linked to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Shame, guilt, and recidivism|recidivism]]. Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) found that attachment insecurity in children was linked with poor [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|emotional regulation]] and predicted maladaptive moral affect. Avoidant attachment is associated with higher shame and lower empathy. For example, avoidant children show significantly higher shame scores, in adolescence there was less empathic concern and lower perspective taking. This aligns with broader findings that insecure attachment disrupts the development of adaptive guilt and empathy. (Costa Martins et al 2021). Furthermore, Tangney, J.,P., et all (2007) review establishes the foundational distinction between adaptive guilt and maladaptive shame, showing that guilt is behaviour‑focused and reparative, whereas shame involves global negative self‑evaluation, withdrawal, anger, and externalisation of blame. === Moral disengagement === [[w:Moral_disengagement|Moral disengagement]] occurs as a way to justify unethical behaviour when the moral emotion appraisal process is distorted to not be applied to oneself. Research shows that individuals cognitively neutralise guilt and shame both before wrongdoing (anticipatory disengagement) and after wrongdoing (post‑hoc disengagement), using mechanisms such as minimising harm, diffusing responsibility, or dehumanising victims to protect the self from moral emotions that would otherwise motivate repair (Tillman, C.,J., et al., 2018) . Learning about the real consequences of one’s harmful actions intensifies guilt and shame, prompting further disengagement as a coping mechanism, illustrating how maladaptive moral affect can be sustained through cognitive distancing rather than resolved through reparative action. Developmental findings from bullying contexts further illustrate how moral emotions shape behaviour: primary‑school aggressors consistently attribute less shame and more indifference or pride to victims, reflecting entrenched disengagement and reduced empathic concern (Romera E.,M., et al., 2019). In contrast, children who experience or attribute guilt show greater moral sensitivity and prosocial tendencies, consistent with Tangney’s (2007) claim that guilt fosters empathy and constructive action . === Mitigating maladaptive moral affect === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Maladaptive concern !Maladaptive development pathway !Mitigation strategies !Reference |- |ACEs → shame/guilt proneness |Interpersonal sensitivity → shame; interpersonal aggression → guilt |Improve interpersonal functioning; attachment repair; social‑emotional skills; reduce interpersonal sensitivity/aggression |Wojcik, K.,D., et al (2019) |- |Moral disengagement as avoidance of guilt/shame |People neutralise guilt/shame before & after wrongdoing |Increase consequence awareness; empathy training; highlight victim impact; reduce cognitive distancing |Tillman et al (2018) |- |Aggressors show low shame, high indifference/pride |Moral disengagement in children; lack of victim perspective |Moral‑emotion education; victim perspective‑taking; empathy development; encourage guilt‑based repair |Romera et al (2019) |- |Shame maladaptive; guilt adaptive |Shame → withdrawal, defensiveness; guilt → reparative action |Shift shame → guilt; promote responsibility‑taking; encourage reparative behaviours; reduce global self‑condemnation |Tangey et al (2007) |- |Insecure attachment → shame, anger, disengagement |Attachment insecurity distorts moral‑emotion development |Strengthen attachment security; caregiver sensitivity; relational repair; promote empathy and guilt development |Costa Martins  et at (2021) |- |Developmental pathways of moral emotions |Moral emotions shaped by socialisation, cognition, empathy |Developmental scaffolding; emotion coaching; moral reasoning support; structured opportunities for prosocial action |Malti & Dys (2015) |} ==Figures== [[File:Thought bubble.svg|right|140px|thumb|'''Figure 2'''. Example of an image with a descriptive caption.]] * For the book chapter, use several figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and to serve as examples * For the topic development, use at least one figure (even if not ideal) to show that you know how to embed, caption, and cite a figure * Figures can show any kind of media such as photos, diagrams, graphs, video, audio, and so on * Embed figures throughout the chapter, starting with the scenario in the Overview section * Provide descriptive figure captions (use '''Figure #''' and explain the relevance of the image to the text) * Images must be embedded from [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] * Images can be uploaded to [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]] if they are openly licensed * Cite each figure at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 2) ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * ==See also== [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|Internal (wiki) links]] to the most relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] and alphabetical order. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/About/Collaborative authoring using wiki|Collaborative authoring using wiki]] (Wikiversity) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Link to the most relevant internal resources about the topic * Include the source in parentheses }} ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358] Costa Martins, M., Santos, A. F., Fernandes, M., & Veríssimo, M. (2021). Attachment and the Development of Moral Emotions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Children, 8(10), 915. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8100915 Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., & Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]] Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, Rodríguez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l] Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145] Turner, J., H., & Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286] Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., & Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse & Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233 }} APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects of APA referencing style ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then the author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case (except first letter and proper names), ending in a full-stop ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop ** doi as a URL which is a working hyperlink (i.e., clickable) ** Hanging indent: Wrap the set of references in the [[Template:Hanging indent|hanging indent template]]: Use "Edit source" <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> * The most common mistakes include: ** Incorrect capitalisation ** Incorrect italicisation ** dois which aren't clickable as working hyperlinks ** Citing sources that haven't been consulted }} ==External links== [https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube) [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2689844/ Witnessing excellence in action: the ‘other-praising’ emotions of elevation, gratitude, and admiration - PMC] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] qcvmgy6kutxnagavlwov5ix53tv74qp 2842697 2842685 2026-10-26T19:34:05Z U3263365 3104938 /* Figures */ removed template information 2842697 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour<br>How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} [[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]] ;Scenario Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.” {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like [https://www.simplypsychology.org/primary-and-secondary-emotions.html secondary emotions], are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning. To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023). Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as [[w:Guilt_(emotion)|guilt]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Shame|shame]], [[w:Embarrassment|embarrassment]], and authentic [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Pride|pride]] - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including [[w:Compassion|compassion]], [[w:Gratitude|gratitude]], [[w:Elevation_(emotion)|elevation]]/ [[w:Awe|awe]], along with contempt, disgust and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} * What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? <br> * How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?<br> * How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour? * How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are moral emotions?== Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue. === Historical development === In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published "The moral Judgement of the child" which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026). Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as "emotion–cognition hybrids" that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that provide functional roles that motivate ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki & Stella, 2025). === Basic emotions build moral ones === [[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|379x379px|Figure 2. Four components of emotion]] Reeve (2022) explains emotions as innate, universal patterns of feeling and bodily responses that arise automatically in response to significant life events which motivate the body for adaptive action, using expressive behaviours by individuals to navigate the environment around them. Reeve identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) as fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and distinguishes first order and second order stages, that are rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants with Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivate responses to violations of autonomy, community and divinity (Haidt, 2003). Additionally, moral emotions emerge when basic affective emotions are enriched by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness transforming universal emotional responses into context sensitive judgments of right and wrong (Zaki &Stella, 2025) == How moral emotions arise and motivate action == Moral emotions develop when emotional reactions—such as anger, disgust, empathy, and admiration—are shaped by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and social norms. These appraisals give universal emotional responses moral meaning and turn them into motivations for ethical action (see table 1). As Haidt emphasises that moral emotions can be distinguished by two prototypical features; ''elicitors'' and ''action tendencies''. (Haidt, 2003). Moral emotions arise when the basic emotions families are extrapolated into social-moral context and are grouped into four distinct families (Haidt, 2003). Contemporary views highlight that they bridge feeling and doing, explaining how emotional experiences motivate ethical action and shape moral behaviour in everyday life (Zaki & Stellar, 2025). === Prototypical features === Haidt (2003) argues that moral emotions can be identified by two prototypical features that distinguish them from basic emotions. First, they are triggered by ''disinterested elicitors''—events that do not directly affect the self but carry moral significance, such as witnessing injustice, cruelty, kindness, or moral excellence. Second, they generate ''prosocial action tendencies,'' motivating behaviours that uphold or restore the moral order, including helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, repairing harm, or aspiring to moral ideals. These features show how moral emotions transform basic affective reactions into ethical motivations, making them central drivers of moral behaviour. ''"Emotions high in both disinterested elicitors and prosocial action tendencies are prototypical moral emotions."'' (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015). === Four families of moral emotions === Haidt (2003) groups moral emotions arise when the basic emotions are extrapolated into social- moral context that can be grouped into four cognitively complex functional families that * '''Self‑conscious emotions:''' guilt, shame, and embarrassment. * '''Other‑condemning emotions:''' anger, contempt, and disgust. * '''Other‑praising emotions:''' awe, gratitude and elevation. * '''Other‑suffering emotions:''' compassion. === How moral emotions are felt and the action they motivate === {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: emotional experience and motivational urges |'''Emotion type''' |'''Emotion''' |'''Bodily response''' |'''Motivational direction''' |- |Self-conscious |Guilt |Stomach discomfort, tension, lowered gaze |Repair harm, apologise, confess |- |Self-conscious |Shame |Collapsed posture, avoidance gaze, heat in face |Withdraw, hide, conform to norms |- |Self-conscious |Embarrassment |Blushing, nervous laughter, gaze aversion |Appease others, restore social acceptance |- |Other-focused |Empathy/Compassion |Softened facial muscles, warm affect, parasympathetic activation |Help, comfort, support |- |Other-focused |Moral Outrage |Increased heart rate, clenched jaw, sympathetic arousal |Punish, protest, advocate |- |Other-focused |Gratitude |Relaxed posture, warmth, prosocial activation |Reciprocate, strengthen bonds |- |Other-focused |Moral Elevation |Warmth in chest, tears, uplifted posture |Emulate virtue, act altruistically |} === Moral identity === [[w:Moral_identity|Moral identity]] refers to how central morality is to one’s self‑concept. Lefebvre et al.’s (2019) meta‑analysis shows that individuals with a strong moral identity experience more intense and more frequent moral emotions, particularly guilt, compassion, and gratitude. Moral identity acts as an amplifier of moral emotions by: * increasing sensitivity to moral cues, * strengthening appraisals of responsibility and fairness, * enhancing prosocial action tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, and reciprocating kindness. Thus, moral identity shapes not only ''how'' moral emotions arise but also ''how strongly'' they motivate behaviour. === Moral emotion development === Moral emotions develop through a gradual integration of children’s emerging affective capacities with increasingly sophisticated social‑cognitive skills. Early in life, infants display basic precursors of empathy, but young children often struggle to coordinate their own perspective with that of others, leading to patterns such as the “[[w:Happy_victimizing|happy victimizer]]” phenomenon, where they may feel good after wrongdoing because they do not yet fully appreciate the victim’s emotional experience (Malti & Dys, 2013). As children’s [[w:Theory_of_mind|theory of mind]] and emotion understanding advance, they become better able to interpret intentions, consequences, and others’ internal states, supporting the emergence of more complex moral emotions such as guilt, sympathy, and compassion (Lane et al., 2010). By adolescence, these capacities enable meta‑perspective taking—reflecting on moral ideals, trust, and social expectations—which contributes to more stable anticipatory moral emotions, including guilt and pride, and a stronger integration of moral emotions with moral reasoning and identity (Malti & Dys, 2013). === Environmental influences === Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) concluded that secure attachment is consistently linked to healthier moral‑emotion development, including empathy, guilt, forgiveness, and emotion regulation. Secure attachment fosters the emotional competencies necessary for prosocial behaviour, while insecure attachment increases vulnerability to maladaptive moral affect (e.g., shame, emotional withdrawal). Understanding these pathways is essential for supporting children’s emotional, relational, and academic wellbeing. [[w:Adverse_childhood_experiences|Adverse childhood experiences]] (ACE) undermine the development of moral-motivational systems, pushing individuals towards shame based identity, interpersonal conflict and disengagement rather than guilt based repair or prosocial action (Wojcik, K., D., 2019). Furthermore, childhood abuse and neglect foster chronic, identity‑based shame, with dissociation partially mediating the trauma–shame link by fragmenting self‑representations and preventing integration of painful moral emotions (Santoro, G., et al., 2025) . Dissociation thereby reinforces shame‑laden self‑schemas and disrupts adaptive moral regulation, aligning with Tangney’s account of shame’s tendency to derail empathy and promote defensive avoidance rather than moral repair (Tangey, J., et al., 2007) == Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour == Self conscious emotions arise from three source of self reflection ( === Pride === === Guilt === Guilt motivates ethical behaviour by compelling individuals to repair harm, apologize, confess, and restore relationships after causing distress or violating communal expectations. (Haidt, 2003) Explore the following ''"Guilt is recognized as a social and moral emotion that drives prosocial behaviour, typically through actions to repair relationships with victims, often at a personal cost" .('' Kinosada, Y., et al, 2026, p.1) === Shame === Shame motivates ethical behaviour by pushing individuals to withdraw, hide, and correct perceived defects in the self to avoid social condemnation and restore moral standing (Haidt, 2003). === Embarrassment === Embarrassment motivates prosocial behaviour by signaling appeasement and recognition of minor social‑conventional violations, helping maintain smooth social interactions and group harmony (Haidt, 2003). === Quiz === <quiz display="simple"> {Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self. |type="()"} + True - False {Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Other- focused moral emotions and prosocial behaviour == === Anger, contempt, and disgust === Anger, contempt and disgust all have basic and more complex (moral) forms and to explain the motivation of prosocial behaviour, distinguishing them is required. Moral anger motivates ethical behaviour by driving people to confront and correct perceived injustices, even on behalf of others, making it a prototypical moral enforcer, whereas disgust prompts avoidance of actions or individuals as degrading or violating social behaviours, mainly regarding the body (Haidt, 2003). Haidt (2003) continues highlight that (moral) contempt is the "middle brother" between anger and disgust, with motivating individuals holding contempt to another they deem as inferior or unworthy, reducing warmth and respect toward them and reinforcing social standards and hierarchy as they do not "measure up" to societal norms. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Moral outrage|Moral outrage]] is further indicated as motivating prosocial behaviour and distinguished from anger when an individual witnesses an injustice to that harms another person, without affecting the self (Van de Vyver & Abrams, 2015). Moral outrage elicits justice-orientated prosocial action. Research has shown that === Awe, elevation and gratitude - === Elevation motivates prosocial behaviour by inspiring people to emulate moral exemplars, broaden their moral aspirations, and engage in altruistic or cooperative actions. Gratitude encourages reciprocity and strengthens social bonds with others which in turn reinforces cooperation and prosocial exchanges (Haidt, 2003). Awe is elicited by exposure to beauty and perfection, making people stop, admire and open their hearts and mind. Moral elevation arises when people witness moral virtue, creating a warm, inspired feeling that motivates benevolent helping. Studies have shown, elevation increased charitable donations, showing a clear effect on kindness‑focused prosocial behaviour (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015). When witnessing moral excellence—acts of charity, fidelity, generosity, or virtue, it produces a warm, uplifted feeling in the chest and a sense of becoming “less selfish”. Crucially, elevation triggers a specific action tendency: emulation—the desire to “do charitable and grateful acts also” (Algoe & Haidt, 2009). Empirical evidence shows elevation motivates prosocial behaviour, including nurturant caregiving and spontaneous helping of others . In short, elevation motivates people to imitate virtue and act kindly toward others. Gratitude is triggered when one perceives being the beneficiary of another’s intentional kindness. Its motivational core is relationship enhancement: gratitude motivates people to repay, acknowledge, or reward the benefactor’s actions . Beyond simple reciprocity, gratitude broadens interpersonal thinking, motivating behaviours that increase closeness, such as spending time together or offering friendship and loyalty. Empirical work shows gratitude predicts improved relationship quality over time. Thus, gratitude’s motivational mechanism is to build and strengthen social bonds with responsive, benevolent others (Algoe and Haidt, 2009). Algoe and Haidt (2009) further explore admiration, claiming it arises when witnessing non‑moral excellence—extraordinary skill, talent, or achievement. It produces feelings of inspiration, awe, and energized approval. The motivational mechanism of admiration is self‑improvement: it inspires people to work harder, develop their own abilities, and pursue excellence, which builds pro social interactions. Theoretical work indicates that followers feel admiration and seek proximity to role models to learn from them and cultivate their own skills. Empirical studies show admiration increases motivation toward academic, professional, or personal success. In essence, admiration motivates aspiration and personal growth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ;Let's look back at the scenario You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion === Compassion motivates prosocial behaviour by creating a desire to alleviate others’ suffering through helping, comforting, and caregiving actions (Haidt, 2003). Empathy (feelings of sympathy, tenderness, and warmth) and compassion are tightly connected because empathy produces the emotional state that compassion ''is'' — an other‑oriented feeling of concern, tenderness, and warmth toward someone who is suffering. Stocks et al. (2009) describe empathy as an emotional response “congruent with the perceived welfare of another person”, evoking altruistic motive to reduce the victim’s suffering, not an egoistic motive to reduce one’s own discomfort. Stocks et al. (2009) show that empathic individuals help even when psychological escape is easy, meaning helping cannot be explained by egoistic arousal‑reduction motives. Empathy therefore motivates prosocial behaviour because it creates a commitment to the victim’s welfare, not simply a desire to escape one’s own aversive feelings. == Maladaptive moral affect == While moral emotions regulate ethical and prosocial behaviour, it is important to recognise that distortions of these emotions can develop via adverse childhood experiences and trauma predict antisocial outcomes, with maladaptive forms of guilt and shame linked to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Shame, guilt, and recidivism|recidivism]]. Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) found that attachment insecurity in children was linked with poor [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|emotional regulation]] and predicted maladaptive moral affect. Avoidant attachment is associated with higher shame and lower empathy. For example, avoidant children show significantly higher shame scores, in adolescence there was less empathic concern and lower perspective taking. This aligns with broader findings that insecure attachment disrupts the development of adaptive guilt and empathy. (Costa Martins et al 2021). Furthermore, Tangney, J.,P., et all (2007) review establishes the foundational distinction between adaptive guilt and maladaptive shame, showing that guilt is behaviour‑focused and reparative, whereas shame involves global negative self‑evaluation, withdrawal, anger, and externalisation of blame. === Moral disengagement === [[w:Moral_disengagement|Moral disengagement]] occurs as a way to justify unethical behaviour when the moral emotion appraisal process is distorted to not be applied to oneself. Research shows that individuals cognitively neutralise guilt and shame both before wrongdoing (anticipatory disengagement) and after wrongdoing (post‑hoc disengagement), using mechanisms such as minimising harm, diffusing responsibility, or dehumanising victims to protect the self from moral emotions that would otherwise motivate repair (Tillman, C.,J., et al., 2018) . Learning about the real consequences of one’s harmful actions intensifies guilt and shame, prompting further disengagement as a coping mechanism, illustrating how maladaptive moral affect can be sustained through cognitive distancing rather than resolved through reparative action. Developmental findings from bullying contexts further illustrate how moral emotions shape behaviour: primary‑school aggressors consistently attribute less shame and more indifference or pride to victims, reflecting entrenched disengagement and reduced empathic concern (Romera E.,M., et al., 2019). In contrast, children who experience or attribute guilt show greater moral sensitivity and prosocial tendencies, consistent with Tangney’s (2007) claim that guilt fosters empathy and constructive action . === Mitigating maladaptive moral affect === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Maladaptive concern !Maladaptive development pathway !Mitigation strategies !Reference |- |ACEs → shame/guilt proneness |Interpersonal sensitivity → shame; interpersonal aggression → guilt |Improve interpersonal functioning; attachment repair; social‑emotional skills; reduce interpersonal sensitivity/aggression |Wojcik, K.,D., et al (2019) |- |Moral disengagement as avoidance of guilt/shame |People neutralise guilt/shame before & after wrongdoing |Increase consequence awareness; empathy training; highlight victim impact; reduce cognitive distancing |Tillman et al (2018) |- |Aggressors show low shame, high indifference/pride |Moral disengagement in children; lack of victim perspective |Moral‑emotion education; victim perspective‑taking; empathy development; encourage guilt‑based repair |Romera et al (2019) |- |Shame maladaptive; guilt adaptive |Shame → withdrawal, defensiveness; guilt → reparative action |Shift shame → guilt; promote responsibility‑taking; encourage reparative behaviours; reduce global self‑condemnation |Tangey et al (2007) |- |Insecure attachment → shame, anger, disengagement |Attachment insecurity distorts moral‑emotion development |Strengthen attachment security; caregiver sensitivity; relational repair; promote empathy and guilt development |Costa Martins  et at (2021) |- |Developmental pathways of moral emotions |Moral emotions shaped by socialisation, cognition, empathy |Developmental scaffolding; emotion coaching; moral reasoning support; structured opportunities for prosocial action |Malti & Dys (2015) |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * ==See also== ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358] Costa Martins, M., Santos, A. F., Fernandes, M., & Veríssimo, M. (2021). Attachment and the Development of Moral Emotions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Children, 8(10), 915. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8100915 Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., & Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]] Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, Rodríguez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l] Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145] Turner, J., H., & Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286] Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., & Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse & Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233 }} APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} ==External links== [https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube) [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2689844/ Witnessing excellence in action: the ‘other-praising’ emotions of elevation, gratitude, and admiration - PMC] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] ld7ijiobc3oq5vhd3somzvuox7esus2 2842705 2842697 2026-10-26T20:58:27Z U3263365 3104938 referencing additions and pride draft 2842705 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour<br>How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} [[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]] ;Scenario Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.” {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like [https://www.simplypsychology.org/primary-and-secondary-emotions.html secondary emotions], are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning. To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023). Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as [[w:Guilt_(emotion)|guilt]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Shame|shame]], [[w:Embarrassment|embarrassment]], and authentic [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Pride|pride]] - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Compassion|compassion]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Gratitude|gratitude]], [[w:Elevation_(emotion)|elevation]]/ [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|awe]], along with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Contempt|contempt]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Disgust|disgust]] and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} * What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? <br> * How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?<br> * How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour? * How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are moral emotions?== Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue. === Historical development === In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published "The moral Judgement of the child" which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026). Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as "emotion–cognition hybrids" that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar (2025) argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that provide functional roles that motivate ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki & Stella, 2025). === Basic emotions build moral ones === [[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|379x379px|Figure 2. Four components of emotion]] Reeve (2022) explains emotions as innate, universal patterns of feeling and bodily responses that arise automatically in response to significant life events which motivate the body for adaptive action, using expressive behaviours by individuals to navigate the environment around them. Reeve identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) as fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and distinguishes first order and second order stages, that are rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants with Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivate responses to violations of autonomy, community and divinity (Haidt, 2003). Additionally, moral emotions emerge when basic affective emotions are enriched by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness transforming universal emotional responses into context sensitive judgments of right and wrong (Zaki &Stella, 2025) == How moral emotions arise and motivate action == Moral emotions develop when emotional reactions—such as anger, disgust, empathy, and admiration—are shaped by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and social norms. These appraisals give universal emotional responses moral meaning and turn them into motivations for ethical action (see table 1). As Haidt emphasises that moral emotions can be distinguished by two prototypical features; ''elicitors'' and ''action tendencies''. (Haidt, 2003). Moral emotions arise when the basic emotions families are extrapolated into social-moral context and are grouped into four distinct families (Haidt, 2003). Contemporary views highlight that they bridge feeling and doing, explaining how emotional experiences motivate ethical action and shape moral behaviour in everyday life (Zaki & Stellar, 2025). === Prototypical features === Haidt (2003) argues that moral emotions can be identified by two prototypical features that distinguish them from basic emotions. First, they are triggered by ''disinterested elicitors''—events that do not directly affect the self but carry moral significance, such as witnessing injustice, cruelty, kindness, or moral excellence. Second, they generate ''prosocial action tendencies,'' motivating behaviours that uphold or restore the moral order, including helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, repairing harm, or aspiring to moral ideals. These features show how moral emotions transform basic affective reactions into ethical motivations, making them central drivers of moral behaviour. ''"Emotions high in both disinterested elicitors and prosocial action tendencies are prototypical moral emotions."'' (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015). === Four families of moral emotions === Haidt (2003) groups moral emotions arise when the basic emotions are extrapolated into social- moral context that can be grouped into four cognitively complex functional families that * '''Self‑conscious emotions:''' guilt, shame, and embarrassment. * '''Other‑condemning emotions:''' anger, contempt, and disgust. * '''Other‑praising emotions:''' awe, gratitude and elevation. * '''Other‑suffering emotions:''' compassion. === How moral emotions are felt and the action they motivate === {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: emotional experience and motivational urges |'''Emotion type''' |'''Emotion''' |'''Bodily response''' |'''Motivational direction''' |- |Self-conscious |Guilt |Stomach discomfort, tension, lowered gaze |Repair harm, apologise, confess |- |Self-conscious |Shame |Collapsed posture, avoidance gaze, heat in face |Withdraw, hide, conform to norms |- |Self-conscious |Embarrassment |Blushing, nervous laughter, gaze aversion |Appease others, restore social acceptance |- |Other-focused |Empathy/Compassion |Softened facial muscles, warm affect, parasympathetic activation |Help, comfort, support |- |Other-focused |Moral Outrage |Increased heart rate, clenched jaw, sympathetic arousal |Punish, protest, advocate |- |Other-focused |Gratitude |Relaxed posture, warmth, prosocial activation |Reciprocate, strengthen bonds |- |Other-focused |Moral Elevation |Warmth in chest, tears, uplifted posture |Emulate virtue, act altruistically |} === Moral identity === [[w:Moral_identity|Moral identity]] refers to how central morality is to one’s self‑concept. Lefebvre & Krettenauer (2019) meta‑analysis shows that individuals with a strong moral identity experience more intense and more frequent moral emotions, particularly guilt, compassion, and gratitude. Moral identity acts as an amplifier of moral emotions by: * increasing sensitivity to moral cues, * strengthening appraisals of responsibility and fairness, * enhancing prosocial action tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, and reciprocating kindness. Thus, moral identity shapes not only ''how'' moral emotions arise but also ''how strongly'' they motivate behaviour. === Moral emotion development === Moral emotions develop through a gradual integration of children’s emerging affective capacities with increasingly sophisticated social‑cognitive skills. Early in life, infants display basic precursors of empathy, but young children often struggle to coordinate their own perspective with that of others, leading to patterns such as the “[[w:Happy_victimizing|happy victimizer]]” phenomenon, where they may feel good after wrongdoing because they do not yet fully appreciate the victim’s emotional experience (Malti & Dys, 2013). As children’s [[w:Theory_of_mind|theory of mind]] and emotion understanding advance, they become better able to interpret intentions, consequences, and others’ internal states, supporting the emergence of more complex moral emotions such as guilt, sympathy, and compassion (Lane et al., 2010). By adolescence, these capacities enable meta‑perspective taking—reflecting on moral ideals, trust, and social expectations—which contributes to more stable anticipatory moral emotions, including guilt and pride, and a stronger integration of moral emotions with moral reasoning and identity (Malti & Dys, 2013). === Environmental influences === Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) concluded that secure attachment is consistently linked to healthier moral‑emotion development, including empathy, guilt, forgiveness, and emotion regulation. Secure attachment fosters the emotional competencies necessary for prosocial behaviour, while insecure attachment increases vulnerability to maladaptive moral affect (e.g., shame, emotional withdrawal). Understanding these pathways is essential for supporting children’s emotional, relational, and academic wellbeing. [[w:Adverse_childhood_experiences|Adverse childhood experiences]] (ACE) undermine the development of moral-motivational systems, pushing individuals towards shame based identity, interpersonal conflict and disengagement rather than guilt based repair or prosocial action (Wojcik, K., D., 2019). Furthermore, childhood abuse and neglect foster chronic, identity‑based shame, with dissociation partially mediating the trauma–shame link by fragmenting self‑representations and preventing integration of painful moral emotions (Santoro, G., et al., 2025) . Dissociation thereby reinforces shame‑laden self‑schemas and disrupts adaptive moral regulation, aligning with Tangney’s account of shame’s tendency to derail empathy and promote defensive avoidance rather than moral repair (Tangey, J., et al., 2007) == Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour == Self‑conscious moral emotions including; pride, guilt, shame, and embarrassment are crucial in motivating ethical behaviour by regulating one's actions, reinforcing adherence to moral norms, supporting the development of moral identity, and strengthening prosocial disposition (de Freitas et al., 2026). Self conscious emotions arise from three source of self reflection ( === Pride === Pride is a positive self‑conscious emotion that emerges when people see their actions as competent, virtuous, or morally worthy, functioning as the pleasurable counterpart to shame (Haidt, 2003). It involves a positive self evaluation of one's character and motivates adherence and strengthening to internalised moral standards and is moderately associated with moral identity development (Lefebvre & Krettenauer, 2019). === Guilt === Guilt motivates ethical behaviour by compelling individuals to repair harm, apologize, confess, and restore relationships after causing distress or violating communal expectations. (Haidt, 2003) Explore the following ''"Guilt is recognized as a social and moral emotion that drives prosocial behaviour, typically through actions to repair relationships with victims, often at a personal cost" .('' Kinosada, Y., et al, 2026, p.1) === Shame === Shame motivates ethical behaviour by pushing individuals to withdraw, hide, and correct perceived defects in the self to avoid social condemnation and restore moral standing (Haidt, 2003). === Embarrassment === Embarrassment motivates prosocial behaviour by signaling appeasement and recognition of minor social‑conventional violations, helping maintain smooth social interactions and group harmony (Haidt, 2003). === Quiz === <quiz display="simple"> {Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self. |type="()"} + True - False {Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Other- focused moral emotions and prosocial behaviour == === Anger, contempt, and disgust === Anger, contempt and disgust all have basic and more complex (moral) forms and to explain the motivation of prosocial behaviour, distinguishing them is required. Moral anger motivates ethical behaviour by driving people to confront and correct perceived injustices, even on behalf of others, making it a prototypical moral enforcer, whereas disgust prompts avoidance of actions or individuals as degrading or violating social behaviours, mainly regarding the body (Haidt, 2003). Haidt (2003) continues highlight that (moral) contempt is the "middle brother" between anger and disgust, with motivating individuals holding contempt to another they deem as inferior or unworthy, reducing warmth and respect toward them and reinforcing social standards and hierarchy as they do not "measure up" to societal norms. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Moral outrage|Moral outrage]] is further indicated as motivating prosocial behaviour and distinguished from anger when an individual witnesses an injustice to that harms another person, without affecting the self (Van de Vyver & Abrams, 2015). Moral outrage elicits justice-orientated prosocial action. Research has shown that === Awe, elevation and gratitude - === Elevation motivates prosocial behaviour by inspiring people to emulate moral exemplars, broaden their moral aspirations, and engage in altruistic or cooperative actions. Gratitude encourages reciprocity and strengthens social bonds with others which in turn reinforces cooperation and prosocial exchanges (Haidt, 2003). Awe is elicited by exposure to beauty and perfection, making people stop, admire and open their hearts and mind. Moral elevation arises when people witness moral virtue, creating a warm, inspired feeling that motivates benevolent helping. Studies have shown, elevation increased charitable donations, showing a clear effect on kindness‑focused prosocial behaviour (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015). When witnessing moral excellence—acts of charity, fidelity, generosity, or virtue, it produces a warm, uplifted feeling in the chest and a sense of becoming “less selfish”. Crucially, elevation triggers a specific action tendency: emulation—the desire to “do charitable and grateful acts also” (Algoe & Haidt, 2009). Empirical evidence shows elevation motivates prosocial behaviour, including nurturant caregiving and spontaneous helping of others . In short, elevation motivates people to imitate virtue and act kindly toward others. Gratitude is triggered when one perceives being the beneficiary of another’s intentional kindness. Its motivational core is relationship enhancement: gratitude motivates people to repay, acknowledge, or reward the benefactor’s actions . Beyond simple reciprocity, gratitude broadens interpersonal thinking, motivating behaviours that increase closeness, such as spending time together or offering friendship and loyalty. Empirical work shows gratitude predicts improved relationship quality over time. Thus, gratitude’s motivational mechanism is to build and strengthen social bonds with responsive, benevolent others (Algoe and Haidt, 2009). Algoe and Haidt (2009) further explore admiration, claiming it arises when witnessing non‑moral excellence—extraordinary skill, talent, or achievement. It produces feelings of inspiration, awe, and energized approval. The motivational mechanism of admiration is self‑improvement: it inspires people to work harder, develop their own abilities, and pursue excellence, which builds pro social interactions. Theoretical work indicates that followers feel admiration and seek proximity to role models to learn from them and cultivate their own skills. Empirical studies show admiration increases motivation toward academic, professional, or personal success. In essence, admiration motivates aspiration and personal growth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ;Let's look back at the scenario You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion === Compassion motivates prosocial behaviour by creating a desire to alleviate others’ suffering through helping, comforting, and caregiving actions (Haidt, 2003). Empathy (feelings of sympathy, tenderness, and warmth) and compassion are tightly connected because empathy produces the emotional state that compassion ''is'' — an other‑oriented feeling of concern, tenderness, and warmth toward someone who is suffering. Stocks et al. (2009) describe empathy as an emotional response “congruent with the perceived welfare of another person”, evoking altruistic motive to reduce the victim’s suffering, not an egoistic motive to reduce one’s own discomfort. Stocks et al. (2009) show that empathic individuals help even when psychological escape is easy, meaning helping cannot be explained by egoistic arousal‑reduction motives. Empathy therefore motivates prosocial behaviour because it creates a commitment to the victim’s welfare, not simply a desire to escape one’s own aversive feelings. == Maladaptive moral affect == While moral emotions regulate ethical and prosocial behaviour, it is important to recognise that distortions of these emotions can develop via adverse childhood experiences and trauma predict antisocial outcomes, with maladaptive forms of guilt and shame linked to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Shame, guilt, and recidivism|recidivism]]. Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) found that attachment insecurity in children was linked with poor [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|emotional regulation]] and predicted maladaptive moral affect. Avoidant attachment is associated with higher shame and lower empathy. For example, avoidant children show significantly higher shame scores, in adolescence there was less empathic concern and lower perspective taking. This aligns with broader findings that insecure attachment disrupts the development of adaptive guilt and empathy. (Costa Martins et al 2021). Furthermore, Tangney, J.,P., et al (2007) review establishes the foundational distinction between adaptive guilt and maladaptive shame, showing that guilt is behaviour‑focused and reparative, whereas shame involves global negative self‑evaluation, withdrawal, anger, and externalisation of blame. === Moral disengagement === [[w:Moral_disengagement|Moral disengagement]] occurs as a way to justify unethical behaviour when the moral emotion appraisal process is distorted to not be applied to oneself. Research shows that individuals cognitively neutralise guilt and shame both before wrongdoing (anticipatory disengagement) and after wrongdoing (post‑hoc disengagement), using mechanisms such as minimising harm, diffusing responsibility, or dehumanising victims to protect the self from moral emotions that would otherwise motivate repair (Tillman, C.,J., et al., 2018) . Learning about the real consequences of one’s harmful actions intensifies guilt and shame, prompting further disengagement as a coping mechanism, illustrating how maladaptive moral affect can be sustained through cognitive distancing rather than resolved through reparative action. Developmental findings from bullying contexts further illustrate how moral emotions shape behaviour: primary‑school aggressors consistently attribute less shame and more indifference or pride to victims, reflecting entrenched disengagement and reduced empathic concern (Romera E.,M., et al., 2019). In contrast, children who experience or attribute guilt show greater moral sensitivity and prosocial tendencies, consistent with Tangney’s (2007) claim that guilt fosters empathy and constructive action . === Mitigating maladaptive moral affect === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Maladaptive concern !Maladaptive development pathway !Mitigation strategies !Reference |- |ACEs → shame/guilt proneness |Interpersonal sensitivity → shame; interpersonal aggression → guilt |Improve interpersonal functioning; attachment repair; social‑emotional skills; reduce interpersonal sensitivity/aggression |Wojcik, K.,D., et al (2019) |- |Moral disengagement as avoidance of guilt/shame |People neutralise guilt/shame before & after wrongdoing |Increase consequence awareness; empathy training; highlight victim impact; reduce cognitive distancing |Tillman et al (2018) |- |Aggressors show low shame, high indifference/pride |Moral disengagement in children; lack of victim perspective |Moral‑emotion education; victim perspective‑taking; empathy development; encourage guilt‑based repair |Romera et al (2019) |- |Shame maladaptive; guilt adaptive |Shame → withdrawal, defensiveness; guilt → reparative action |Shift shame → guilt; promote responsibility‑taking; encourage reparative behaviours; reduce global self‑condemnation |Tangey et al (2007) |- |Insecure attachment → shame, anger, disengagement |Attachment insecurity distorts moral‑emotion development |Strengthen attachment security; caregiver sensitivity; relational repair; promote empathy and guilt development |Costa Martins  et at (2021) |- |Developmental pathways of moral emotions |Moral emotions shaped by socialisation, cognition, empathy |Developmental scaffolding; emotion coaching; moral reasoning support; structured opportunities for prosocial action |Malti & Dys (2015) |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * ==See also== ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358] Costa Martins, M., Santos, A. F., Fernandes, M., & Veríssimo, M. (2021). Attachment and the Development of Moral Emotions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Children, 8(10), 915. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8100915 de Freitas Zanotello, C., da Silva, B. & Caetano, L. Definitions and functions of moral emotions within developmental psychology: a scoping review. Psicol. Refl. Crít. (2026). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-026-00411-3 Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., & Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 Lefebvre, Jean & Krettenauer, Tobias. (2019). Linking Moral Identity With Moral Emotions: A Meta-Analysis. Review of General Psychology. 23. 444-457. 10.1177/1089268019880887. Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]] Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, Rodríguez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l] Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145] Turner, J., H., & Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286] Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., & Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse & Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233 Zaki, J., & Stellar, J. E. (2025). Moral emotions. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, E. J. Finkel, & W. B. Mendes (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (6th ed.). Situational Press. https://doi.org/10.70400/MWKI4223 }} APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} ==External links== [https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube) [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2689844/ Witnessing excellence in action: the ‘other-praising’ emotions of elevation, gratitude, and admiration - PMC] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] bbjq0otxeq9qjqm1fstlcj360in39nx 2842745 2842705 2026-10-27T01:02:12Z U3263365 3104938 /* Guilt */ completed section 2842745 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Moral emotions and ethical behaviour<br>How do moral emotions motivate ethical and prosocial action?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} [[File:Begging man Harmony Lot 27 Elliot Street downtown Brattleboro VT July 2025 02.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Figure 1'''. Homeless man begging]] ;Scenario Imagine that you are doing your weekly shopping and you come across a homeless person who is asking for food or money. The person present in an unkempt state and initially you make sure you walk past, your stomach drops, and subconsciously wrinkle your nose and you decide to take a longer path to the shops in order to avoid them. When paying for your groceries, you realise that you don’t have quite enough to pay the full amount, instantly, your face gets hot as there is a line of people waiting behind you and it seems they are all staring at you, judging your error. Whilst you are talking to the register assistant, asking for some time to go through your groceries to determine which items are a priority, the person behind you offers to make up the difference. Suddenly, the hot feeling in your face becomes a warm feeling in your chest and you start profusely thanking the person and ask if there is anything you can do to make it up to them, they respond with “when you are in a position to pay it forward to some else, please do so.” {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[w:Moral_emotions|Moral emotions]] potentially set humans apart from other animals, by enabling people to react to social events that do not directly affect the self but concern the interests or welfare either of others and society as a whole (''Haidt, 2003).'' They arise when individuals evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right or wrong, in accordance with social norms and moral standards. This guides behaviours that support cooperation, fairness and social harmony. This distinguishes moral emotions from [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Individual emotions|basic emotions]], which are a person's primary response to a situation. Basic emotions fast, short lived, whilst moral emotions, like [https://www.simplypsychology.org/primary-and-secondary-emotions.html secondary emotions], are more complex and require a cognitive evaluation of the self from learned social meaning. To understand how moral emotions motivate behaviour, examination of the psychological/ psychological mechanisms behind these emotions is required. Moral emotions involve appraisals of responsibility and social meaning, biological responses that prepare the body for action, and expressive behaviours that communicate intentions. These mechanisms create ''action readiness'', transforming moral evaluations into behavioural tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, confronting wrongdoing, or avoiding social violations (''Reeve'', 2023). Understanding moral emotions is essential to link how they motivate ethical and prosocial action. [[w:Self-conscious_emotions|Self-conscious moral emotions]] - such as [[w:Guilt_(emotion)|guilt]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Shame|shame]], [[w:Embarrassment|embarrassment]], and authentic [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Pride|pride]] - occur when people evaluate their own behaviour against internalised moral standards. These emotions regulate the moral self by motivating reparative action, helping others, rule compliance, or withdrawal (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Importantly [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Guilt and shame|guilt and shame]] differ in their internalised state, appraisal of self and motivation urge resulting in different behaviours (''Tangney, Stuewig, & Mashek'', 2007). Other‑evaluative moral emotions—including [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Compassion|compassion]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Gratitude|gratitude]], [[w:Elevation_(emotion)|elevation]]/ [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|awe]], along with [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Contempt|contempt]], [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Disgust|disgust]] and moral outrage—arise when people respond to the experiences or actions of others. These emotions generate intuitive impulses to help, reciprocate kindness, emulate moral exemplars, confront wrongdoing or avoid social violations (''Haidt'', 2003). Together, these insights show how moral emotions serve as powerful motivational systems that shape ethical and prosocial behaviour in everyday life. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}'''Focus questions''' {{ic|}} * What moral emotions and how do they differ from basic emotions? <br> * How are moral emotions felt and motivate action?<br> * How do self-conscious moral emotions influence ethical behaviour? * How to other-evaluating emotions motivate prosocial behaviour?{{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What are moral emotions?== Moral emotions, defined to [[w:Jonathan_Haidt|Jonathan Haidt]] (2003), are the complex cognitively enriched emotional systems that have origins to simpler evolutionary precursors and responses to changes affecting the self. The defining qualifier of moral emotions are those involving social appraisals, cultural meaning systems and norm-based judgements that elicit motivation to act in ways that are shaped by local values and knowledge, which in turn indirectly provide benefits to the self. E.g., contempt depends on understanding rank; guilt depends on communal relationships; elevation depends on recognising moral virtue. === Historical development === In 1932, [[w:Jean_Piaget|Jean Piaget]] developed his [[w:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|theory of Cognitive development]] and in 1965 published "The moral Judgement of the child" which explores how children develop moral reasoning, tracing the evolution of their understanding of rules, justice, justice and responsibility from early childhood to adolescence (Cherry, 2026). [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg|Lawrence Kohlberg]] further explored upon Piaget's theory and outlined the individual [[w:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|stages of moral development]], indicating six stages and how moral decisions are made based on various factors; such as avoiding punishment, following laws or ethical principles. It depicts how morality evolves through their lives with not all stages being achieved (Cherry, 2026 and McLeod, 2026). Haidt emphasises that researchers historically overlooked moral emotions because they focused on basic, low‑cognition forms rather than the richer, socially embedded forms that drive human morality. Although moral emotions rely on cognitive processes such as appraising injustice, evaluating social hierarchy, or recognising moral excellence, Haidt does not classify them as cognitions; instead, he frames them as "emotion–cognition hybrids" that operate intuitively and motivate moral action more powerfully than reasoning, challenging both [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJTIo_MhG3M Piaget] and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0axVjiTe9Q Kolberg] theories of cognition‑centered moral psychology. Contemporary affective science views moral emotions as cognitively enriched affective states that arise when people evaluate actions, intentions, or social situations in terms of right and wrong. Rather than treating emotion and reason as separate systems, modern theorists such as Zaki and Stellar (2025) argue that moral emotions emerge from the integration of basic affective processes with higher‑order appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and cultural norms. This framework emphasises that moral emotions serve adaptive social functions—motivating care, cooperation, and norm enforcement—while remaining malleable through development, cultural learning, and deliberate practices such as compassion training. In this view, moral emotions are not distinct biological modules but constructed, socially tuned emotional responses that provide functional roles that motivate ethical behaviour in complex social environments (Zaki & Stella, 2025). === Basic emotions build moral ones === [[File:Four Components of Emotion.jpg|thumb|379x379px|Figure 2. Four components of emotion]] Reeve (2022) explains emotions as innate, universal patterns of feeling and bodily responses that arise automatically in response to significant life events which motivate the body for adaptive action, using expressive behaviours by individuals to navigate the environment around them. Reeve identifies the [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2010/Ekman's basic emotions|basic emotions]] (or fundamental) as fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy and contempt. He reconciles the biological/ cognitive perspectives by stating that each basic emotion, is the foundation of a family related characteristics that are the same in each of the four components (figure 2), and distinguishes first order and second order stages, that are rooted in evolutionary adaptation (Reeve, 2022). Moral emotions are second-order emotions that are cognitively complex variants with Haidt treating them as evolved emotions families that motivate responses to violations of autonomy, community and divinity (Haidt, 2003). Additionally, moral emotions emerge when basic affective emotions are enriched by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness transforming universal emotional responses into context sensitive judgments of right and wrong (Zaki &Stella, 2025) == How moral emotions arise and motivate action == Moral emotions develop when emotional reactions—such as anger, disgust, empathy, and admiration—are shaped by cognitive appraisals of harm, fairness, responsibility, and social norms. These appraisals give universal emotional responses moral meaning and turn them into motivations for ethical action (see table 1). As Haidt emphasises that moral emotions can be distinguished by two prototypical features; ''elicitors'' and ''action tendencies''. (Haidt, 2003). Moral emotions arise when the basic emotions families are extrapolated into social-moral context and are grouped into four distinct families (Haidt, 2003). Contemporary views highlight that they bridge feeling and doing, explaining how emotional experiences motivate ethical action and shape moral behaviour in everyday life (Zaki & Stellar, 2025). === Prototypical features === Haidt (2003) argues that moral emotions can be identified by two prototypical features that distinguish them from basic emotions. First, they are triggered by ''disinterested elicitors''—events that do not directly affect the self but carry moral significance, such as witnessing injustice, cruelty, kindness, or moral excellence. Second, they generate ''prosocial action tendencies,'' motivating behaviours that uphold or restore the moral order, including helping, comforting, punishing wrongdoing, repairing harm, or aspiring to moral ideals. These features show how moral emotions transform basic affective reactions into ethical motivations, making them central drivers of moral behaviour. ''"Emotions high in both disinterested elicitors and prosocial action tendencies are prototypical moral emotions."'' (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015). === Four families of moral emotions === Haidt (2003) groups moral emotions arise when the basic emotions are extrapolated into social- moral context that can be grouped into four cognitively complex functional families that * '''Self‑conscious emotions:''' guilt, shame, and embarrassment. * '''Other‑condemning emotions:''' anger, contempt, and disgust. * '''Other‑praising emotions:''' awe, gratitude and elevation. * '''Other‑suffering emotions:''' compassion. === How moral emotions are felt and the action they motivate === {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1: emotional experience and motivational urges |'''Emotion type''' |'''Emotion''' |'''Bodily response''' |'''Motivational direction''' |- |Self-conscious |Guilt |Stomach discomfort, tension, lowered gaze |Repair harm, apologise, confess |- |Self-conscious |Shame |Collapsed posture, avoidance gaze, heat in face |Withdraw, hide, conform to norms |- |Self-conscious |Embarrassment |Blushing, nervous laughter, gaze aversion |Appease others, restore social acceptance |- |Other-focused |Empathy/Compassion |Softened facial muscles, warm affect, parasympathetic activation |Help, comfort, support |- |Other-focused |Moral Outrage |Increased heart rate, clenched jaw, sympathetic arousal |Punish, protest, advocate |- |Other-focused |Gratitude |Relaxed posture, warmth, prosocial activation |Reciprocate, strengthen bonds |- |Other-focused |Moral Elevation |Warmth in chest, tears, uplifted posture |Emulate virtue, act altruistically |} === Moral identity === [[w:Moral_identity|Moral identity]] refers to how central morality is to one’s self‑concept. Lefebvre & Krettenauer (2019) meta‑analysis shows that individuals with a strong moral identity experience more intense and more frequent moral emotions, particularly guilt, compassion, and gratitude. Moral identity acts as an amplifier of moral emotions by: * increasing sensitivity to moral cues, * strengthening appraisals of responsibility and fairness, * enhancing prosocial action tendencies such as helping, repairing harm, and reciprocating kindness. Thus, moral identity shapes not only ''how'' moral emotions arise but also ''how strongly'' they motivate behaviour. === Moral emotion development === Moral emotions develop through a gradual integration of children’s emerging affective capacities with increasingly sophisticated social‑cognitive skills. Early in life, infants display basic precursors of empathy, but young children often struggle to coordinate their own perspective with that of others, leading to patterns such as the “[[w:Happy_victimizing|happy victimizer]]” phenomenon, where they may feel good after wrongdoing because they do not yet fully appreciate the victim’s emotional experience (Malti & Dys, 2013). As children’s [[w:Theory_of_mind|theory of mind]] and emotion understanding advance, they become better able to interpret intentions, consequences, and others’ internal states, supporting the emergence of more complex moral emotions such as guilt, sympathy, and compassion (Lane et al., 2010). By adolescence, these capacities enable meta‑perspective taking—reflecting on moral ideals, trust, and social expectations—which contributes to more stable anticipatory moral emotions, including guilt and pride, and a stronger integration of moral emotions with moral reasoning and identity (Malti & Dys, 2013). === Environmental influences === Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) concluded that secure attachment is consistently linked to healthier moral‑emotion development, including empathy, guilt, forgiveness, and emotion regulation. Secure attachment fosters the emotional competencies necessary for prosocial behaviour, while insecure attachment increases vulnerability to maladaptive moral affect (e.g., shame, emotional withdrawal). Understanding these pathways is essential for supporting children’s emotional, relational, and academic wellbeing. [[w:Adverse_childhood_experiences|Adverse childhood experiences]] (ACE) undermine the development of moral-motivational systems, pushing individuals towards shame based identity, interpersonal conflict and disengagement rather than guilt based repair or prosocial action (Wojcik, K., D., 2019). Furthermore, childhood abuse and neglect foster chronic, identity‑based shame, with dissociation partially mediating the trauma–shame link by fragmenting self‑representations and preventing integration of painful moral emotions (Santoro, G., et al., 2025) . Dissociation thereby reinforces shame‑laden self‑schemas and disrupts adaptive moral regulation, aligning with Tangney’s account of shame’s tendency to derail empathy and promote defensive avoidance rather than moral repair (Tangey, J., et al., 2007) == Self-conscious moral emotions and ethical behaviour == Self‑conscious moral emotions including; pride, guilt, shame, and embarrassment are crucial in motivating ethical behaviour by regulating one's actions, reinforcing adherence to moral norms, supporting the development of moral identity, and strengthening prosocial disposition (de Freitas et al., 2026). Self conscious emotions arise from three source of self reflection ( === Pride === Pride is a positive self‑conscious emotion that emerges when people see their actions as competent, virtuous, or morally worthy, functioning as the pleasurable counterpart to shame (Haidt, 2003). It involves a positive self evaluation of one's character and motivates adherence and strengthening to internalised moral standards and is moderately associated with moral identity development (Lefebvre & Krettenauer, 2019). === Guilt === Haidt (2003) theorises that guilt motivates ethical behaviour by compelling individuals to repair harm, apologize, confess, and restore relationships after causing distress or violating communal expectations that threaten relatedness to the victim (Haidt, 2003). guilt motivates repair and restoration, but how is the harm restored? de Hooge, I., E. et all (2011) explains guilt is driven by a specific appraisal: ''I harmed someone, and I am responsible.'' This appraisal creates a laser‑focused motivation to repair the relationship with the victim. "The dark side of guilt" (de Hooge, 2011) function is a goal‑directed motivational state, and channels attention and resources toward that one person. Because cognitive and behavioural resources are limited, focusing intensely on the victim means reduced concern for other social partners. The person experiencing guilt does not ''intend'' to harm others; but because this repair is self-protective and narrowly focused, it often produces negative interpersonal consequences for other people in the social environment, due to individuals avoiding self-sacrifice or maintaining their own outcomes. Kinosada, Y., et al, (2026) study found that guilt consistently motivated people to compensate victims using their own resources, not by taking from uninvolved third parties. This challenges the original “dark side of guilt” finding and suggests guilt is reliably prosocial and self‑sacrificial across cultures, while prioirtising relationship maintenance over self-interest. Whichever theory is examined, guilt is a negative emotion (within the moral context) that is triggered by violating internalised standards that harms others which function is to restore and preserve valued relationships that's motivational function is to produce action tendencies, directly repairing harm that include apologies, self-sacrifice compensation and cooperation (. === Shame === Shame motivates ethical behaviour by pushing individuals to withdraw, hide, and correct perceived defects in the self to avoid social condemnation and restore moral standing (Haidt, 2003). === Embarrassment === Embarrassment motivates prosocial behaviour by signaling appeasement and recognition of minor social‑conventional violations, helping maintain smooth social interactions and group harmony (Haidt, 2003). === Quiz === <quiz display="simple"> {Unlike guilt, which pertains to specific actions, shame involves a global negative evaluation of the self. |type="()"} + True - False {Self-conscious emotions include righteous anger, contempt, disgust, elevation and gratitude |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Other- focused moral emotions and prosocial behaviour == === Anger, contempt, and disgust === Anger, contempt and disgust all have basic and more complex (moral) forms and to explain the motivation of prosocial behaviour, distinguishing them is required. Moral anger motivates ethical behaviour by driving people to confront and correct perceived injustices, even on behalf of others, making it a prototypical moral enforcer, whereas disgust prompts avoidance of actions or individuals as degrading or violating social behaviours, mainly regarding the body (Haidt, 2003). Haidt (2003) continues highlight that (moral) contempt is the "middle brother" between anger and disgust, with motivating individuals holding contempt to another they deem as inferior or unworthy, reducing warmth and respect toward them and reinforcing social standards and hierarchy as they do not "measure up" to societal norms. [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Moral outrage|Moral outrage]] is further indicated as motivating prosocial behaviour and distinguished from anger when an individual witnesses an injustice to that harms another person, without affecting the self (Van de Vyver & Abrams, 2015). Moral outrage elicits justice-orientated prosocial action. Research has shown that.... === Awe, elevation and gratitude - === Elevation motivates prosocial behaviour by inspiring people to emulate moral exemplars, broaden their moral aspirations, and engage in altruistic or cooperative actions. Gratitude encourages reciprocity and strengthens social bonds with others which in turn reinforces cooperation and prosocial exchanges (Haidt, 2003). Awe is elicited by exposure to beauty and perfection, making people stop, admire and open their hearts and mind. Moral elevation arises when people witness moral virtue, creating a warm, inspired feeling that motivates benevolent helping. Studies have shown, elevation increased charitable donations, showing a clear effect on kindness‑focused prosocial behaviour (Van de Vyver and Abrams, 2015). When witnessing moral excellence—acts of charity, fidelity, generosity, or virtue, it produces a warm, uplifted feeling in the chest and a sense of becoming “less selfish”. Crucially, elevation triggers a specific action tendency: emulation—the desire to “do charitable and grateful acts also” (Algoe & Haidt, 2009). Empirical evidence shows elevation motivates prosocial behaviour, including nurturant caregiving and spontaneous helping of others . In short, elevation motivates people to imitate virtue and act kindly toward others. Gratitude is triggered when one perceives being the beneficiary of another’s intentional kindness. Its motivational core is relationship enhancement: gratitude motivates people to repay, acknowledge, or reward the benefactor’s actions . Beyond simple reciprocity, gratitude broadens interpersonal thinking, motivating behaviours that increase closeness, such as spending time together or offering friendship and loyalty. Empirical work shows gratitude predicts improved relationship quality over time. Thus, gratitude’s motivational mechanism is to build and strengthen social bonds with responsive, benevolent others (Algoe and Haidt, 2009). Algoe and Haidt (2009) further explore admiration, claiming it arises when witnessing non‑moral excellence—extraordinary skill, talent, or achievement. It produces feelings of inspiration, awe, and energized approval. The motivational mechanism of admiration is self‑improvement: it inspires people to work harder, develop their own abilities, and pursue excellence, which builds pro social interactions. Theoretical work indicates that followers feel admiration and seek proximity to role models to learn from them and cultivate their own skills. Empirical studies show admiration increases motivation toward academic, professional, or personal success. In essence, admiration motivates aspiration and personal growth. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}} ;Let's look back at the scenario You walk back to the car and are amazed at the kindness of strangers and so grateful that when you come across the person who was asking for money again. This time, you decide that even though you don’t have much in the way of money, you want to offer the person one of the ready meals in your shopping and wish the person a good day. Walking away, you feel a warm sensation in your chest and your back straightened and you find you are smiling to yourself. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion === Compassion motivates prosocial behaviour by creating a desire to alleviate others’ suffering through helping, comforting, and caregiving actions (Haidt, 2003). Empathy (feelings of sympathy, tenderness, and warmth) and compassion are tightly connected because empathy produces the emotional state that compassion ''is'' — an other‑oriented feeling of concern, tenderness, and warmth toward someone who is suffering. Stocks et al. (2009) describe empathy as an emotional response “congruent with the perceived welfare of another person”, evoking altruistic motive to reduce the victim’s suffering, not an egoistic motive to reduce one’s own discomfort. Stocks et al. (2009) show that empathic individuals help even when psychological escape is easy, meaning helping cannot be explained by egoistic arousal‑reduction motives. Empathy therefore motivates prosocial behaviour because it creates a commitment to the victim’s welfare, not simply a desire to escape one’s own aversive feelings. == Maladaptive moral affect == While moral emotions regulate ethical and prosocial behaviour, it is important to recognise that distortions of these emotions can develop via adverse childhood experiences and trauma predict antisocial outcomes, with maladaptive forms of guilt and shame linked to [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Shame, guilt, and recidivism|recidivism]]. Costa Martins, M., et al. (2021) found that attachment insecurity in children was linked with poor [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Emotion regulation in children|emotional regulation]] and predicted maladaptive moral affect. Avoidant attachment is associated with higher shame and lower empathy. For example, avoidant children show significantly higher shame scores, in adolescence there was less empathic concern and lower perspective taking. This aligns with broader findings that insecure attachment disrupts the development of adaptive guilt and empathy. (Costa Martins et al 2021). Furthermore, Tangney, J.,P., et al (2007) review establishes the foundational distinction between adaptive guilt and maladaptive shame, showing that guilt is behaviour‑focused and reparative, whereas shame involves global negative self‑evaluation, withdrawal, anger, and externalisation of blame. === Moral disengagement === [[w:Moral_disengagement|Moral disengagement]] occurs as a way to justify unethical behaviour when the moral emotion appraisal process is distorted to not be applied to oneself. Research shows that individuals cognitively neutralise guilt and shame both before wrongdoing (anticipatory disengagement) and after wrongdoing (post‑hoc disengagement), using mechanisms such as minimising harm, diffusing responsibility, or dehumanising victims to protect the self from moral emotions that would otherwise motivate repair (Tillman, C.,J., et al., 2018) . Learning about the real consequences of one’s harmful actions intensifies guilt and shame, prompting further disengagement as a coping mechanism, illustrating how maladaptive moral affect can be sustained through cognitive distancing rather than resolved through reparative action. Developmental findings from bullying contexts further illustrate how moral emotions shape behaviour: primary‑school aggressors consistently attribute less shame and more indifference or pride to victims, reflecting entrenched disengagement and reduced empathic concern (Romera E.,M., et al., 2019). In contrast, children who experience or attribute guilt show greater moral sensitivity and prosocial tendencies, consistent with Tangney’s (2007) claim that guilt fosters empathy and constructive action . === Mitigating maladaptive moral affect === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Maladaptive concern !Maladaptive development pathway !Mitigation strategies !Reference |- |ACEs → shame/guilt proneness |Interpersonal sensitivity → shame; interpersonal aggression → guilt |Improve interpersonal functioning; attachment repair; social‑emotional skills; reduce interpersonal sensitivity/aggression |Wojcik, K.,D., et al (2019) |- |Moral disengagement as avoidance of guilt/shame |People neutralise guilt/shame before & after wrongdoing |Increase consequence awareness; empathy training; highlight victim impact; reduce cognitive distancing |Tillman et al (2018) |- |Aggressors show low shame, high indifference/pride |Moral disengagement in children; lack of victim perspective |Moral‑emotion education; victim perspective‑taking; empathy development; encourage guilt‑based repair |Romera et al (2019) |- |Shame maladaptive; guilt adaptive |Shame → withdrawal, defensiveness; guilt → reparative action |Shift shame → guilt; promote responsibility‑taking; encourage reparative behaviours; reduce global self‑condemnation |Tangey et al (2007) |- |Insecure attachment → shame, anger, disengagement |Attachment insecurity distorts moral‑emotion development |Strengthen attachment security; caregiver sensitivity; relational repair; promote empathy and guilt development |Costa Martins  et at (2021) |- |Developmental pathways of moral emotions |Moral emotions shaped by socialisation, cognition, empathy |Developmental scaffolding; emotion coaching; moral reasoning support; structured opportunities for prosocial action |Malti & Dys (2015) |} ;Quizzes * One or two quiz questions for each main section is better than a long quiz at the end * Quiz ''conceptual'' understanding, rather than trivia. Ask about important information such as the take-home messages * Ask easy rather than hard questions * Different types of quiz questions are possible; see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]] Example simple quiz questions. Choose your answers and click "Submit": ==Conclusion== * ==See also== ==References== Provide the references for all citations in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. Alternatively, you can use wiki style (as used on Wikipedia), as long as the information is complete and the formatting is consistent. {{Hanging indent|1= Bai,C., Liu, R., and Zhang, H. (2026) Moral elevation, gratitude, and meaning in nurses’ positive mental health. ''Nursing Ethics'' Vol. 33(4) 1078–1093 [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/09697330261424358 https://doi.org/10.1177/09697330261424358] Costa Martins, M., Santos, A. F., Fernandes, M., & Veríssimo, M. (2021). Attachment and the Development of Moral Emotions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Children, 8(10), 915. https://doi.org/10.3390/children8100915 de Freitas Zanotello, C., da Silva, B. & Caetano, L. Definitions and functions of moral emotions within developmental psychology: a scoping review. Psicol. Refl. Crít. (2026). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-026-00411-3 Kinosada, Y., Furukawa, Y., Wakai, T., & Nakashima, K. (2026). Does guilt motivate prosocial behaviour at the expense of others? Preregistered replications and exploratory statistical modelling. ''Asian Journal of Social Psychology'', 29, e70099. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1111/ajsp.70099 Lefebvre, Jean & Krettenauer, Tobias. (2019). Linking Moral Identity With Moral Emotions: A Meta-Analysis. Review of General Psychology. 23. 444-457. 10.1177/1089268019880887. Malti, T., Dys, S.P. A Developmental Perspective on Moral Emotions. Topoi 34, 453–459 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11245-013-9224-5 Santoro, G., Sideli, L., Musetti, A., & Schimmenti, A. (2025) The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Shame: The Mediating Role of Dissociation. ''European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education''. ;15(8):151. [[doi:10.3390/ejihpe15080151|http://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe15080151]] Romera EM, Ortega-Ruiz R, Rodríguez-Barbero S and Falla D (2019) How Do You Think the Victims of Bullying Feel? A Study of Moral Emotions in Primary School. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Educational Psychology.'' 10:1753. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753 [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01753/full l] Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D., J., (2007). Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior. ''Annual Review of Psychology'' 58:345-372. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145 [https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145] Turner, J., H., & Stets, J., E (2006). Moral Emotions. In ''Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions (''pp.544 - 566). Spinger. [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2] . Tillman CJ, Gonzalez K, Whitman MV, Crawford WS and Hood AC (2018) A Multi-Functional View of Moral Disengagement: Exploring the Effects of Learning the Consequences. ''Frontiers in Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology''. 8:2286. [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286/full#F2 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02286] Wojcik, K., D., Cox, D., W., & Kealy,D. (2019) Adverse childhood experiences and shame- and guilt-proneness: Examining the mediating roles of interpersonal problems in a community sample, ''Child Abuse & Neglec''t, Volume 98, 2019, 104233, ISSN 0145-2134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104233 Zaki, J., & Stellar, J. E. (2025). Moral emotions. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, E. J. Finkel, & W. B. Mendes (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (6th ed.). Situational Press. https://doi.org/10.70400/MWKI4223 }} APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Rosenberg, B. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2018). A 50-year review of psychological reactance theory: Do not read this article. ''Motivation Science'', ''4''(4), 281–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000091 Sacks, O. (1985). ''The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales''. Harper & Row. }} ==External links== [https://www.ted.com/talks/asha_curran_how_acts_of_kindness_sparked_a_global_movement Ideas change everything] (TED) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b4CfyLe0IlQ Prosocial Behavior | Ethics Defined] (Youtube) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hbbj2XKIHxc The Dark Psychology of Guilt: How Guilt Controls Your Mind and Behavior] (Guilt) [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2689844/ Witnessing excellence in action: the ‘other-praising’ emotions of elevation, gratitude, and admiration - PMC] [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Morality]] o6otqtmivf10y0890qclx95rko8pv5a 0 331335 2842751 2839457 2026-10-27T02:14:23Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2842751 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Volunteer counsellor motivation:<br>What motivates people to become and remain volunteer counsellors?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Christine is a busy person.''' She works a full-time job, is raising her three children, and has two cats. Her husband, Steve, also works full-time and the family faces many pressures on their time. Despite all of this, Christine still spends 10 hours a week volunteering at a local mental health call centre. She loves the work and when time needs to be compromised, she will still leave her volunteering time high on the priority list. This leads us to ask, why was Christine motivated to begin vounteer counselling? Why has she continued to do so for the last 10 years? {{RoundBoxBottom}} [[wikipedia:Volunteering|Volunteering]] is an act of helping others by donating time without monetary reward. Volunteering can be done in both formal and informal ways, either by oneself or through an [[wikipedia:Organization|organisation]] or [[wikipedia:Charitable_organization|charity]]. Volunteer counsellors are those who choose to provide non-professional counselling services that can help people in a time of crisis or getting through a hard time. These services provide help to those who are in desperate need and those who simply need to reach out and get help. Organisations that provide these services though are in constant need of volunteers. They rely on people giving their time without payment and often undergoing training or utilising skills they have already acquired. There are many who would desire to receive payment for that kind of work and would not wish to participate without some sort of reward for themselves. But there are also others who are [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivated]] to begin this work, and stay for many weeks, months, or years. It is important then to discuss the {{vague}} topic so that better understanding is achieved as to why people choose to begin volunteer counselling. As more insight is gained into what drives these people to do this work, interventions can be tried and tested that will cultivate that motivation. It is important to ask what qualities and emotions are most important when choosing to begin volunteer counselling. Is it innate or does it need to be learned? Is it an individual or collective effort that helps people begin? And how can motivation be sustained for those who volunteer for long periods of time? {{ic|Move and integrate these questions in with the focus questions below}} As this insight is developed, organisations and communities will be better placed to understand how to grow that motivation, how to motivate others, and thereby provide more help to those who are in need. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What motivates volunteering? * Why do people start volunteer counselling? * What sustains volunteer counselling? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What motivates volunteering? == Volunteering requires a sacrifice of time and effort without any [[wikipedia:Income|financial reimbursement]]. It can occasionally take specialised skills to effectively complete the undertaken volunteer work and make a real difference to the lives of others in the community. There are many people who choose to do this work and volunteer in a variety of capacities for many charities and organisations. Without the usual financial reward associated with labouring for hours for an organisation, why are there those who will do it? What qualities do they possess that encourages them to begin volunteering? In this section we will discuss why some people are motivated to volunteer based on a few theories. {{f}} === Self-determination theory === [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] suggests that human motivation is controlled by factors which include autonomy (having choice in own behaviour), competence (feeling that one is good at the task they are completing), and relatedness (feeling like they belong to the group that is making the goal) (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000. The theory further suggests that different motivators are either extrinsic (external factors like getting paid for doing a job), or intrinsic (internal factors like going for a run because the person really enjoys the exercise). Using this theoretical perspective, it is easier to understand why some people may be motivated to volunteer. In one study of 206 volunteers in the health care sector, a survey questionnaire was used to ask participants a variety of questions based on a range of motivational factors. They found that those who possessed more autonomous or intrinsic forms of motivation were {{ic|how much?}} more likely to dedicate more time and more effort into their work (Bidee et al., 2013). In considering that volunteering is itself a non-compulsory activity, it is clear that those who choose to volunteer will be more likely to be intrinsically motivated to do so. As will be further discussed, most people who find satisfaction in volunteering will do so because they find enjoyment and purpose in the task {{f}}. Further work in this area provides evidence that this autonomous or intrinsic motivation can serve as a protector or shield for those who may work in less autonomy-supporting environments. In a study 1,979 {{ic|type of ?}} volunteers {{where}}, it was found that those who had a strong or high level of autonomous motivation were able to see that autonomy even in enviroments that were in reality less that autonomy-supporting (Oostlander et al., 2014). In other words, individuals who are highly intrinsically motivated will still be more likely to volunteer and keep volunteering even if the environment they are in is less that supportive of that motivation. From this perspective is {{sp}} is clear that people volunteer because they are intrinsically motivated and do so with input from external or environmental cues. === Social identity theory === While self-determination theory discusses volunteering from an individual perspective, [[wikipedia:Social_identity_theory|social identity theory]] discusses it from a more collective approach {{f}}. Volunteering rarely happens on a solely individual basis, so it is key to understand how social interaction can aid in motivation to volunteer {{f}}. In interviews with 40 {{ic|type of?}} volunteers {{where}}, researchers found that social interaction and a collective identity helped nurture feelings of belonging and acceptance from others, and even helped those who were struggling through life transitions including profound changes such as loss (Gray & Stevenson, 2019). Receiving support through a shared identity with other volunteers can be a great motivator for many to begin the process of volunteering and helping others. [[File:Team éperviers.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. Much like a sports team, people can feel a sense of collective identity in their volunteering]] Additional work has found that social support and a feeling of social identity is a crucial motivator to begin and continue volunteer work {{f}}. In further interviews {{ic|of who?}}, other research found that the belonging to a community can help people have a desire to give help to others and remain in their volunteer roles and show great commitment over a large length of time (Bowe et al., 2020). Volunteering is a useful tool in helping people to find an identity for themselves and create a social identity that helps them through their own challenges while helping others to deal with theirs {{f}}. The social benefits of volunteering have helped many to begin volunteering and continue in their chosen role for a long time {{f}}. === Altruism === The third and final theory that will be discussed in relation to volunteering relates to [[wikipedia:Altruism|altruism]]. Many sources {{f}} point to altruism as the reason that explains why certain people choose to make time to volunteer. Altruism is where someone is motivated by selfless means, where how they act has a benefit for those to whom they are rendering the service as well as themselves (Sundram et al., 2018) {{rewrite}}. Like self-determination theory, altruism is a method of understanding why the individual will decide to volunteer. Those who have more altruistic tendencies are more likely to find value in volunteering, which is itself a selfless act {{f}}. In studying those who volunteered to help refugees in Calais, France, it was found that altruism and empathy were key motivating factors in why those volunteers decided to undertake the work to help those who were in critical need, often escaping from war-torn countries or other dire humanitarian crises (Doidge & Sandri, 2018). The volunteers could understand and feel with the refugees the emotional suffering they were going through as a result of their physical battles. The selfless qualities in those who chose to volunteer were key to helping them start and make that suffering a little less severe for those who were battling such difficulties in their lives as they were at that time. Altruism is a key factor into why people volunteered. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case Study''' Christine was motivated to begin her volunteer counselling journey because she was looking for a sense of community and felt that she could give more selfless help. She looked around for opportunities in her community and found that she enjoyed talking to people. Someone recommended a volunteer counselling clinic, and Christine felt motivated because she felt that doing so would help in her own satisfaction. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why do people start volunteer counselling? == There has been a large and wide ranging amount of research into why people choose to volunteer, and there are a few perspectives about why people choose to volunteer in general. It is now time to understand why people choose to undertake counselling as their volunteer activity. What motivates people to begin their volunteer counselling journey? === Self-determination === Organisations can foster an environment that helps individuals to express the motivation they have to become volunteer counsellors. Intrinsic motivation is a strong predictor of those who will become volunteers in general and this remains true for volunteer counsellors {{f}}. In addition to this finding, motivation to work for particular organisations can be explained by a perception of one's own values being aligned with the values of the organisation, and when this happens the engagement of the volunteers is positively impacted (van Schie et al., 2015). A person can be motivated to become a volunteer counsellors {{g}} when their own values are closely aligned with those of their chosen organisation, therefore helping people to find organisations which they themselves agree with is key in helping many to start volunteer counselling {{f}}. Instrinsic motivation can be fostered by a few different methods. In a research study involving {{ic|type of?}} 48 volunteers {{where}} completing diary surveys, the responses revealed a positive relationship between their own perceptions of team inclusion and instrinsic motivation. This was further influenced by their own relationships to others and their competence at the tasks they were being asked to do (Bidee et al., 2017). Volunteer counsellor's {{g}} own intrinsic motivation was an indicator of their own feeling of connectedness to others within the organisation and can help them to sustain that motivation as they continue this important work. === Compassion and giving back === Further determinants as to why some people are motivated to become volunteer counsellors is compassion and giving back to the community {{g}}. Being a compassionate person is a major part of why many people choose to become volunteer counsellors {{f}}. Similar to altruism, compassion is where people see suffering and wish to help care for those who are suffering and prevent further suffering (Mitchell et al., 2026). Being able to look after others by being compassionate helps to strengthen one's own compassion for themselves and be patient in the struggles and challenges they are facing in their own lives {{f}}. [[File:Compassion holding hands.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 2.''' A sense of compassion for others is a great motivator to begin volunteer counselling]] Another factor that can motivate volunteer counselling is that of feeling a responsibility and giving back to the community {{f}}. In a questionaire complete by 360 {{ic|type of?}} volunteer counsellors {{where}}, 72% of respodents said they did so because they felt a responsibility to help others, and 50% said they did it to "give something back" (Klug et al., 2018). For many, they identify with the community they are trying to serve and want to give back in some small way. While not strictly linked to social identity theory, the identification with a community or in-group can be a motivator for some to give back and shoulder the responsibility of strengthening those in need within that community. === Altruistic factors === Altruism is a major factor into why people choose to volunteer. Counselling as a volunteer activity is no different and many choose to volunteer counsellors {{g}} because of altruistic tendencies {{f}}. In interviewing volunteer counsellors {{where}}, altruism was a consistent theme for the 38 participants who were a part of the study as to why they began their path along volunteer counselling (Cassidy et al., 2019). Volunteer counselling is also known as 'befriending', and befriending requires some sense of selflessness particularly when helping those who are vulnerable and seeking help. For many, the reward is seeing people happier and knowing that they (the volunteer counsellors) could offer assistance in a time of need {{f}}. Altruism seems to be at the centre of mutliple findings {{f}} and is a key quality into why many are motivated to begin volunteer counselling. In a meta-synthesis of information provided in {{ic|how many}} studies into the motivations surrounding volunteer counselling, lived experience of mental hardship is a motivator for many to be there for others going through similar experiences (Aguirre & Bolton, 2013). Altruism is an important quality to have for many volunteer counsellors, to help them listen genuinely and provide their time to those who need it most {{f}}. This provides a message that altruism should be fostered in the community and thereby creating a culture of turning outward so that there are more who are motivated to become volunteer counsellors. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case Study''' Christine felt a great sense of compassion for those having a hard time. Christine's work as a teacher's aid while she was at university left a lasting impression on her as she helped families of the children she worked with. She found that she empathised with their struggles and this fueled her desire and motivation to be active in the community even as she began full-time work in her chosen profession. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Why are people motivated to continue being volunteer counsellors? == Throughout this chapter, discussion has centred around why people choose to volunteer and why they decide to be volunteer counsellors. This section will focus on what helps people to sustain that motivation to continue being volunteer counsellors. It is not just a one time thing, so why do people continue doing this important work for long periods of time? Why do people keep coming back after they have started? === Self-fulfilment and purpose === For many who choose to be volunteer counsellors, they find that they derive a strong sense of identity while fulfiling the role. As they find this identity, they find purpose and meaning in the work that they are doing which helps them to continue on in their work. In interviewing nine long-term volunteers for a counselling telephone line {{where}}, they found that these volunteers found healing in themselves as they continued on in their work (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Wounded healer paradigm|wounded healer paradigm]]). They found that they had purpose, and this purpose contributed to their own life satisfaction and helped them get back into a community (Smith et al., 2018). A feeling of purpose is a motivator for many to continue being volunteer counsellors, often for long periods of time. Continued intention to serve can also in part be explained by the fit someone has with a role. Long time participation as a volunteer counsellor will be more likely when the person feels that the role they are working or volunteering in fits within their own motivations and will therefore have more satisfaction as they undertake tasks associated with the role (Clary et al., 1998). As people find that they are fulfilled in roles that suit their own motivations, they will be motivated to continue being volunteer counsellors. Cultivation of and creation of roles that fit the motivations of those who want to volunteer in the community will be key in helping them to remain in roles in which they find fulfillment and remain as volunteer counsellors for long periods of time {{f}}. [[File:Mission and Vision of La Union.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 3.''' Many feel a great sense of purpose, allowing them to continue volunteer counselling]] === Calling and identity === The feeling that being a volunteer counsellor is a calling helps many people to remaing in the role. As volunteers come to know the role, they may feel deeply that volunteer counselling is what they were called to do, something they are meant to fulfill in their community or society. Those who view it this way feel much self-satisfaction and find it to be meaningful (Faletehan et al., 2020). Additional points in the same paper find {{ic|is this based on research?}} that the feeling of volunteer counselling being a calling contributes to identity, that those who undertake this type of voluteering find it becomes a part of them both on individual and collective levels. Identity is a theme found throughout much of the research into volunteer counselling {{f}}. Many find that as they do the work associated with volunteering that it helps them find who they are. In researching volunteer counsellors in South Africa, they {{g}} found that many had a shared identity and feelings of being in the group as they volunteered. The feeling of a collective identity helped them through challenges and provided a safeguard to their own mental wellbeing (Henning-Pugh et al., 2023). People are motivated to remain volunteer counsellors when they feel it is positively contributing to who they are and will keep coming back to feel that satisfaction. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case Study''' Christine began volunteering and found very quickly that it became a part of who she was. She took to the work very quickly and found herself thinking that it was what she was meant to do all along. Soon after starting, Christine remarked to her husband, Steve, that she felt this was a calling and that her identity was being shaped by her experiences. {{RoundBoxBottom}}<quiz display="simple"> {Finding a sense of identity can help maintain high levels of motivation: |type="()"} + True - False {Purpose is not a key concept in helping people maintain motivation for volunteer counselling: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Volunteering is the act of giving up time to work either by oneself or for an organisation by completing work without financial or other reward. Volunteering requires the using of previously learned skills or the learning of new ones to complete tasks usually for the benefit of others in the community or around the world. People volunteer for a variety of reasons based on different theoretical approaches. From the self-determination approach, people volunteer because they are instrinsically motivated to do so. They desire to make a difference and feel that volunteering is one way to do that. From the social identity approach, many find strength in having a collective identity with other people and belonging to a community. Altruism is a quality where people wish to give of themselves without any expected rewards in return which is a key motivator for many people to start volunteering. Many begin volunteer counselling because they find their own values align with that of an organisation that offers counselling services and that intrinsic motivation links them with others. Compassion and giving back to the community also help people to begin volunteer counselling, as they can feel they have a responsibility to do so. And having altruistic tendencies whereby the reward is seeing people happy helps many to begin volunteer counselling, helping to put their own intrinsic motivations and positive attributes to good use. Volunteer counsellors often find that they remain so because the role gives them a sense of purpose and self-fulfilment. Long-time volunteer counsellors are motivated to continue because they find that it helps their own self-satisfaction and healing from their own problems or traumas. Roles that fill their own motivations will help them find even more satisfaction and purpose in their own lives. Some view it as a calling and that it helps to contribute to their identity and that it becomes an integral part of who they are. Volunteer counsellors provide an important service that benefits the lives of many people. They do so without monetary reward and show an unselfish regard for their fellow human beings. As understanding grows of what motivates them begin and continue volunteer counselling, organisations and communities will be better placed to provide roles and training that more people will be willing to take up and provide better results for the societies they serve. ==See also== * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Altruism and empathy|Altruism and empathy]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Volunteering|Volunteering]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Aguirre, R. T. P., & Bolton, K. M. W. (2013). Why do they do it? A qualitative interpretive meta-synthesis of crisis volunteers’ motivations. Social Work Research, 37(4), 327–338. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svt035 Bidee, J., Vantilborgh, T., Pepermans, R., Huybrechts, G., Willems, J., Jegers, M., & Hofmans, J. (2013). Autonomous motivation stimulates volunteers’ work effort: A self-determination theory approach to volunteerism. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 24(1), 32–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-012-9269-x Bidee, J., Vantilborgh, T., Pepermans, R., Willems, J., Jegers, M., & Hofmans, J. (2017). Daily motivation of volunteers in healthcare organizations: Relating team inclusion and intrinsic motivation using self-determination theory. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 26(3), 325–336. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432x.2016.1277206 Bowe, M., Gray, D., Stevenson, C., McNamara, N., Wakefield, J. R. H., Kellezi, B., Wilson, I., Cleveland, M., Mair, E., Halder, M., & Costa, S. (2020). A social cure in the community: A mixed‐method exploration of the role of social identity in the experiences and well‐being of community volunteers. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(7), 1523–1539. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2706 Cassidy, M., Thompson, R., El-Nagib, R., Hickling, L. M., & Priebe, S. (2019). Motivations and experiences of volunteers and patients in mental health befriending: A thematic analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2102-y Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R. D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A. A., Haugen, J., & Miene, P. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1516–1530. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1516 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). The general causality orientations scale: Self-determination in personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 19(2), 109–134. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-6566(85)90023-6 Doidge, M., & Sandri, E. (2018). ‘Friends that last a lifetime’: The importance of emotions amongst volunteers working with refugees in Calais. The British Journal of Sociology, 70(2), 463–480. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12484 Faletehan, A. F., van Burg, E., Thompson, N. A., & Wempe, J. (2020). Called to volunteer and stay longer: The significance of work calling for volunteering motivation and retention. Voluntary Sector Review, 12(2). https://doi.org/10.1332/204080520x15929332587023 Gray, D., & Stevenson, C. (2019). How can ‘we’ help? Exploring the role of shared social identity in the experiences and benefits of volunteering. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 30(4), 341–353. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2448 Henning‐Pugh, M., Frith, H., & Trauma, A. (2023). Exploring the delivery of community‐based trauma support by volunteer counsellors in a South African context. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 33(6), 1489–1505. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2742 Klug, G., Toner, S., Fabisch, K., & Priebe, S. (2018). Characteristics and motivations of volunteers providing one-to-one support for people with mental illness: A survey in Austria. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 53(8), 841–847. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-018-1514-1 Mitchell, K. E., Kirkman, A., & Taylor, E. C. (2026). Factors shaping compassion and self-compassion in UK Volunteer Mental Health Workers: A thematic analysis. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2026.2663162 Oostlander, J., Güntert, S. T., & Wehner, T. (2014). Linking autonomy-supportive leadership to volunteer satisfaction: A self-determination theory perspective. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 25(6), 1368–1387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-013-9395-0 Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. Smith, L., Callaghan, J. E. M., & Fellin, L. C. (2018). A qualitative study exploring the experience and motivations of UK samaritan volunteers: “Why do we do it?”. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 48(6), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2018.1546378 Sundram, F., Corattur, T., Dong, C., & Zhong, K. (2018). Motivations, expectations and experiences in being a mental health helplines volunteer. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(10), 2123. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102123 van Schie, S., Güntert, S. T., Oostlander, J., & Wehner, T. (2015). How the organizational context impacts volunteers: A differentiated perspective on self-determined motivation. VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 4(26), 1570–1590. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-014-9472-z}} ==External links== * [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/ Getting help] (Beyond Blue) * [https://www.lifelinecanberra.org.au/volunteer/ Volunteer] (Lifeline Canberra) * [https://www.volunteeringaustralia.org/policy/volunteering-and-wellbeing/ Volunteering and wellbeing] (Volunteering Australia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Helping]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Volunteering]] qgza6ju9fh73hj6l7g0xv5pgxigneyw 0 331417 2842768 2839542 2026-10-27T04:03:24Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2842768 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Creative inspiration and effort:<br>How do inspiration and effort interact during the creative process?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} [[File:Artist painting at home. Colorful ballerina.jpg|thumb|'''Figure 1'''. An artist transforming creative inspiration into action through sustained effort.]] ;Imagine this... You have been staring at a blank page for hours, trying to come up with an original idea for a creative project. Just when you decide to take a break, an idea suddenly comes to you. You feel excited and inspired, and you immediately start working. At first, everything seems to flow naturally and you feel confident about what you are creating. This experience shows how inspiration can provide a starting point for creativity. Inspiration can help people recognise new possibilities and motivate them to turn those possibilities into action (Oleynick et al., 2014). An idea may therefore become more than simply an interesting thought when a person feels motivated to develop it. As you continue, however, the excitement begins to fade. The idea is harder to develop than you expected, and finishing the project requires concentration, persistence, and several changes along the way. Even without the same initial feeling of inspiration, you keep working and experimenting with different possibilities. This demonstrates that creativity does not depend on inspiration alone. Developing an initial idea can require continued effort, revision, problem-solving, and persistence. Persistence can be particularly valuable because people may underestimate how many creative ideas they can generate by continuing to work on a task (Lucas & Nordgren, 2015). While doing this, you unexpectedly discover new ideas that make the project even better than you first imagined. This raises an interesting question: Does inspiration drive us to put effort into creative work, or can the effort we put into creating also lead to new inspiration? This question highlights the possible interaction between inspiration and effort. Inspiration may encourage a person to begin creating, while continued engagement with a task may provide opportunities to discover further possibilities. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * '''Creative inspiration can give people new ideas and motivate them to start creating.''' It can also help people see new possibilities and feel more interested in developing an idea. Inspiration can connect the discovery of an idea with the motivation to pursue it. This is reflected in the distinction between being “inspired by” something and being “inspired to” act on it (Oleynick et al., 2014). * '''Inspiration alone may not be enough to produce a creative outcome.''' Turning an initial idea into something meaningful often requires effort, persistence, problem-solving, and making changes along the way. Creative ideas often need to be developed and refined before becoming finished outcomes. Continued effort can therefore help move creativity beyond the initial idea. * '''Inspiration and effort may work together during the creative process.''' Inspiration can encourage someone to put more effort into their work, while continuing to work on an idea may also lead to new ideas and further inspiration. Research supports the idea that inspiration and effort are not necessarily opposites. Thrash et al. (2010) found a positive relationship between inspiration and effort during creative writing, suggesting that inspired individuals may also invest considerable effort in their work. * '''Understanding the relationship between inspiration and effort can help explain how creativity develops.''' It can show how an initial moment of inspiration may eventually become a completed creative outcome through continued effort. Understanding both processes provides a more complete explanation of creativity. Inspiration may provide possibilities and motivation, while effort helps develop and refine those possibilities into creative outcomes. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=15}} '''Focus questions''' * What is creative inspiration and what role does it play in the creative process? * What role does effort play in developing creative ideas? * How does inspiration influence effort during the creative process? * How can effort lead to further inspiration during the creative process? * How do inspiration and effort work together to produce creative outcomes? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Creative inspiration == {{ic|Remove bullet points}} * Creative inspiration is a motivational state that encourages people to turn ideas into action. It can motivate people to develop or express new possibilities (Oleynick et al., 2014). Creative inspiration is therefore more than simply thinking of something new. A person may have an interesting idea without necessarily feeling motivated to develop it. Inspiration becomes important when the idea creates motivation to explore, express, or transform the possibility into creative work. This helps explain why inspiration can play an important role in moving from the generation of an idea towards its development. {{f}} * Inspiration involves three main characteristics: evocation, transcendence, and approach motivation {{f}}. Together, these describe how inspiration is triggered, creates new possibilities, and motivates action (Thrash & Elliot, 2003). ** '''Evocation''' means that inspiration is experienced as being triggered by something rather than being completely controlled or deliberately produced by the individual. For example, inspiration might be triggered by an experience, another person's work, an unexpected observation, or a new idea. ** '''Transcendence''' involves becoming aware of possibilities that go beyond a person's ordinary concerns or usual way of thinking. It can allow an individual to see something from a different perspective. ** Finally, '''approach motivation''' refers to the motivation to move towards, express, or realise the new possibility. These three characteristics help explain why inspiration can feel spontaneous while still encouraging purposeful action. {{f}} * Inspiration can involve being “inspired by” something and then “inspired to” act. This can help turn an inspiring idea or experience into creative activity (Oleynick et al., 2014). Being “inspired by” describes the experience of encountering or recognising something inspiring, whereas being “inspired to” involves the motivation that follows from that experience. For example, an artist may be inspired by something they observe and then become inspired to create a piece of artwork based on the possibilities they recognised. This distinction shows how inspiration can connect an initial experience with later creative behaviour. * Creative ideas and inspiration are related but different. Creative ideas can come first and then produce inspiration that motivates people to develop those ideas (Thrash et al., 2010). This distinction is important because creativity should not be understood as inspiration simply producing ideas automatically. An individual might first generate or encounter a creative idea and then experience inspiration because of the possibilities represented by that idea. Inspiration can subsequently provide motivation to develop and communicate it. Therefore, the creative idea and the motivational experience of inspiration can be connected while remaining psychologically different processes. {{f}} * Inspiration can help transform initial ideas into creative outcomes. Research found that inspiration helped carry the creativity of an initial idea into the finished product (Thrash et al., 2010). This finding demonstrates the importance of inspiration beyond the beginning of the creative process. An original idea alone does not guarantee an original final product because the idea still needs to be developed and expressed. Inspiration may help maintain the connection between the creative potential of the initial idea and what is eventually produced. However, developing that potential also requires action, which makes effort an important part of understanding how creative inspiration becomes a completed creative outcome. {{f}} == Effort in the creative process == * Effort helps develop and improve creative ideas. Turning an initial idea into a finished product often requires persistence, problem-solving, revision, and continued work (Lucas & Nordgren, 2015). Having an original idea is only the beginning of the creative process. An idea that initially appears exciting may become more difficult to develop once a person begins working on it. Problems may emerge, certain parts may not work as expected, and the individual may need to consider different approaches {{f}}. Effort allows a person to continue working through these difficulties rather than abandoning the original idea. For example, a writer may repeatedly rewrite part of a story, while an artist may experiment with several techniques before achieving the desired result. Effort therefore helps transform an initial possibility into a more developed creative outcome. * Inspiration and effort can contribute differently to creative work. Inspiration predicted creativity, while effort predicted the technical quality of creative products (Thrash et al., 2010). This finding suggests that simply putting more effort into something does not automatically make it more creative. Inspiration may be particularly important for originality and the creative possibilities represented in the work, whereas effort can contribute to how effectively those possibilities are expressed. Technical quality may require careful attention, practice, revision, and improvement. Therefore, a creative product can benefit from both an inspiring idea and the effort required to develop that idea successfully. {{f}} * Effort can support the refinement of creative ideas. Creative work often involves deliberate thinking, making changes, and revising ideas as they develop (Oleynick et al., 2014). Creative ideas can change considerably between their initial generation and their final form. As people continue working, they can evaluate their ideas, identify weaknesses, and explore alternatives. This deliberate process allows creative possibilities to be tested and improved. Effort can therefore contribute to creativity by providing the time and engagement needed for refinement rather than accepting the first version of an idea. {{f}} * Persistence can improve creative performance. People often underestimate the value of continuing with a creative task, even though persistence can lead to more creative ideas (Lucas & Nordgren, 2015). Lucas and Nordgren (2015) found {{how}} that {{who}} people underestimated how productive they could remain when they continued working on creative tasks. This is important because creative work can become increasingly difficult after the most obvious ideas have already been considered. At this point, people may believe that continuing is unlikely to produce anything valuable and may be tempted to stop. However, continuing beyond this point can provide opportunities for less obvious ideas to emerge. Persistence may encourage people to move beyond their immediate responses and consider alternatives that they would not have discovered if they had stopped earlier. Feeling that ideas are becoming difficult to generate therefore does not necessarily mean that further effort has no creative value. {{f}} * Effort and inspiration are not necessarily opposites. They can occur together and contribute in different ways throughout the creative process (Oleynick et al., 2014). Creative work can therefore involve both spontaneous inspiration and deliberate effort. Inspiration may provide an initial possibility or motivation, while effort helps a person develop, evaluate, and improve what has been created. The importance of effort does not reduce the importance of inspiration. Instead, the two processes can complement one another. Understanding effort in this way also leads to another important question: whether feeling inspired can itself motivate people to invest greater effort in their creative work. {{f}} == From inspiration to effort == * Inspiration can motivate people to act on creative ideas. Feeling inspired can encourage a person to move beyond having an idea and begin developing it (Oleynick et al., 2014). Having a creative idea does not necessarily mean that a person will act on it. Inspiration can provide the motivation needed to explore an idea and turn it into creative activity. For example, a writer may think of an interesting story but still needs motivation to begin writing and developing it. Inspiration can encourage this movement from recognising a possibility to actively pursuing it. In this way, inspiration plays an important motivational role because it connects creative possibilities with behaviour. * Inspiration and effort are not opposites. Research suggests that people can experience inspiration while also putting substantial effort into their creative work (Thrash et al., 2010). Creative work is sometimes imagined as something that occurs naturally when a person feels inspired. However, inspiration does not mean that creative work becomes effortless. An individual can feel strongly inspired by an idea while still needing to spend considerable time developing, revising, and improving it. The presence of effort therefore does not necessarily indicate that inspiration is absent. Instead, inspiration may provide a reason for people to continue investing effort because they recognise the possibilities within their creative work. {{f}} * Higher inspiration can be associated with greater effort. Writers who felt more inspired also tended to report putting more effort into their writing (Thrash et al., 2010). This relationship suggests that inspiration may actually encourage greater effort rather than replace it. When people feel excited about an idea and believe that it has creative potential, they may become more willing to invest their attention and energy into developing it. Thrash et al. (2010) therefore provide useful evidence against the assumption that inspired creativity should occur without substantial work. Inspiration and effort can occur together within the same creative activity. * Inspiration may help connect an initial idea with the motivation needed to develop it. The process can move from being “inspired by” an idea to being “inspired to” act on it (Oleynick et al., 2014). The distinction between being “inspired by” and “inspired to” helps explain how inspiration can lead towards effort. Being inspired by something involves recognising a new or valuable possibility, whereas being inspired to involves motivation to pursue or express that possibility. For example, a musician might be inspired by hearing an unusual sound and then become inspired to experiment with that sound in their own music. The original experience provides inspiration, while the motivation that follows encourages creative action. Once a person begins acting on an inspiring possibility, effort becomes increasingly important. The idea may require experimentation, revision, practice, or problem-solving before it becomes a finished creative product. Inspiration can therefore provide motivation and direction, while effort provides the continued action required to develop the idea. {{f}} * Inspiration and effort can therefore complement each other during creativity. Research suggests that both can contribute to creative work, although they may contribute in different ways (Oleynick et al., 2014). Rather than choosing between inspiration and effort as explanations for creativity, it is more useful to consider how they work together. Inspiration can provide possibilities and motivation, while effort allows those possibilities to be explored and developed. This also suggests that their relationship may continue throughout the creative process. Inspiration may encourage effort, while continued effort can create opportunities to discover new ideas and experience further inspiration. {{f}} == Interaction between inspiration and effort == * Inspiration and effort can work together during creative work. Research shows a positive relationship between inspiration and effort rather than the two being opposites (Thrash et al., 2010). This relationship suggests that creativity does not have to be understood as either spontaneous inspiration or deliberate hard work. A person may experience an inspiring idea and still need to invest considerable effort in developing it. In fact, inspiration may make a person more willing to continue working because they recognise possibilities in what they are creating. Effort can then provide the sustained engagement required to explore those possibilities. Inspiration and effort can therefore operate as connected parts of the creative process rather than separate ways of being creative. The positive relationship identified by Thrash et al. (2010) is particularly important because it challenges the idea that inspiration makes creative work effortless. Inspired individuals may still revise their work, solve problems, experiment with alternatives, and spend considerable time improving what they have created. * Inspiration and effort can contribute in different ways. Inspiration has been associated with greater creativity, while effort has been linked more strongly with the technical quality of creative work (Thrash et al., 2010). This finding suggests that the contribution of inspiration cannot simply be replaced by working harder, and the contribution of effort cannot necessarily be replaced by feeling more inspired. Inspiration may help a person recognise original possibilities and maintain the creative direction of an initial idea. Effort, on the other hand, can contribute to how successfully the idea is developed and expressed. For example, someone could have a highly original idea for a piece of writing, but the final work may still require careful organisation, editing, and revision. Similarly, technically polished work does not automatically become highly creative simply because substantial effort was invested in producing it. The strongest creative outcomes may therefore benefit from both an original or inspiring direction and sufficient effort to develop that direction effectively. {{f}} * Inspiration can help generate and express creative possibilities, while effort helps develop and refine them. Both can therefore contribute to the creative process in different ways (Oleynick et al., 2014). Creative ideas often change while they are being developed. An initial possibility can provide direction, but continued work allows a person to evaluate the idea and discover what needs to be changed. During this process, the individual may experiment with alternatives, identify problems, and discover possibilities that were not obvious at the beginning. This also suggests that the relationship between inspiration and effort may not always follow a simple pattern where inspiration occurs first and effort occurs afterwards. Continued engagement with creative work can expose people to new information, unexpected results, or different ways of approaching a problem. These experiences may create opportunities for further inspiration. Creativity can therefore involve repeated movement between inspired possibilities and deliberate development. {{f}} * Creative work can involve both spontaneous and deliberate processes. Inspiration may provide motivation and direction, while sustained effort helps turn ideas into completed creative work (Oleynick et al., 2014). Spontaneous experiences can be valuable because they may allow people to recognise possibilities that they had not deliberately searched for. However, deliberate processes become important when those possibilities need to be transformed into something more complete. This can involve planning, evaluating, practising, revising, and persisting when difficulties occur. The interaction between the two processes provides a more complete explanation of creativity than focusing on either one alone. Inspiration can help explain where motivation and creative direction may come from, while effort helps explain how an idea continues to develop after the initial moment of inspiration. At the same time, sustained engagement can create new opportunities for ideas to emerge, meaning that inspiration may occur repeatedly rather than only at the beginning. {{f}} == Supporting inspiration and sustained creative effort == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2024/Intrinsic motivation and creativity|Intrinsic motivation]] is positively related to creativity. People with greater intrinsic motivation tend to produce more creative outcomes (Jesus et al., 2013). Intrinsic motivation occurs when people engage in an activity because they find it interesting, enjoyable, or personally meaningful rather than because they are focused mainly on external rewards. This type of motivation can be particularly useful for creativity because creative tasks often require exploration and continued engagement. When people genuinely enjoy what they are doing, they may be more willing to experiment with different ideas, explore possibilities, and continue working when difficulties occur. Intrinsic motivation can therefore help provide the sustained interest needed to support both creative inspiration and effort. {{f}} * A supportive environment can help creative motivation. Having autonomy, encouragement, and opportunities to explore ideas can make it easier for people to engage in creative work (Amabile & Pratt, 2016). Creativity does not occur independently of the environment in which a person is working. Conditions that allow individuals to explore their own ideas can support creative motivation. Autonomy can be particularly important because having some control over how a task is approached allows people to experiment and pursue possibilities that they find interesting. Encouragement from other people can also help individuals feel that their creative efforts are valued.In contrast, environments that provide little freedom or discourage experimentation may make creative engagement more difficult. This demonstrates that supporting creativity involves more than simply telling someone to be creative. The surrounding conditions can influence whether people feel motivated to explore ideas and continue developing them. {{f}} * Persistence can help when inspiration begins to fade. Continuing to work on a difficult creative task can lead to more creative ideas than people often expect (Lucas & Nordgren, 2015). Inspiration may be strongest when a creative idea first appears, but this feeling may not remain constant throughout a project. Difficulties can emerge as the person begins developing the idea, and progress may become slower. At this point, persistence becomes particularly important. Instead of interpreting difficulty as evidence that no more useful ideas are available, continuing to engage with the problem may allow further possibilities to emerge. Lucas and Nordgren (2015) showed {{how}} that {{who}} people can underestimate the creative value of persistence. This suggests that a practical way to support creativity is to continue working beyond the point where generating ideas begins to feel difficult. Effort can therefore maintain creative activity even when inspiration temporarily becomes weaker. * Taking breaks may also support creative thinking. Research suggests {{how}} that stepping away from a problem for a period of time can sometimes improve later creative performance (Sio & Ormerod, 2009). Sustained effort does not necessarily mean working continuously without stopping. Taking a temporary break can sometimes be useful when a person becomes stuck on a creative problem. This is often discussed {{f}} in relation to '''incubation''', where a period away from active problem-solving can support later performance. A break may allow a person to return to the problem with a different perspective or become less focused on an unsuccessful approach. This means that effective creative effort may involve knowing when to persist and when temporarily stepping away could be useful. A break is not necessarily the opposite of effort because it can form part of a longer process of sustained engagement with a creative task. * Supporting creativity may therefore involve both encouraging inspiration and maintaining effort. Creative outcomes can benefit from conditions that support motivation, persistence, and continued development of ideas (Amabile & Pratt, 2016). There is therefore no single strategy that guarantees inspiration or creativity. Instead, creativity can be supported by conditions that encourage people to explore possibilities while also helping them continue developing their ideas. Intrinsic motivation and supportive environments can encourage engagement, persistence can help when progress becomes difficult, and appropriate breaks can create opportunities to approach problems differently. Together, these strategies demonstrate how both inspiration and sustained effort can be supported throughout the creative process. == Conclusion == * Inspiration and effort both contribute to creativity, but they play different roles throughout the creative process. Creative work cannot be fully explained by inspiration or effort alone. Inspiration can introduce new possibilities and provide motivation, while effort allows those possibilities to be explored and developed. Their different roles mean that both can contribute to the development of a successful creative outcome. * Inspiration can provide ideas and motivation, while effort helps develop, improve, and complete those ideas. Inspiration can encourage people to move from recognising a creative possibility to wanting to act on it. However, an inspiring idea may still require considerable work before it becomes a completed product. Effort allows people to experiment, solve problems, make changes, and refine what they initially imagined. * Effort can keep the creative process moving when inspiration fades, through persistence, revision, and problem-solving. Creative work does not always remain exciting or easy. When difficulties emerge, persistence can allow individuals to continue exploring possibilities rather than stopping when their initial inspiration becomes weaker. Continued engagement can also create opportunities for unexpected ideas and new inspiration to emerge. * Overall, inspiration and effort work together, helping transform initial ideas into developed creative outcomes. The relationship between the two can therefore be understood as dynamic rather than as a choice between inspiration and hard work. Inspiration may encourage effort, while sustained effort can create further opportunities for creative possibilities to appear. The key take-home message is that creativity often begins with possibility, but developing that possibility requires continued engagement. Understanding how inspiration and effort support one another provides a more complete explanation of how creative ideas become meaningful and completed creative outcomes. == See also == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [[w:Creativity|Creativity]] (Wikipedia) [[w:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Creativity and emotion|Creativity and emotion]] (Book Chapter, 2014) [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Artistic creation motivation|Artistic creation motivation]] (Book Chapter,2016) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Amabile, T. M., & Pratt, M. G. (2016). The dynamic componential model of creativity and innovation in organizations: Making progress, making meaning. Research in Organizational Behavior, 36, 157–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2016.10.001 Jesus, S. N., Rus, C. L., Lens, W., & Imaginário, S. (2013). Intrinsic motivation and creativity related to product: A meta-analysis of the studies published between 1990–2010. Creativity Research Journal, 25(1), 80–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2013.752235 Lucas, B. J., & Nordgren, L. F. (2015). People underestimate the value of persistence for creative performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(2), 232–243. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000030 Oleynick, V. C., Thrash, T. M., LeFew, M. C., Moldovan, E. G., & Kieffaber, P. D. (2014). The scientific study of inspiration in the creative process: Challenges and opportunities. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, Article 436. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00436 Sio, U. N., & Ormerod, T. C. (2009). Does incubation enhance problem solving? A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(1), 94–120. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014212 Thrash, T. M., & Elliot, A. J. (2003). Inspiration as a psychological construct. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 871–889. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.871 Thrash, T. M., Maruskin, L. A., Cassidy, S. E., Fryer, J. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). Mediating between the muse and the masses: Inspiration and the actualization of creative ideas. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(3), 469–487. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017907 }} == External Links == {{ic|Use bullet points as shown in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lSaNEcNprzw The Art of Creative Inspiration] (Youtube video) [https://www.apa.org/monitor/2022/04/cover-science-creativity The Science behind creativity] ( American Psychological Association) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AzJcNwDeS2c Inspiration: Find it, Use it, Share it] ( Youtube video) [https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog/explorations-of-the-mind/202309/creativity-and-inspiration-thinking-outside-the-box Creativity and inspiration] (Psychology today) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Creativity]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Effort]] fwrx6uxpw3td38p3llpqzt94hpx77si 0 331478 2842804 2841964 2026-10-27T09:13:54Z Ayat Al-kabai 3105570 2842804 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure:<br>How does epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Necker cube.svg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. The Necker cube can be interpreted in more than one way. It illustrates how ambiguity can permit competing interpretations before cognitive closure is reached.{{ic|Explain how this illustrates epistemic motivation.}}]] ;Scenario Sofia receives two conflicting pieces of advice about an important career decision. She feels uncomfortable with the uncertainty and wants to decide immediately. However, she also wants to examine the evidence, consider different perspectives, and make an informed choice. Sofia’s situation demonstrates two psychological forces: * epistemic motivation, which can encourage deeper information processing, and * the need for cognitive closure, which can encourage people to reach a definite answer and escape uncertainty. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Epistemic motivation concerns a person’s willingness to develop a thorough and accurate understanding of a situation through information search and processing (De Dreu et al., 2008). * Need for cognitive closure is the desire to obtain a definite answer rather than remain confused or uncertain (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * Both concepts influence how people form judgements, make decisions, communicate with others and respond to uncertainty. * Neither is always beneficial or harmful; the outcome depends on the person, available information and situational demands. * Figure 1 demonstrates how the same ambiguous information may permit more than one interpretation before a person reaches closure. Uncertainty can be emotionally uncomfortable. People differ in how much effort they invest in understanding a problem and how quickly they want uncertainty to end. These motives shape which information is noticed, whether alternatives are compared and whether an initial judgement is revised. A fast answer may feel reassuring despite weak evidence, while prolonged searching may delay action. This chapter examines how to balance accuracy with the need to decide. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is epistemic motivation? * What is the need for cognitive closure? * How are epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure connected? * How do they influence everyday decisions, learning and relationships? * When is cognitive closure helpful or harmful? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Epistemic motivation == * [[w:Epistemic motivation|Epistemic motivation]] describes the willingness to invest effort in developing a complete and accurate understanding of the world (De Dreu et al., 2008). * Higher epistemic motivation encourages information search, deliberate reasoning and careful consideration of different perspectives. * Lower epistemic motivation is associated with shallower information processing and greater reliance on existing knowledge, familiar opinions or mental shortcuts. * Epistemic motivation can be influenced by personal characteristics and situational factors, including curiosity, accountability, fatigue, stress and time pressure. * Epistemic motivation should not be understood as intelligence. A capable person may still process information superficially when tired, distracted or under pressure. [[File:Duck-Rabbit illusion.jpg|thumb|220px|'''Figure 2'''. The duck–rabbit illusion shows how identical visual information can support competing interpretations.]] Epistemic motivation is best understood through motivated information processing. According to this perspective, judgement depends on both capacity and motivation: a person must be able to process information and also be willing to invest the necessary effort (De Dreu et al., 2008). This distinction explains why the same person may reason carefully about an important health decision but accept the first plausible answer to a minor question. It also separates epistemic motivation from [[w:Need for cognition|need for cognition]], a tendency to enjoy effortful thought, although the constructs overlap (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982). The quality of processing therefore depends on the person, the task and the surrounding conditions rather than on a fixed label such as “deep thinker”. Figure 2 illustrates why delaying closure can be useful when evidence permits more than one interpretation {{ic|How so? Explain.}}. === Depth of information processing === {{ic|What theory does this relate to? What is the evidence? What are some examples?}} * Higher epistemic motivation encourages people to attend to, encode, retrieve and integrate relevant information more thoroughly (De Dreu et al., 2008). * Groups {{example}} with stronger epistemic motivation may exchange more unique information and engage in more information-driven discussion{{fact}}. * Process accountability {{ic|Explain term}} can increase epistemic motivation because people expect to explain how they reached a decision (De Dreu et al., 2006). * Deeper processing can improve decision quality, especially when a problem is complicated and important information is distributed among several people. === Influencing factors === * Time pressure and environmental noise can decrease the opportunity or motivation to consider multiple explanations (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * Fear of making an invalid judgement may increase information search and delay closure. * Fatigue can make sustained reasoning more difficult and increase the appeal of a quick, simple answer. * Personal relevance may increase information processing, although people may also process information selectively when an issue threatens an important belief or identity. Research {{fact}} also shows that accountability matters, but its timing is important. When people expect to explain the process by which they reached a judgement, they are more likely to examine information carefully and integrate competing evidence (De Dreu et al., 2006). By contrast, accountability for defending a preferred outcome can encourage selective reasoning. Thus, asking “How did you reach this conclusion?” may promote epistemic motivation more effectively than asking someone merely to justify a conclusion they have already announced. == Need for cognitive closure == * Need for cognitive closure refers to the motivation to reach a definite conclusion and avoid uncertainty or ambiguity (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * It can operate as a relatively stable individual difference and as a temporary state produced by circumstances such as fatigue, time pressure and stress. * Webster and Kruglanski (1994) identified several associated preferences, including predictability, order, decisiveness and reduced comfort with ambiguity. * The effects of need for closure are commonly explained through the urgency and permanence tendencies. The need for closure is grounded in lay epistemic theory, which treats knowledge formation as a motivated process rather than a purely rational one (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). Closure can be valued because it reduces uncertainty, enables action and creates a stable understanding of events. It can also be avoided when a person fears that any available conclusion will be invalid. Consequently, the {{what}} theory predicts not a universal preference for quick answers, but an interaction between the desirability of closure, the information available and the costs of making an error {{fact}}. === Urgency tendency === {{ic|Is this part of "lay epistemic theory"? Clarify/explain.}} * The urgency tendency involves wanting to reach closure as quickly as possible (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * It may cause people to “seize” on information encountered early in the decision-making process. * Urgency can be helpful when immediate action is genuinely necessary, such as during an emergency. * However, it can also produce premature conclusions when the available information is incomplete, inaccurate or misleading. Experimental evidence supports this account. For example, Kruglanski et al. (1993) found that conditions increasing the desire for closure made participants more resistant to persuasion after they had formed an opinion, but more receptive to early information when no prior position existed. This pattern demonstrates both tendencies: urgency increases reliance on an initial message, while permanence protects an existing judgement. Because persuasion experiments simplify real-world belief change, the findings identify a mechanism rather than determining how every individual will respond. === Permanence tendency === {{ic|Is this part of "lay epistemic theory"? Clarify/explain.}} * The permanence tendency involves wanting to preserve an existing conclusion for as long as possible (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * It may cause people to “freeze” on their initial judgement and resist information that challenges it. * Permanence can create consistency, confidence and coordination after a decision has been made. * Excessive permanence may contribute to inflexible thinking, stereotyping and resistance to corrective evidence. === Individual differences === {{ic|Is this part of "lay epistemic theory"? Clarify/explain.}} * The Need for Closure Scale was developed to measure individual differences related to predictability, order, decisiveness, ambiguity and closed-mindedness (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). * A shorter revised measure has also demonstrated that urgency and permanence are important dimensions of the construct (Roets & Van Hiel, 2011). * A high score does not mean that someone is unintelligent or incapable of careful reasoning. * Need for closure can change across situations; therefore, a person may tolerate uncertainty in one context but urgently seek certainty in another. Measurement requires caution. The Need for Closure Scale assesses order, predictability, decisiveness, discomfort with ambiguity and closed-mindedness (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). However, decisiveness may function differently from other facets, and ability to decide is not the same as motivation for closure (Roets & Van Hiel, 2007). Self-reports describe tendencies rather than directly observing information processing in a specific situation (Roets & Van Hiel, 2011). == Relationship between epistemic motivation and cognitive closure == * The need for cognitive closure is a form of epistemic motivation because it concerns how people acquire and maintain knowledge (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * Epistemic motivation is the broader concept, whereas need for closure specifically concerns motivation to end uncertainty by reaching a conclusion. * Strong motivation to understand a problem may promote extensive information search, while strong motivation for immediate closure may shorten that search. * High-quality judgement therefore depends on balancing sufficient investigation with the practical need to reach a decision. '''Table 1.''' ''Comparison of epistemic motivation and need for cognitive closure'' {{ic|Use 1st letter capitalisation for table captions as per APA style}} {{ic|What is the source of this information?}} {| class="wikitable" ! Concept ! Main goal ! Possible benefit ! Possible limitation |- | Epistemic motivation | Develop an accurate and comprehensive understanding | Deeper information processing and consideration of alternatives | Decision-making may require more time and effort |- | Urgency tendency | Reach closure quickly | Supports timely action | May produce premature conclusions |- | Permanence tendency | Maintain an established conclusion | Supports consistency and commitment | May create resistance to corrective evidence |} * Table 1 shows that these motivational processes involve different goals and trade-offs. * Epistemic motivation can improve decision quality by promoting systematic information processing, particularly in group settings (De Dreu et al., 2008). * However, continuously seeking more information can also delay decisions when the available information is already sufficient. * Cognitive closure can support action and coordination, but early closure may prevent consideration of important alternatives. The relationship is therefore not a simple opposition between “good” epistemic motivation and “bad” closure. Need for closure is itself an epistemic motive, but it directs processing toward a definite and stable answer. High epistemic motivation can improve judgement when the evidence is reliable and the task rewards accuracy; it can also be used to defend an identity-consistent conclusion. Likewise, closure can be adaptive when delay is costly. The decisive issue is whether the timing and content of closure match the demands of the situation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Key points''' * Epistemic motivation concerns how thoroughly information is processed. * Urgency encourages rapid “seizing” on an answer. * Permanence encourages “freezing” on an established answer. * Accuracy depends on matching processing to the decision. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case study''' Jordan sees a social-media post claiming that a familiar food causes a serious illness. Feeling anxious, Jordan immediately accepts the claim and shares it. Later, a friend encourages Jordan to locate the original research, examine reliable sources and consider alternative explanations. Jordan’s initial response may demonstrate the urgency tendency because uncertainty is ended by accepting the first available explanation. Greater epistemic motivation could encourage Jordan to examine the quality of the evidence before forming and sharing a conclusion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display=simple> {Which response best demonstrates the urgency tendency? |type="()"} - Continuing to compare evidence without ever reaching a decision + Accepting the first plausible explanation to eliminate uncertainty - Changing an opinion after receiving reliable contradictory evidence - Asking several experts to explain their different perspectives || The urgency tendency involves attempting to reach cognitive closure as quickly as possible. } {Which response best demonstrates higher epistemic motivation? |type="()"} - Ignoring information that challenges an existing belief - Selecting the simplest answer without examining its source + Comparing evidence and considering alternative explanations - Repeating an opinion because it is familiar || Higher epistemic motivation generally involves more thorough information search and processing. } {The permanence tendency is most closely associated with: |type="()"} - Curiosity about new information + Maintaining an existing judgement - Avoiding all decisions - Forgetting a previous conclusion || The permanence tendency involves preserving closure after a judgement has been formed. } </quiz> == Influence on everyday life == * Epistemic motivation and need for closure influence behaviour across educational, interpersonal, organisational and social settings. * Their effects depend on the complexity of the problem, the quality of available information and whether rapid action is required. * Understanding these motivations may help people recognise when they are investigating a question carefully and when they are closing it prematurely. Evidence across settings supports these {{what}} applications, but much of it is correlational, laboratory-based or based on university samples. Such research can identify mechanisms under controlled conditions, yet it may not fully capture high-stakes decisions made over longer periods or across cultures. Findings should therefore be applied as probabilistic tendencies rather than rules about individuals. === Learning and education === * Higher epistemic motivation may promote curiosity, critical thinking and deeper engagement with learning materials {{fact}}. * Students who evaluate evidence and compare alternative explanations are more likely to develop an integrated understanding than students who rely only on memorisation {{fact}}. * A strong need for closure may make unclear instructions, conflicting theories and open-ended assignments uncomfortable {{fact}}. * Clear structure can support learning, but excessive reliance on one definite answer may be problematic when a subject requires critical evaluation {{fact}}. Educators can combine structure with productive uncertainty. Clear criteria reduce unnecessary confusion, while comparing explanations keeps alternatives open for critical thought. Prompts asking students to identify disconfirming evidence may be more useful than simply telling them to “think harder”. Because excessive ambiguity can overload learners, support should be reduced gradually as knowledge develops. {{fact}} === Decision-making === * Epistemic motivation can improve decision quality by encouraging people to search for and integrate relevant information (De Dreu et al., 2006). * Under genuine time pressure, rapid closure may be adaptive because delaying action could have serious consequences {{fact}}. * When time is available, seizing on the first acceptable explanation may cause important evidence or alternative options to be overlooked {{fact}}. * Effective decision-making involves identifying how much information is required and establishing an appropriate point at which to decide {{fact}}. A useful decision rule is to match the search effort to the consequences of erro {{fact}}r. Reversible, low-cost choices may justify quick closure, whereas irreversible or safety-critical choices require stronger evidence and independent checking {{fact}}. This rule does not guarantee accuracy, but it makes the stopping point explicit {{fact}}. It also prevents anxiety alone from determining when information search ends {{fact}}. === Relationships and group behaviour === * First impressions can provide cognitive closure, but they may become inaccurate when people freeze on an early judgement {{fact}}. * Need for closure can influence intergroup language and strengthen biased descriptions of in-group and out-group behaviour (Webster et al., 1997). {{example}} * Groups with higher epistemic motivation may exchange information more thoroughly and reach better-informed decisions (De Dreu et al., 2008). {{eample}} * Encouraging respectful disagreement can prevent premature consensus and allow group members to identify overlooked evidence {{fact}}. [[File:Emile Friant La Discussion politique.jpg|thumb|240px|'''Figure 3'''. Discussion can expose competing interpretations when members exchange and evaluate information rather than rush toward agreement.]] Group outcomes also depend on whether members possess different information. Scholten et al. (2007) found {{how}} that process accountability increased systematic information processing and decision quality, particularly when group members began with different preferences. Bechtoldt et al. (2010) similarly showed {{how}} that epistemic motivation supported group creativity when members pursued collective rather than purely personal goals. However, status differences, conformity and a shared preference for certainty can still suppress dissent. Figure 3 illustrates the social exchange through which alternatives can be tested. Leaders can request reasons before preferences, assign a devil’s advocate and delay an initial vote until evidence has been discussed. === Information and misinformation === * Online environments can expose people to large amounts of contradictory information, increasing confusion and the desire for simple answers. * A strong need for closure may increase reliance on information that quickly resolves uncertainty, even when its reliability has not been established. * Freezing on an initial interpretation can make later corrective evidence more difficult to accept. * Research suggests that need for closure can influence memory processes and vulnerability to misleading post-event information (Pica et al., 2014). Pica et al. (2014) found that need for closure influenced retrieval-induced forgetting and misinformation effects in eyewitness memory. Confidence and accuracy are not identical: closure may make a coherent account feel certain after misleading details are incorporated. This does not mean everyone high in need for closure accepts misinformation; source credibility, prior knowledge and verification opportunities still matter. Online, readers can pause before sharing, trace the original source and seek disconfirming evidence. == Balancing understanding and closure == * Neither endless information search nor immediate closure is appropriate in every situation {{fact}}. * The most effective approach depends on the consequences of error, the urgency of action and the availability of reliable evidence {{fact}}. * People can improve decisions by recognising their reactions to uncertainty and deliberately choosing whether additional investigation is necessary }. === Potential benefits === * Epistemic motivation can support critical thinking, learning and informed decision-making {{fact}}. * Urgent closure can allow people to act efficiently during emergencies or under strict deadlines {{fact}}. * Permanent closure can create stability, commitment and coordination after an adequately informed decision {{fact}}. * Shared closure can also help groups organise action around an agreed understanding {{fact}}. === Potential limitations === * Excessive information search may create indecision or unnecessary delay {{fact}}. * Urgency can cause people to seize on incomplete or unreliable information {{fact}}. * Permanence can create inflexible beliefs and resistance to corrective evidence {{fact}}. * Need for closure may contribute to stereotyping when simplified group judgements replace individualised information (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996; Webster et al., 1997). These limitations show why context matters. A preference for closure may strengthen whichever interpretation is most accessible, not necessarily a negative one. For example, Kossowska et al. (2015) found that need for closure could be associated with more positive attitudes toward a negatively stereotyped outgroup when the ability to achieve closure was low. This qualification challenges the idea that need for closure automatically produces prejudice and illustrates why researchers must distinguish motivational direction from the specific belief that becomes fixed. === Practical strategies === * Pause before important decisions and identify whether time pressure is genuine or self-imposed. * Separate established facts, interpretations and assumptions. * Consider at least one alternative explanation before reaching a conclusion. * Seek information from reliable sources and perspectives that challenge the initial judgement. * Establish a reasonable decision deadline so that information search does not continue indefinitely. * Reconsider an existing conclusion when credible new evidence becomes available. {{fact}} [[File:Consensus Flowchart.svg|thumb|340px|'''Figure 4'''. A decision process can include opportunities to question, revise and consolidate a conclusion.]] '''Table 2.''' ''Matching information search to the decision'' {| class="wikitable" ! Decision condition ! Recommended response |- | Urgent and reversible | Decide using the best available evidence |- | Important and irreversible | Seek independent evidence and test alternatives |- | Credible new evidence appears | Reopen and revise the conclusion |} These strategies work best as “decision hygiene” rather than as personality correction. Before deciding, a person can state what evidence would change the conclusion, compare at least two plausible explanations, and obtain one independent source. During group decisions, members can record their initial views privately before discussion and evaluate the reasoning process rather than rewarding confidence alone. After deciding, a scheduled review point allows permanence to support action without making the conclusion immune to correction {{fact}}. Table 2 and Figure 4 show how closure can be treated as reviewable rather than irreversible. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Reflection exercise''' Think about an important decision you made recently. # What information did you examine? # Did you feel pressure to reach an answer quickly? # Did you consider an alternative explanation? # What evidence might have changed your decision? # Did your response reflect epistemic motivation, urgency, permanence or a combination of these processes? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * Epistemic motivation influences the depth and thoroughness with which people search for, process and integrate information. * Need for cognitive closure motivates people to reach and preserve definite conclusions, particularly when uncertainty is uncomfortable. * The urgency tendency can lead people to seize on early information, while the permanence tendency can lead them to freeze on an established judgement. * These processes affect learning, decision-making, relationships, group behaviour and responses to online information. * Cognitive closure is not inherently harmful because it can support timely action, consistency and coordination. * The central challenge is to balance the desire for accurate understanding with the practical need to reach a conclusion. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' Good judgement requires knowing when to continue searching and when to decide. People can make better decisions by tolerating uncertainty long enough to examine reliable evidence while still establishing a reasonable point for reaching closure. == Acknowledgements == Generative AI Acknowledgement I would like to acknowledge my use of ChatGPT (OpenAI) during the development and publication of my book chapter, Epistemic Motivation and the Need for Cognitive Closure. I independently conducted the research for my book chapter and wrote my content in Google Docs before using ChatGPT. My research, ideas, explanations, and written material were developed through my own academic work. As I am not experienced in coding or using wiki markup, I used ChatGPT primarily for technical assistance. After completing my research and writing, I provided ChatGPT with my written material and requested assistance converting it into the appropriate wiki markup format for publication on Wikiversity. ChatGPT helped transform my existing written content into wiki markup, allowing me to structure and present my chapter on Wikiversity without needing advanced coding knowledge. Additionally, I used ChatGPT to assist with selecting relevant images for my chapter. I explained the topic and the types of images I wanted to include, and ChatGPT suggested images that would be appropriate for illustrating the concepts discussed in my work. The purpose of using ChatGPT was to assist with technical formatting, coding, visual presentation, and image selection rather than to replace my independent research or academic writing. I acknowledge the importance of academic integrity and transparency when using generative AI tools. This statement is provided to clarify how ChatGPT contributed to the preparation and presentation of my chapter. Generative AI tool used: ChatGPT (OpenAI) Purpose of use: Converting independently written content into Wikiversity wiki markup, technical formatting, page structure, and assistance with selecting relevant images. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Actively open-minded thinking|Actively open-minded thinking]] (Book chapter, 2023) * [[w:Epistemic motivation|Epistemic motivation]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bechtoldt, M. N., De Dreu, C. K. W., Nijstad, B. A., & Choi, H.-S. (2010). Motivated information processing, social tuning, and group creativity. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''99''(4), 622–637. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019386</nowiki> Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''42''(1), 116–131. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116</nowiki> De Dreu, C. K. W., Beersma, B., Stroebe, K., & Euwema, M. C. (2006). Motivated information processing, strategic choice, and the quality of negotiated agreement. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''90''(6), 927–943. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.6.927</nowiki> De Dreu, C. K. W., Nijstad, B. A., & van Knippenberg, D. (2008). Motivated information processing in group judgment and decision making. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''12''(1), 22–49. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868307304092</nowiki> Kossowska, M., Dragon, P., & Bukowski, M. (2015). When need for closure leads to positive attitudes towards a negatively stereotyped outgroup. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''39'', 88–98. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9414-5</nowiki> Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996). Motivated closing of the mind: “Seizing” and “freezing.” ''Psychological Review'', ''103''(2), 263–283. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.263</nowiki> Kruglanski, A. W., Webster, D. M., & Klem, A. (1993). Motivated resistance and openness to persuasion in the presence or absence of prior information. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''65''(5), 861–876. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.5.861</nowiki> Pica, G., Pierro, A., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2014). The role of need for cognitive closure in retrieval-induced forgetting and misinformation effects in eyewitness memory. ''Social Cognition'', ''32''(4), 337–359. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2014.32.4.337</nowiki> Roets, A., & Van Hiel, A. (2007). Separating ability from need: Clarifying the dimensional structure of the need for closure scale. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''33''(2), 266–280. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206294744</nowiki> Roets, A., & Van Hiel, A. (2011). Item selection and validation of a brief, 15-item version of the Need for Closure Scale. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''50''(1), 90–94. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.004</nowiki> Scholten, L., van Knippenberg, D., Nijstad, B. A., & De Dreu, C. K. W. (2007). Motivated information processing and group decision-making: Effects of process accountability on information processing and decision quality. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology'', ''43''(4), 539–552. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.010</nowiki> Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1994). Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''67''(6), 1049–1062. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1049</nowiki> Webster, D. M., Kruglanski, A. W., & Pattison, D. A. (1997). Motivated language use in intergroup contexts: Need-for-closure effects on the linguistic intergroup bias. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''72''(5), 1122–1131. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.1122</nowiki> }} == External links == * [https://dictionary.apa.org/need-for-closure Need for closure] (APA Dictionary of Psychology) * [https://sjdm.org/dmidi/Need_for_%28Cognitive%29_Closure_Scale.html Need for (Cognitive) Closure Scale] (Decision Making Individual Differences Inventory) * [https://dictionary.apa.org/critical-thinking Critical thinking] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision-making]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Epistemic motivation]] amjiicz6cd0fc3yw31jejdamwh9evj9 2842805 2842804 2026-10-27T09:28:25Z Ayat Al-kabai 3105570 2842805 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure:<br>How does epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Necker cube.svg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. The Necker cube can be interpreted in more than one way. It illustrates how ambiguity can permit competing interpretations before cognitive closure is reached.{{ic|Explain how this illustrates epistemic motivation.}}]] ;Scenario Sofia receives two conflicting pieces of advice about an important career decision. She feels uncomfortable with the uncertainty and wants to decide immediately. However, she also wants to examine the evidence, consider different perspectives, and make an informed choice. Sofia’s situation demonstrates two psychological forces: * epistemic motivation, which can encourage deeper information processing, and * the need for cognitive closure, which can encourage people to reach a definite answer and escape uncertainty. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Epistemic motivation concerns a person’s willingness to develop a thorough and accurate understanding of a situation through information search and processing (De Dreu et al., 2008). * Need for cognitive closure is the desire to obtain a definite answer rather than remain confused or uncertain (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * Both concepts influence how people form judgements, make decisions, communicate with others and respond to uncertainty. * Neither is always beneficial or harmful; the outcome depends on the person, available information and situational demands. * Figure 1 demonstrates how the same ambiguous information may permit more than one interpretation before a person reaches closure. Uncertainty can be emotionally uncomfortable. People differ in how much effort they invest in understanding a problem and how quickly they want uncertainty to end. These motives shape which information is noticed, whether alternatives are compared and whether an initial judgement is revised. A fast answer may feel reassuring despite weak evidence, while prolonged searching may delay action. This chapter examines how to balance accuracy with the need to decide. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is epistemic motivation? * What is the need for cognitive closure? * How are epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure connected? * How do they influence everyday decisions, learning and relationships? * When is cognitive closure helpful or harmful? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Epistemic motivation == * [[w:Epistemic motivation|Epistemic motivation]] describes the willingness to invest effort in developing a complete and accurate understanding of the world (De Dreu et al., 2008). * Higher epistemic motivation encourages information search, deliberate reasoning and careful consideration of different perspectives. * Lower epistemic motivation is associated with shallower information processing and greater reliance on existing knowledge, familiar opinions or mental shortcuts. * Epistemic motivation can be influenced by personal characteristics and situational factors, including curiosity, accountability, fatigue, stress and time pressure. * Epistemic motivation should not be understood as intelligence. A capable person may still process information superficially when tired, distracted or under pressure. [[File:Duck-Rabbit illusion.jpg|thumb|220px|'''Figure 2'''. The duck–rabbit illusion shows how identical visual information can support competing interpretations.]] Epistemic motivation is best understood through motivated information processing. According to this perspective, judgement depends on both capacity and motivation: a person must be able to process information and also be willing to invest the necessary effort (De Dreu et al., 2008). This distinction explains why the same person may reason carefully about an important health decision but accept the first plausible answer to a minor question. It also separates epistemic motivation from [[w:Need for cognition|need for cognition]], a tendency to enjoy effortful thought, although the constructs overlap (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982). The quality of processing therefore depends on the person, the task and the surrounding conditions rather than on a fixed label such as “deep thinker”. Figure 2 illustrates why delaying closure can be useful when evidence permits more than one interpretation {{ic|How so? Explain.}}. === Depth of information processing === {{ic|What theory does this relate to? What is the evidence? What are some examples?}} * Higher epistemic motivation encourages people to attend to, encode, retrieve and integrate relevant information more thoroughly (De Dreu et al., 2008). * Groups {{example}} with stronger epistemic motivation may exchange more unique information and engage in more information-driven discussion{{fact}}. * Process accountability {{ic|Explain term}} can increase epistemic motivation because people expect to explain how they reached a decision (De Dreu et al., 2006). * Deeper processing can improve decision quality, especially when a problem is complicated and important information is distributed among several people. === Influencing factors === * Time pressure and environmental noise can decrease the opportunity or motivation to consider multiple explanations (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * Fear of making an invalid judgement may increase information search and delay closure. * Fatigue can make sustained reasoning more difficult and increase the appeal of a quick, simple answer. * Personal relevance may increase information processing, although people may also process information selectively when an issue threatens an important belief or identity. Research {{fact}} also shows that accountability matters, but its timing is important. When people expect to explain the process by which they reached a judgement, they are more likely to examine information carefully and integrate competing evidence (De Dreu et al., 2006). By contrast, accountability for defending a preferred outcome can encourage selective reasoning. Thus, asking “How did you reach this conclusion?” may promote epistemic motivation more effectively than asking someone merely to justify a conclusion they have already announced. == Need for cognitive closure == * Need for cognitive closure refers to the motivation to reach a definite conclusion and avoid uncertainty or ambiguity (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * It can operate as a relatively stable individual difference and as a temporary state produced by circumstances such as fatigue, time pressure and stress. * Webster and Kruglanski (1994) identified several associated preferences, including predictability, order, decisiveness and reduced comfort with ambiguity. * The effects of need for closure are commonly explained through the urgency and permanence tendencies. The need for closure is grounded in lay epistemic theory, which treats knowledge formation as a motivated process rather than a purely rational one (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). Closure can be valued because it reduces uncertainty, enables action and creates a stable understanding of events. It can also be avoided when a person fears that any available conclusion will be invalid. Consequently, the {{what}} theory predicts not a universal preference for quick answers, but an interaction between the desirability of closure, the information available and the costs of making an error {{fact}}. === Urgency tendency === {{ic|Is this part of "lay epistemic theory"? Clarify/explain.}} * The urgency tendency involves wanting to reach closure as quickly as possible (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * It may cause people to “seize” on information encountered early in the decision-making process. * Urgency can be helpful when immediate action is genuinely necessary, such as during an emergency. * However, it can also produce premature conclusions when the available information is incomplete, inaccurate or misleading. Experimental evidence supports this account. For example, Kruglanski et al. (1993) found that conditions increasing the desire for closure made participants more resistant to persuasion after they had formed an opinion, but more receptive to early information when no prior position existed. This pattern demonstrates both tendencies: urgency increases reliance on an initial message, while permanence protects an existing judgement. Because persuasion experiments simplify real-world belief change, the findings identify a mechanism rather than determining how every individual will respond. === Permanence tendency === {{ic|Is this part of "lay epistemic theory"? Clarify/explain.}} * The permanence tendency involves wanting to preserve an existing conclusion for as long as possible (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * It may cause people to “freeze” on their initial judgement and resist information that challenges it. * Permanence can create consistency, confidence and coordination after a decision has been made. * Excessive permanence may contribute to inflexible thinking, stereotyping and resistance to corrective evidence. === Individual differences === {{ic|Is this part of "lay epistemic theory"? Clarify/explain.}} * The Need for Closure Scale was developed to measure individual differences related to predictability, order, decisiveness, ambiguity and closed-mindedness (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). * A shorter revised measure has also demonstrated that urgency and permanence are important dimensions of the construct (Roets & Van Hiel, 2011). * A high score does not mean that someone is unintelligent or incapable of careful reasoning. * Need for closure can change across situations; therefore, a person may tolerate uncertainty in one context but urgently seek certainty in another. Measurement requires caution. The Need for Closure Scale assesses order, predictability, decisiveness, discomfort with ambiguity and closed-mindedness (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). However, decisiveness may function differently from other facets, and ability to decide is not the same as motivation for closure (Roets & Van Hiel, 2007). Self-reports describe tendencies rather than directly observing information processing in a specific situation (Roets & Van Hiel, 2011). == Relationship between epistemic motivation and cognitive closure == * The need for cognitive closure is a form of epistemic motivation because it concerns how people acquire and maintain knowledge (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * Epistemic motivation is the broader concept, whereas need for closure specifically concerns motivation to end uncertainty by reaching a conclusion. * Strong motivation to understand a problem may promote extensive information search, while strong motivation for immediate closure may shorten that search. * High-quality judgement therefore depends on balancing sufficient investigation with the practical need to reach a decision. '''Table 1.''' ''Comparison of epistemic motivation and need for cognitive closure'' {{ic|Use 1st letter capitalisation for table captions as per APA style}} {{ic|What is the source of this information?}} {| class="wikitable" ! Concept ! Main goal ! Possible benefit ! Possible limitation |- | Epistemic motivation | Develop an accurate and comprehensive understanding | Deeper information processing and consideration of alternatives | Decision-making may require more time and effort |- | Urgency tendency | Reach closure quickly | Supports timely action | May produce premature conclusions |- | Permanence tendency | Maintain an established conclusion | Supports consistency and commitment | May create resistance to corrective evidence |} * Table 1 shows that these motivational processes involve different goals and trade-offs. * Epistemic motivation can improve decision quality by promoting systematic information processing, particularly in group settings (De Dreu et al., 2008). * However, continuously seeking more information can also delay decisions when the available information is already sufficient. * Cognitive closure can support action and coordination, but early closure may prevent consideration of important alternatives. The relationship is therefore not a simple opposition between “good” epistemic motivation and “bad” closure. Need for closure is itself an epistemic motive, but it directs processing toward a definite and stable answer. High epistemic motivation can improve judgement when the evidence is reliable and the task rewards accuracy; it can also be used to defend an identity-consistent conclusion. Likewise, closure can be adaptive when delay is costly. The decisive issue is whether the timing and content of closure match the demands of the situation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Key points''' * Epistemic motivation concerns how thoroughly information is processed. * Urgency encourages rapid “seizing” on an answer. * Permanence encourages “freezing” on an established answer. * Accuracy depends on matching processing to the decision. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case study''' Jordan sees a social-media post claiming that a familiar food causes a serious illness. Feeling anxious, Jordan immediately accepts the claim and shares it. Later, a friend encourages Jordan to locate the original research, examine reliable sources and consider alternative explanations. Jordan’s initial response may demonstrate the urgency tendency because uncertainty is ended by accepting the first available explanation. Greater epistemic motivation could encourage Jordan to examine the quality of the evidence before forming and sharing a conclusion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display=simple> {Which response best demonstrates the urgency tendency? |type="()"} - Continuing to compare evidence without ever reaching a decision + Accepting the first plausible explanation to eliminate uncertainty - Changing an opinion after receiving reliable contradictory evidence - Asking several experts to explain their different perspectives || The urgency tendency involves attempting to reach cognitive closure as quickly as possible. } {Which response best demonstrates higher epistemic motivation? |type="()"} - Ignoring information that challenges an existing belief - Selecting the simplest answer without examining its source + Comparing evidence and considering alternative explanations - Repeating an opinion because it is familiar || Higher epistemic motivation generally involves more thorough information search and processing. } {The permanence tendency is most closely associated with: |type="()"} - Curiosity about new information + Maintaining an existing judgement - Avoiding all decisions - Forgetting a previous conclusion || The permanence tendency involves preserving closure after a judgement has been formed. } </quiz> == Influence on everyday life == * Epistemic motivation and need for closure influence behaviour across educational, interpersonal, organisational and social settings. * Their effects depend on the complexity of the problem, the quality of available information and whether rapid action is required. * Understanding these motivations may help people recognise when they are investigating a question carefully and when they are closing it prematurely. Evidence across settings supports these {{what}} applications, but much of it is correlational, laboratory-based or based on university samples. Such research can identify mechanisms under controlled conditions, yet it may not fully capture high-stakes decisions made over longer periods or across cultures. Findings should therefore be applied as probabilistic tendencies rather than rules about individuals. === Learning and education === * Higher epistemic motivation may promote curiosity, critical thinking and deeper engagement with learning materials {{fact}}. * Students who evaluate evidence and compare alternative explanations are more likely to develop an integrated understanding than students who rely only on memorisation {{fact}}. * A strong need for closure may make unclear instructions, conflicting theories and open-ended assignments uncomfortable {{fact}}. * Clear structure can support learning, but excessive reliance on one definite answer may be problematic when a subject requires critical evaluation {{fact}}. Educators can combine structure with productive uncertainty. Clear criteria reduce unnecessary confusion, while comparing explanations keeps alternatives open for critical thought. Prompts asking students to identify disconfirming evidence may be more useful than simply telling them to “think harder”. Because excessive ambiguity can overload learners, support should be reduced gradually as knowledge develops. {{fact}} === Decision-making === * Epistemic motivation can improve decision quality by encouraging people to search for and integrate relevant information (De Dreu et al., 2006). * Under genuine time pressure, rapid closure may be adaptive because delaying action could have serious consequences {{fact}}. * When time is available, seizing on the first acceptable explanation may cause important evidence or alternative options to be overlooked {{fact}}. * Effective decision-making involves identifying how much information is required and establishing an appropriate point at which to decide {{fact}}. A useful decision rule is to match the search effort to the consequences of erro {{fact}}r. Reversible, low-cost choices may justify quick closure, whereas irreversible or safety-critical choices require stronger evidence and independent checking {{fact}}. This rule does not guarantee accuracy, but it makes the stopping point explicit {{fact}}. It also prevents anxiety alone from determining when information search ends {{fact}}. === Relationships and group behaviour === * First impressions can provide cognitive closure, but they may become inaccurate when people freeze on an early judgement {{fact}}. * Need for closure can influence intergroup language and strengthen biased descriptions of in-group and out-group behaviour (Webster et al., 1997). {{example}} * Groups with higher epistemic motivation may exchange information more thoroughly and reach better-informed decisions (De Dreu et al., 2008). {{eample}} * Encouraging respectful disagreement can prevent premature consensus and allow group members to identify overlooked evidence {{fact}}. [[File:Emile Friant La Discussion politique.jpg|thumb|240px|'''Figure 3'''. Discussion can expose competing interpretations when members exchange and evaluate information rather than rush toward agreement.]] Group outcomes also depend on whether members possess different information. Scholten et al. (2007) found {{how}} that process accountability increased systematic information processing and decision quality, particularly when group members began with different preferences. Bechtoldt et al. (2010) similarly showed {{how}} that epistemic motivation supported group creativity when members pursued collective rather than purely personal goals. However, status differences, conformity and a shared preference for certainty can still suppress dissent. Figure 3 illustrates the social exchange through which alternatives can be tested. Leaders can request reasons before preferences, assign a devil’s advocate and delay an initial vote until evidence has been discussed. === Information and misinformation === * Online environments can expose people to large amounts of contradictory information, increasing confusion and the desire for simple answers. * A strong need for closure may increase reliance on information that quickly resolves uncertainty, even when its reliability has not been established. * Freezing on an initial interpretation can make later corrective evidence more difficult to accept. * Research suggests that need for closure can influence memory processes and vulnerability to misleading post-event information (Pica et al., 2014). Pica et al. (2014) found that need for closure influenced retrieval-induced forgetting and misinformation effects in eyewitness memory. Confidence and accuracy are not identical: closure may make a coherent account feel certain after misleading details are incorporated. This does not mean everyone high in need for closure accepts misinformation; source credibility, prior knowledge and verification opportunities still matter. Online, readers can pause before sharing, trace the original source and seek disconfirming evidence. == Balancing understanding and closure == * Neither endless information search nor immediate closure is appropriate in every situation {{fact}}. * The most effective approach depends on the consequences of error, the urgency of action and the availability of reliable evidence {{fact}}. * People can improve decisions by recognising their reactions to uncertainty and deliberately choosing whether additional investigation is necessary }. === Potential benefits === * Epistemic motivation can support critical thinking, learning and informed decision-making {{fact}}. * Urgent closure can allow people to act efficiently during emergencies or under strict deadlines {{fact}}. * Permanent closure can create stability, commitment and coordination after an adequately informed decision {{fact}}. * Shared closure can also help groups organise action around an agreed understanding {{fact}}. === Potential limitations === * Excessive information search may create indecision or unnecessary delay {{fact}}. * Urgency can cause people to seize on incomplete or unreliable information {{fact}}. * Permanence can create inflexible beliefs and resistance to corrective evidence {{fact}}. * Need for closure may contribute to stereotyping when simplified group judgements replace individualised information (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996; Webster et al., 1997). These limitations show why context matters. A preference for closure may strengthen whichever interpretation is most accessible, not necessarily a negative one. For example, Kossowska et al. (2015) found that need for closure could be associated with more positive attitudes toward a negatively stereotyped outgroup when the ability to achieve closure was low. This qualification challenges the idea that need for closure automatically produces prejudice and illustrates why researchers must distinguish motivational direction from the specific belief that becomes fixed. === Practical strategies === * Pause before important decisions and identify whether time pressure is genuine or self-imposed. * Separate established facts, interpretations and assumptions. * Consider at least one alternative explanation before reaching a conclusion. * Seek information from reliable sources and perspectives that challenge the initial judgement. * Establish a reasonable decision deadline so that information search does not continue indefinitely. * Reconsider an existing conclusion when credible new evidence becomes available. {{fact}} [[File:Consensus Flowchart.svg|thumb|340px|'''Figure 4'''. A decision process can include opportunities to question, revise and consolidate a conclusion.]] '''Table 2.''' ''Matching information search to the decision'' {| class="wikitable" ! Decision condition ! Recommended response |- | Urgent and reversible | Decide using the best available evidence |- | Important and irreversible | Seek independent evidence and test alternatives |- | Credible new evidence appears | Reopen and revise the conclusion |} These strategies work best as “decision hygiene” rather than as personality correction. Before deciding, a person can state what evidence would change the conclusion, compare at least two plausible explanations, and obtain one independent source. During group decisions, members can record their initial views privately before discussion and evaluate the reasoning process rather than rewarding confidence alone. After deciding, a scheduled review point allows permanence to support action without making the conclusion immune to correction {{fact}}. Table 2 and Figure 4 show how closure can be treated as reviewable rather than irreversible. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Reflection exercise''' Think about an important decision you made recently. # What information did you examine? # Did you feel pressure to reach an answer quickly? # Did you consider an alternative explanation? # What evidence might have changed your decision? # Did your response reflect epistemic motivation, urgency, permanence or a combination of these processes? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * Epistemic motivation influences the depth and thoroughness with which people search for, process and integrate information. * Need for cognitive closure motivates people to reach and preserve definite conclusions, particularly when uncertainty is uncomfortable. * The urgency tendency can lead people to seize on early information, while the permanence tendency can lead them to freeze on an established judgement. * These processes affect learning, decision-making, relationships, group behaviour and responses to online information. * Cognitive closure is not inherently harmful because it can support timely action, consistency and coordination. * The central challenge is to balance the desire for accurate understanding with the practical need to reach a conclusion. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' Good judgement requires knowing when to continue searching and when to decide. People can make better decisions by tolerating uncertainty long enough to examine reliable evidence while still establishing a reasonable point for reaching closure. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Acknowledgements == Generative AI Acknowledgement I would like to acknowledge my use of ChatGPT (OpenAI) during the development and publication of my book chapter, Epistemic Motivation and the Need for Cognitive Closure. I independently conducted the research for my book chapter and wrote my content in Google Docs before using ChatGPT. My research, ideas, explanations, and written material were developed through my own academic work. As I am not experienced in coding or using wiki markup, I used ChatGPT primarily for technical assistance. After completing my research and writing, I provided ChatGPT with my written material and requested assistance converting it into the appropriate wiki markup format for publication on Wikiversity. ChatGPT helped transform my existing written content into wiki markup, allowing me to structure and present my chapter on Wikiversity without needing advanced coding knowledge. Additionally, I used ChatGPT to assist with selecting relevant images for my chapter. I explained the topic and the types of images I wanted to include, and ChatGPT suggested images that would be appropriate for illustrating the concepts discussed in my work. The purpose of using ChatGPT was to assist with technical formatting, coding, visual presentation, and image selection rather than to replace my independent research or academic writing. I acknowledge the importance of academic integrity and transparency when using generative AI tools. This statement is provided to clarify how ChatGPT contributed to the preparation and presentation of my chapter. Generative AI tool used: ChatGPT (OpenAI) Purpose of use: Converting independently written content into Wikiversity wiki markup, technical formatting, page structure, and assistance with selecting relevant images. conversation link is https://chatgpt.com/share/6ae06e39-df68-83ec-a617-75c6acd080b3 {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Actively open-minded thinking|Actively open-minded thinking]] (Book chapter, 2023) * [[w:Epistemic motivation|Epistemic motivation]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bechtoldt, M. N., De Dreu, C. K. W., Nijstad, B. A., & Choi, H.-S. (2010). Motivated information processing, social tuning, and group creativity. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''99''(4), 622–637. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019386</nowiki> Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''42''(1), 116–131. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116</nowiki> De Dreu, C. K. W., Beersma, B., Stroebe, K., & Euwema, M. C. (2006). Motivated information processing, strategic choice, and the quality of negotiated agreement. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''90''(6), 927–943. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.6.927</nowiki> De Dreu, C. K. W., Nijstad, B. A., & van Knippenberg, D. (2008). Motivated information processing in group judgment and decision making. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''12''(1), 22–49. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868307304092</nowiki> Kossowska, M., Dragon, P., & Bukowski, M. (2015). When need for closure leads to positive attitudes towards a negatively stereotyped outgroup. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''39'', 88–98. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9414-5</nowiki> Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996). Motivated closing of the mind: “Seizing” and “freezing.” ''Psychological Review'', ''103''(2), 263–283. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.263</nowiki> Kruglanski, A. W., Webster, D. M., & Klem, A. (1993). Motivated resistance and openness to persuasion in the presence or absence of prior information. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''65''(5), 861–876. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.5.861</nowiki> Pica, G., Pierro, A., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2014). The role of need for cognitive closure in retrieval-induced forgetting and misinformation effects in eyewitness memory. ''Social Cognition'', ''32''(4), 337–359. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2014.32.4.337</nowiki> Roets, A., & Van Hiel, A. (2007). Separating ability from need: Clarifying the dimensional structure of the need for closure scale. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''33''(2), 266–280. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206294744</nowiki> Roets, A., & Van Hiel, A. (2011). Item selection and validation of a brief, 15-item version of the Need for Closure Scale. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''50''(1), 90–94. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.004</nowiki> Scholten, L., van Knippenberg, D., Nijstad, B. A., & De Dreu, C. K. W. (2007). Motivated information processing and group decision-making: Effects of process accountability on information processing and decision quality. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology'', ''43''(4), 539–552. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.010</nowiki> Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1994). Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''67''(6), 1049–1062. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1049</nowiki> Webster, D. M., Kruglanski, A. W., & Pattison, D. A. (1997). Motivated language use in intergroup contexts: Need-for-closure effects on the linguistic intergroup bias. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''72''(5), 1122–1131. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.1122</nowiki> }} == External links == * [https://dictionary.apa.org/need-for-closure Need for closure] (APA Dictionary of Psychology) * [https://sjdm.org/dmidi/Need_for_%28Cognitive%29_Closure_Scale.html Need for (Cognitive) Closure Scale] (Decision Making Individual Differences Inventory) * [https://dictionary.apa.org/critical-thinking Critical thinking] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision-making]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Epistemic motivation]] kxjhqrq1zekkmj11qsefiwjf86b9sr9 2842813 2842805 2026-10-27T10:15:07Z Ayat Al-kabai 3105570 fixing the link 2842813 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure:<br>How does epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure influence our lives?}} __TOC__ == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Necker cube.svg|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. The Necker cube can be interpreted in more than one way. It illustrates how ambiguity can permit competing interpretations before cognitive closure is reached.{{ic|Explain how this illustrates epistemic motivation.}}]] ;Scenario Sofia receives two conflicting pieces of advice about an important career decision. She feels uncomfortable with the uncertainty and wants to decide immediately. However, she also wants to examine the evidence, consider different perspectives, and make an informed choice. Sofia’s situation demonstrates two psychological forces: * epistemic motivation, which can encourage deeper information processing, and * the need for cognitive closure, which can encourage people to reach a definite answer and escape uncertainty. {{RoundBoxBottom}} * Epistemic motivation concerns a person’s willingness to develop a thorough and accurate understanding of a situation through information search and processing (De Dreu et al., 2008). * Need for cognitive closure is the desire to obtain a definite answer rather than remain confused or uncertain (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * Both concepts influence how people form judgements, make decisions, communicate with others and respond to uncertainty. * Neither is always beneficial or harmful; the outcome depends on the person, available information and situational demands. * Figure 1 demonstrates how the same ambiguous information may permit more than one interpretation before a person reaches closure. Uncertainty can be emotionally uncomfortable. People differ in how much effort they invest in understanding a problem and how quickly they want uncertainty to end. These motives shape which information is noticed, whether alternatives are compared and whether an initial judgement is revised. A fast answer may feel reassuring despite weak evidence, while prolonged searching may delay action. This chapter examines how to balance accuracy with the need to decide. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is epistemic motivation? * What is the need for cognitive closure? * How are epistemic motivation and the need for cognitive closure connected? * How do they influence everyday decisions, learning and relationships? * When is cognitive closure helpful or harmful? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Epistemic motivation == * [[w:Epistemic motivation|Epistemic motivation]] describes the willingness to invest effort in developing a complete and accurate understanding of the world (De Dreu et al., 2008). * Higher epistemic motivation encourages information search, deliberate reasoning and careful consideration of different perspectives. * Lower epistemic motivation is associated with shallower information processing and greater reliance on existing knowledge, familiar opinions or mental shortcuts. * Epistemic motivation can be influenced by personal characteristics and situational factors, including curiosity, accountability, fatigue, stress and time pressure. * Epistemic motivation should not be understood as intelligence. A capable person may still process information superficially when tired, distracted or under pressure. [[File:Duck-Rabbit illusion.jpg|thumb|220px|'''Figure 2'''. The duck–rabbit illusion shows how identical visual information can support competing interpretations.]] Epistemic motivation is best understood through motivated information processing. According to this perspective, judgement depends on both capacity and motivation: a person must be able to process information and also be willing to invest the necessary effort (De Dreu et al., 2008). This distinction explains why the same person may reason carefully about an important health decision but accept the first plausible answer to a minor question. It also separates epistemic motivation from [[w:Need for cognition|need for cognition]], a tendency to enjoy effortful thought, although the constructs overlap (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982). The quality of processing therefore depends on the person, the task and the surrounding conditions rather than on a fixed label such as “deep thinker”. Figure 2 illustrates why delaying closure can be useful when evidence permits more than one interpretation {{ic|How so? Explain.}}. === Depth of information processing === {{ic|What theory does this relate to? What is the evidence? What are some examples?}} * Higher epistemic motivation encourages people to attend to, encode, retrieve and integrate relevant information more thoroughly (De Dreu et al., 2008). * Groups {{example}} with stronger epistemic motivation may exchange more unique information and engage in more information-driven discussion{{fact}}. * Process accountability {{ic|Explain term}} can increase epistemic motivation because people expect to explain how they reached a decision (De Dreu et al., 2006). * Deeper processing can improve decision quality, especially when a problem is complicated and important information is distributed among several people. === Influencing factors === * Time pressure and environmental noise can decrease the opportunity or motivation to consider multiple explanations (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * Fear of making an invalid judgement may increase information search and delay closure. * Fatigue can make sustained reasoning more difficult and increase the appeal of a quick, simple answer. * Personal relevance may increase information processing, although people may also process information selectively when an issue threatens an important belief or identity. Research {{fact}} also shows that accountability matters, but its timing is important. When people expect to explain the process by which they reached a judgement, they are more likely to examine information carefully and integrate competing evidence (De Dreu et al., 2006). By contrast, accountability for defending a preferred outcome can encourage selective reasoning. Thus, asking “How did you reach this conclusion?” may promote epistemic motivation more effectively than asking someone merely to justify a conclusion they have already announced. == Need for cognitive closure == * Need for cognitive closure refers to the motivation to reach a definite conclusion and avoid uncertainty or ambiguity (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * It can operate as a relatively stable individual difference and as a temporary state produced by circumstances such as fatigue, time pressure and stress. * Webster and Kruglanski (1994) identified several associated preferences, including predictability, order, decisiveness and reduced comfort with ambiguity. * The effects of need for closure are commonly explained through the urgency and permanence tendencies. The need for closure is grounded in lay epistemic theory, which treats knowledge formation as a motivated process rather than a purely rational one (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). Closure can be valued because it reduces uncertainty, enables action and creates a stable understanding of events. It can also be avoided when a person fears that any available conclusion will be invalid. Consequently, the {{what}} theory predicts not a universal preference for quick answers, but an interaction between the desirability of closure, the information available and the costs of making an error {{fact}}. === Urgency tendency === {{ic|Is this part of "lay epistemic theory"? Clarify/explain.}} * The urgency tendency involves wanting to reach closure as quickly as possible (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * It may cause people to “seize” on information encountered early in the decision-making process. * Urgency can be helpful when immediate action is genuinely necessary, such as during an emergency. * However, it can also produce premature conclusions when the available information is incomplete, inaccurate or misleading. Experimental evidence supports this account. For example, Kruglanski et al. (1993) found that conditions increasing the desire for closure made participants more resistant to persuasion after they had formed an opinion, but more receptive to early information when no prior position existed. This pattern demonstrates both tendencies: urgency increases reliance on an initial message, while permanence protects an existing judgement. Because persuasion experiments simplify real-world belief change, the findings identify a mechanism rather than determining how every individual will respond. === Permanence tendency === {{ic|Is this part of "lay epistemic theory"? Clarify/explain.}} * The permanence tendency involves wanting to preserve an existing conclusion for as long as possible (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * It may cause people to “freeze” on their initial judgement and resist information that challenges it. * Permanence can create consistency, confidence and coordination after a decision has been made. * Excessive permanence may contribute to inflexible thinking, stereotyping and resistance to corrective evidence. === Individual differences === {{ic|Is this part of "lay epistemic theory"? Clarify/explain.}} * The Need for Closure Scale was developed to measure individual differences related to predictability, order, decisiveness, ambiguity and closed-mindedness (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). * A shorter revised measure has also demonstrated that urgency and permanence are important dimensions of the construct (Roets & Van Hiel, 2011). * A high score does not mean that someone is unintelligent or incapable of careful reasoning. * Need for closure can change across situations; therefore, a person may tolerate uncertainty in one context but urgently seek certainty in another. Measurement requires caution. The Need for Closure Scale assesses order, predictability, decisiveness, discomfort with ambiguity and closed-mindedness (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). However, decisiveness may function differently from other facets, and ability to decide is not the same as motivation for closure (Roets & Van Hiel, 2007). Self-reports describe tendencies rather than directly observing information processing in a specific situation (Roets & Van Hiel, 2011). == Relationship between epistemic motivation and cognitive closure == * The need for cognitive closure is a form of epistemic motivation because it concerns how people acquire and maintain knowledge (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996). * Epistemic motivation is the broader concept, whereas need for closure specifically concerns motivation to end uncertainty by reaching a conclusion. * Strong motivation to understand a problem may promote extensive information search, while strong motivation for immediate closure may shorten that search. * High-quality judgement therefore depends on balancing sufficient investigation with the practical need to reach a decision. '''Table 1.''' ''Comparison of epistemic motivation and need for cognitive closure'' {{ic|Use 1st letter capitalisation for table captions as per APA style}} {{ic|What is the source of this information?}} {| class="wikitable" ! Concept ! Main goal ! Possible benefit ! Possible limitation |- | Epistemic motivation | Develop an accurate and comprehensive understanding | Deeper information processing and consideration of alternatives | Decision-making may require more time and effort |- | Urgency tendency | Reach closure quickly | Supports timely action | May produce premature conclusions |- | Permanence tendency | Maintain an established conclusion | Supports consistency and commitment | May create resistance to corrective evidence |} * Table 1 shows that these motivational processes involve different goals and trade-offs. * Epistemic motivation can improve decision quality by promoting systematic information processing, particularly in group settings (De Dreu et al., 2008). * However, continuously seeking more information can also delay decisions when the available information is already sufficient. * Cognitive closure can support action and coordination, but early closure may prevent consideration of important alternatives. The relationship is therefore not a simple opposition between “good” epistemic motivation and “bad” closure. Need for closure is itself an epistemic motive, but it directs processing toward a definite and stable answer. High epistemic motivation can improve judgement when the evidence is reliable and the task rewards accuracy; it can also be used to defend an identity-consistent conclusion. Likewise, closure can be adaptive when delay is costly. The decisive issue is whether the timing and content of closure match the demands of the situation. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} '''Key points''' * Epistemic motivation concerns how thoroughly information is processed. * Urgency encourages rapid “seizing” on an answer. * Permanence encourages “freezing” on an established answer. * Accuracy depends on matching processing to the decision. {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Case study''' Jordan sees a social-media post claiming that a familiar food causes a serious illness. Feeling anxious, Jordan immediately accepts the claim and shares it. Later, a friend encourages Jordan to locate the original research, examine reliable sources and consider alternative explanations. Jordan’s initial response may demonstrate the urgency tendency because uncertainty is ended by accepting the first available explanation. Greater epistemic motivation could encourage Jordan to examine the quality of the evidence before forming and sharing a conclusion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} <quiz display=simple> {Which response best demonstrates the urgency tendency? |type="()"} - Continuing to compare evidence without ever reaching a decision + Accepting the first plausible explanation to eliminate uncertainty - Changing an opinion after receiving reliable contradictory evidence - Asking several experts to explain their different perspectives || The urgency tendency involves attempting to reach cognitive closure as quickly as possible. } {Which response best demonstrates higher epistemic motivation? |type="()"} - Ignoring information that challenges an existing belief - Selecting the simplest answer without examining its source + Comparing evidence and considering alternative explanations - Repeating an opinion because it is familiar || Higher epistemic motivation generally involves more thorough information search and processing. } {The permanence tendency is most closely associated with: |type="()"} - Curiosity about new information + Maintaining an existing judgement - Avoiding all decisions - Forgetting a previous conclusion || The permanence tendency involves preserving closure after a judgement has been formed. } </quiz> == Influence on everyday life == * Epistemic motivation and need for closure influence behaviour across educational, interpersonal, organisational and social settings. * Their effects depend on the complexity of the problem, the quality of available information and whether rapid action is required. * Understanding these motivations may help people recognise when they are investigating a question carefully and when they are closing it prematurely. Evidence across settings supports these {{what}} applications, but much of it is correlational, laboratory-based or based on university samples. Such research can identify mechanisms under controlled conditions, yet it may not fully capture high-stakes decisions made over longer periods or across cultures. Findings should therefore be applied as probabilistic tendencies rather than rules about individuals. === Learning and education === * Higher epistemic motivation may promote curiosity, critical thinking and deeper engagement with learning materials {{fact}}. * Students who evaluate evidence and compare alternative explanations are more likely to develop an integrated understanding than students who rely only on memorisation {{fact}}. * A strong need for closure may make unclear instructions, conflicting theories and open-ended assignments uncomfortable {{fact}}. * Clear structure can support learning, but excessive reliance on one definite answer may be problematic when a subject requires critical evaluation {{fact}}. Educators can combine structure with productive uncertainty. Clear criteria reduce unnecessary confusion, while comparing explanations keeps alternatives open for critical thought. Prompts asking students to identify disconfirming evidence may be more useful than simply telling them to “think harder”. Because excessive ambiguity can overload learners, support should be reduced gradually as knowledge develops. {{fact}} === Decision-making === * Epistemic motivation can improve decision quality by encouraging people to search for and integrate relevant information (De Dreu et al., 2006). * Under genuine time pressure, rapid closure may be adaptive because delaying action could have serious consequences {{fact}}. * When time is available, seizing on the first acceptable explanation may cause important evidence or alternative options to be overlooked {{fact}}. * Effective decision-making involves identifying how much information is required and establishing an appropriate point at which to decide {{fact}}. A useful decision rule is to match the search effort to the consequences of erro {{fact}}r. Reversible, low-cost choices may justify quick closure, whereas irreversible or safety-critical choices require stronger evidence and independent checking {{fact}}. This rule does not guarantee accuracy, but it makes the stopping point explicit {{fact}}. It also prevents anxiety alone from determining when information search ends {{fact}}. === Relationships and group behaviour === * First impressions can provide cognitive closure, but they may become inaccurate when people freeze on an early judgement {{fact}}. * Need for closure can influence intergroup language and strengthen biased descriptions of in-group and out-group behaviour (Webster et al., 1997). {{example}} * Groups with higher epistemic motivation may exchange information more thoroughly and reach better-informed decisions (De Dreu et al., 2008). {{eample}} * Encouraging respectful disagreement can prevent premature consensus and allow group members to identify overlooked evidence {{fact}}. [[File:Emile Friant La Discussion politique.jpg|thumb|240px|'''Figure 3'''. Discussion can expose competing interpretations when members exchange and evaluate information rather than rush toward agreement.]] Group outcomes also depend on whether members possess different information. Scholten et al. (2007) found {{how}} that process accountability increased systematic information processing and decision quality, particularly when group members began with different preferences. Bechtoldt et al. (2010) similarly showed {{how}} that epistemic motivation supported group creativity when members pursued collective rather than purely personal goals. However, status differences, conformity and a shared preference for certainty can still suppress dissent. Figure 3 illustrates the social exchange through which alternatives can be tested. Leaders can request reasons before preferences, assign a devil’s advocate and delay an initial vote until evidence has been discussed. === Information and misinformation === * Online environments can expose people to large amounts of contradictory information, increasing confusion and the desire for simple answers. * A strong need for closure may increase reliance on information that quickly resolves uncertainty, even when its reliability has not been established. * Freezing on an initial interpretation can make later corrective evidence more difficult to accept. * Research suggests that need for closure can influence memory processes and vulnerability to misleading post-event information (Pica et al., 2014). Pica et al. (2014) found that need for closure influenced retrieval-induced forgetting and misinformation effects in eyewitness memory. Confidence and accuracy are not identical: closure may make a coherent account feel certain after misleading details are incorporated. This does not mean everyone high in need for closure accepts misinformation; source credibility, prior knowledge and verification opportunities still matter. Online, readers can pause before sharing, trace the original source and seek disconfirming evidence. == Balancing understanding and closure == * Neither endless information search nor immediate closure is appropriate in every situation {{fact}}. * The most effective approach depends on the consequences of error, the urgency of action and the availability of reliable evidence {{fact}}. * People can improve decisions by recognising their reactions to uncertainty and deliberately choosing whether additional investigation is necessary }. === Potential benefits === * Epistemic motivation can support critical thinking, learning and informed decision-making {{fact}}. * Urgent closure can allow people to act efficiently during emergencies or under strict deadlines {{fact}}. * Permanent closure can create stability, commitment and coordination after an adequately informed decision {{fact}}. * Shared closure can also help groups organise action around an agreed understanding {{fact}}. === Potential limitations === * Excessive information search may create indecision or unnecessary delay {{fact}}. * Urgency can cause people to seize on incomplete or unreliable information {{fact}}. * Permanence can create inflexible beliefs and resistance to corrective evidence {{fact}}. * Need for closure may contribute to stereotyping when simplified group judgements replace individualised information (Kruglanski & Webster, 1996; Webster et al., 1997). These limitations show why context matters. A preference for closure may strengthen whichever interpretation is most accessible, not necessarily a negative one. For example, Kossowska et al. (2015) found that need for closure could be associated with more positive attitudes toward a negatively stereotyped outgroup when the ability to achieve closure was low. This qualification challenges the idea that need for closure automatically produces prejudice and illustrates why researchers must distinguish motivational direction from the specific belief that becomes fixed. === Practical strategies === * Pause before important decisions and identify whether time pressure is genuine or self-imposed. * Separate established facts, interpretations and assumptions. * Consider at least one alternative explanation before reaching a conclusion. * Seek information from reliable sources and perspectives that challenge the initial judgement. * Establish a reasonable decision deadline so that information search does not continue indefinitely. * Reconsider an existing conclusion when credible new evidence becomes available. {{fact}} [[File:Consensus Flowchart.svg|thumb|340px|'''Figure 4'''. A decision process can include opportunities to question, revise and consolidate a conclusion.]] '''Table 2.''' ''Matching information search to the decision'' {| class="wikitable" ! Decision condition ! Recommended response |- | Urgent and reversible | Decide using the best available evidence |- | Important and irreversible | Seek independent evidence and test alternatives |- | Credible new evidence appears | Reopen and revise the conclusion |} These strategies work best as “decision hygiene” rather than as personality correction. Before deciding, a person can state what evidence would change the conclusion, compare at least two plausible explanations, and obtain one independent source. During group decisions, members can record their initial views privately before discussion and evaluate the reasoning process rather than rewarding confidence alone. After deciding, a scheduled review point allows permanence to support action without making the conclusion immune to correction {{fact}}. Table 2 and Figure 4 show how closure can be treated as reviewable rather than irreversible. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Reflection exercise''' Think about an important decision you made recently. # What information did you examine? # Did you feel pressure to reach an answer quickly? # Did you consider an alternative explanation? # What evidence might have changed your decision? # Did your response reflect epistemic motivation, urgency, permanence or a combination of these processes? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == * Epistemic motivation influences the depth and thoroughness with which people search for, process and integrate information. * Need for cognitive closure motivates people to reach and preserve definite conclusions, particularly when uncertainty is uncomfortable. * The urgency tendency can lead people to seize on early information, while the permanence tendency can lead them to freeze on an established judgement. * These processes affect learning, decision-making, relationships, group behaviour and responses to online information. * Cognitive closure is not inherently harmful because it can support timely action, consistency and coordination. * The central challenge is to balance the desire for accurate understanding with the practical need to reach a conclusion. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Take-home message''' Good judgement requires knowing when to continue searching and when to decide. People can make better decisions by tolerating uncertainty long enough to examine reliable evidence while still establishing a reasonable point for reaching closure. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Acknowledgements == Generative AI Acknowledgement I would like to acknowledge my use of ChatGPT (OpenAI) during the development and publication of my book chapter, Epistemic Motivation and the Need for Cognitive Closure. I independently conducted the research for my book chapter and wrote my content in Google Docs before using ChatGPT. My research, ideas, explanations, and written material were developed through my own academic work. As I am not experienced in coding or using wiki markup, I used ChatGPT primarily for technical assistance. After completing my research and writing, I provided ChatGPT with my written material and requested assistance converting it into the appropriate wiki markup format for publication on Wikiversity. ChatGPT helped transform my existing written content into wiki markup, allowing me to structure and present my chapter on Wikiversity without needing advanced coding knowledge. Additionally, I used ChatGPT to assist with selecting relevant images for my chapter. I explained the topic and the types of images I wanted to include, and ChatGPT suggested images that would be appropriate for illustrating the concepts discussed in my work. The purpose of using ChatGPT was to assist with technical formatting, coding, visual presentation, and image selection rather than to replace my independent research or academic writing. I acknowledge the importance of academic integrity and transparency when using generative AI tools. This statement is provided to clarify how ChatGPT contributed to the preparation and presentation of my chapter. Generative AI tool used: ChatGPT (OpenAI) Purpose of use: Converting independently written content into Wikiversity wiki markup, technical formatting, page structure, and assistance with selecting relevant images. conversation link is [https://chatgpt.com/share/6ae0772b-91e8-83ec-9c2e-695d4e458b3e https://chatgpt.com/share/6ae06e39-df68-83ec-a617-75c6acd080b3] {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2023/Actively open-minded thinking|Actively open-minded thinking]] (Book chapter, 2023) * [[w:Epistemic motivation|Epistemic motivation]] (Wikipedia) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Bechtoldt, M. N., De Dreu, C. K. W., Nijstad, B. A., & Choi, H.-S. (2010). Motivated information processing, social tuning, and group creativity. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''99''(4), 622–637. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019386</nowiki> Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''42''(1), 116–131. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116</nowiki> De Dreu, C. K. W., Beersma, B., Stroebe, K., & Euwema, M. C. (2006). Motivated information processing, strategic choice, and the quality of negotiated agreement. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''90''(6), 927–943. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.6.927</nowiki> De Dreu, C. K. W., Nijstad, B. A., & van Knippenberg, D. (2008). Motivated information processing in group judgment and decision making. ''Personality and Social Psychology Review'', ''12''(1), 22–49. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868307304092</nowiki> Kossowska, M., Dragon, P., & Bukowski, M. (2015). When need for closure leads to positive attitudes towards a negatively stereotyped outgroup. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''39'', 88–98. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-014-9414-5</nowiki> Kruglanski, A. W., & Webster, D. M. (1996). Motivated closing of the mind: “Seizing” and “freezing.” ''Psychological Review'', ''103''(2), 263–283. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.2.263</nowiki> Kruglanski, A. W., Webster, D. M., & Klem, A. (1993). Motivated resistance and openness to persuasion in the presence or absence of prior information. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''65''(5), 861–876. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.5.861</nowiki> Pica, G., Pierro, A., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2014). The role of need for cognitive closure in retrieval-induced forgetting and misinformation effects in eyewitness memory. ''Social Cognition'', ''32''(4), 337–359. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2014.32.4.337</nowiki> Roets, A., & Van Hiel, A. (2007). Separating ability from need: Clarifying the dimensional structure of the need for closure scale. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''33''(2), 266–280. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206294744</nowiki> Roets, A., & Van Hiel, A. (2011). Item selection and validation of a brief, 15-item version of the Need for Closure Scale. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', ''50''(1), 90–94. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.004</nowiki> Scholten, L., van Knippenberg, D., Nijstad, B. A., & De Dreu, C. K. W. (2007). Motivated information processing and group decision-making: Effects of process accountability on information processing and decision quality. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology'', ''43''(4), 539–552. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.05.010</nowiki> Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1994). Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''67''(6), 1049–1062. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1049</nowiki> Webster, D. M., Kruglanski, A. W., & Pattison, D. A. (1997). Motivated language use in intergroup contexts: Need-for-closure effects on the linguistic intergroup bias. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', ''72''(5), 1122–1131. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.5.1122</nowiki> }} == External links == * [https://dictionary.apa.org/need-for-closure Need for closure] (APA Dictionary of Psychology) * [https://sjdm.org/dmidi/Need_for_%28Cognitive%29_Closure_Scale.html Need for (Cognitive) Closure Scale] (Decision Making Individual Differences Inventory) * [https://dictionary.apa.org/critical-thinking Critical thinking] (American Psychological Association) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision-making]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Epistemic motivation]] juwqmq5tb54qeelt0dm61gmm1s2aaad 0 331569 2842661 2842526 2026-10-26T13:58:17Z Amirrorslens 3106278 /* References */ updated reference that are being utilised as per feedback 2842661 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. * [Author Note: REPLACE WITH A REAL CASE STUDY - such as near death experience (The Good Place coded) (Might modify scenario to incude this aspect similar to the purple feature box on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Motivation for using AI companions|this page]])] {{RoundBoxBottom}} * * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as [''insert'' ''synonyms'']. In Robert Plutchik's wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions'' ==== ''KEY REFERENCE: Keltner and Haidt, 2003 / A prototype approach to distinguising awe from other emotions %%change heading structure here'' ==== In the prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. - %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). - power Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014). * "Although the term “vastness” implies great physical size, in this usage “vast” describes any stimulus that challenges one's accustomed frame of reference in some dimension ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ===== Physical vastness ===== ''[Author's Note: Nature, Space, might be wise to mention depth perception studies here. Why particuarly these things. Work in thesis on space video here.]'' * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning things ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) === Need for accommodation === * Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003) * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] * ''[Authors Note: Insert table of epistimec emotions such as wonder, elevation, sublime, admiration (Keltner and Haidt), not sure of relevance or format]'' ''- [Authors Note: unsure whether I should spend a sub section on schemas or not, or how much explanation should be done for these sorts of fundamental but still unfamiliar to reader concepts'' - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == - {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma ====== <s>Self</s> ====== * <s>Self in philosophy = individual's own being, knowledge and values (and relationship between these attributes ##CUT##</s> ** <s>self is distingushable from others</s> *** <s>[Authors Note: have a section later in connectedness how when the self is diminished, the concept of otherness is also diminished -> oneness]</s> === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. === Oneness / Seperation === See Buddhism, see psychedelics, see Connectedness. [''Author's Note: unsure if this should be it's own section, it feels like it should be in the affect of awe on the self section, after speaking on the feeling of connectedness].'' == Effect of awe on the self == ''[Authors Note: This is where we will have a short section on the self (what it means, collection of experiences and stories we tell ourselves, superceding that, buddhist definitions of the self and awareness and appreciating life as tenets, lojong etc.)]'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. ** not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; *** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). **** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === ''[Author's Note: find additional references for five processes and explain in paragraph]'' * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === *intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion and experience?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' * Focus Question: [How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [therapy, wellbeing, psycotherapy, deliberating triggering awe experiences for healing] * ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://fitmind.org/ Ancient wisdom + modern science] (Fitmind.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) * Ted Talk Neuroscience video [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] 0jxuy5loxqjyexhbdxjrg1lupikgfm0 2842671 2842661 2026-10-26T14:41:27Z Amirrorslens 3106278 2842671 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. * [Author Note: REPLACE WITH A REAL CASE STUDY - such as near death experience (The Good Place coded) (Might modify scenario to incude this aspect similar to the purple feature box on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Motivation for using AI companions|this page]])] {{RoundBoxBottom}} *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as [''insert'' ''synonyms'']. In Robert Plutchik's wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions'' ==== ''KEY REFERENCE: Keltner and Haidt, 2003 / A prototype approach to distinguising awe from other emotions %%change heading structure here'' ==== In the prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. - %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). - power Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014). * "Although the term “vastness” implies great physical size, in this usage “vast” describes any stimulus that challenges one's accustomed frame of reference in some dimension ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ===== Physical vastness ===== ''[Author's Note: Nature, Space, might be wise to mention depth perception studies here. Why particuarly these things. Work in thesis on space video here.]'' * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning things ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) === Need for accommodation === * Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003) * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] * ''[Authors Note: Insert table of epistimec emotions such as wonder, elevation, sublime, admiration (Keltner and Haidt), not sure of relevance or format]'' ''- [Authors Note: unsure whether I should spend a sub section on schemas or not, or how much explanation should be done for these sorts of fundamental but still unfamiliar to reader concepts'' - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == - {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma ====== <s>Self</s> ====== * <s>Self in philosophy = individual's own being, knowledge and values (and relationship between these attributes ##CUT##</s> ** <s>self is distingushable from others</s> *** <s>[Authors Note: have a section later in connectedness how when the self is diminished, the concept of otherness is also diminished -> oneness]</s> === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. === Oneness / Seperation === See Buddhism, see psychedelics, see Connectedness. [''Author's Note: unsure if this should be it's own section, it feels like it should be in the affect of awe on the self section, after speaking on the feeling of connectedness].'' == Effect of awe on the self == ''[Authors Note: This is where we will have a short section on the self (what it means, collection of experiences and stories we tell ourselves, superceding that, buddhist definitions of the self and awareness and appreciating life as tenets, lojong etc.)]'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. ** not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; *** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). **** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === ''[Author's Note: find additional references for five processes and explain in paragraph]'' * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === *intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion and experience?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' * Focus Question: [How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [therapy, wellbeing, psycotherapy, deliberating triggering awe experiences for healing] * ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://fitmind.org/ Ancient wisdom + modern science] (Fitmind.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) * Ted Talk Neuroscience video [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] rfqrn9k87a1bmk6osngnpwnev0faugr 2842672 2842671 2026-10-26T14:41:33Z Amirrorslens 3106278 /* Gestalt */ 2842672 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. ... {{RoundBoxBottom}} * * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as [''insert'' ''synonyms'']. In Robert Plutchik's wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions'' In the prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. - %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). - power Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014). * "Although the term “vastness” implies great physical size, in this usage “vast” describes any stimulus that challenges one's accustomed frame of reference in some dimension ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ===== Physical vastness ===== ''[Author's Note: Nature, Space, might be wise to mention depth perception studies here. Why particuarly these things. Work in thesis on space video here.]'' * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning things ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) === Need for accommodation === * Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003) * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] * ''[Authors Note: Insert table of epistimec emotions such as wonder, elevation, sublime, admiration (Keltner and Haidt), not sure of relevance or format]'' ''- [Authors Note: unsure whether I should spend a sub section on schemas or not, or how much explanation should be done for these sorts of fundamental but still unfamiliar to reader concepts'' - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == === Peak experiences === <blockquote>Maslow describes this characteristic of the capacity for mystical experiences as ''"feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable has happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by such experiences"'' (Maslow, 1954, as cited in Cloninger, 2018).</blockquote> {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma ====== <s>Self</s> ====== * <s>Self in philosophy = individual's own being, knowledge and values (and relationship between these attributes ##CUT##</s> ** <s>self is distingushable from others</s> *** <s>[Authors Note: have a section later in connectedness how when the self is diminished, the concept of otherness is also diminished -> oneness]</s> === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. === Oneness / Seperation === See Buddhism, see psychedelics, see Connectedness. [''Author's Note: unsure if this should be it's own section, it feels like it should be in the affect of awe on the self section, after speaking on the feeling of connectedness].'' == Effect of awe on the self == ''[Authors Note: This is where we will have a short section on the self (what it means, collection of experiences and stories we tell ourselves, superceding that, buddhist definitions of the self and awareness and appreciating life as tenets, lojong etc.)]'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. ** not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; *** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). **** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === ''[Author's Note: find additional references for five processes and explain in paragraph]'' * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === *intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion and experience?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' * Focus Question: [How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [therapy, wellbeing, psycotherapy, deliberating triggering awe experiences for healing] * ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cloninger, S. (2018). Theories of personality : Understanding persons. Pearson Education. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://fitmind.org/ Ancient wisdom + modern science] (Fitmind.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) * Ted Talk Neuroscience video [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] oiol11pxp9pxhq78e2fp58bycr7ukyi 2842675 2842672 2026-10-26T15:24:09Z Amirrorslens 3106278 2842675 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This article focuses on awe as an emotion and it's associated experience and effect, defined by the prototypical definition given by Keltner and Haidt (2003) as requiring vastness and a need for accommodation. This accommodation, either successful or failed, is argued to leave lasting impacts on the individual, particuarly on perceptions of the self. * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as wonder, elevation or admiration. In [[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]]'s wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of the primary emotions suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). ''%%Other epistemic and non core emotions'' %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions - refer to table and heading later on'' ''- %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation'' In this prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). - power Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014). * "Although the term “vastness” implies great physical size, in this usage “vast” describes any stimulus that challenges one's accustomed frame of reference in some dimension ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ===== Physical vastness ===== ''[Author's Note: Nature, Space, might be wise to mention depth perception studies here. Why particuarly these things. Work in thesis on space video here.]'' * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning things ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) === Need for accommodation === * Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003) * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] * ''[Authors Note: Insert table of epistimec emotions such as wonder, elevation, sublime, admiration (Keltner and Haidt), not sure of relevance or format]'' ''- [Authors Note: unsure whether I should spend a sub section on schemas or not, or how much explanation should be done for these sorts of fundamental but still unfamiliar to reader concepts'' - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == === Maslow's theory of needs === ... ==== Self-actualisation ==== ... ==== Actualising tendency ==== ... === Peak experiences === ..wonder, admiration, elevation,... <blockquote>Maslow describes this characteristic of the capacity for mystical experiences as ''"feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable has happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by such experiences"'' (Maslow, 1954, as cited in Cloninger, 2018).</blockquote>... {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. == Effect of awe on the self == ''...'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. * not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; ** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). *** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === ''[Author's Note: find additional references for five processes and explain in paragraph]'' * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === *intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion and experience?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' * Focus Question: [How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [therapy, wellbeing, psycotherapy, deliberating triggering awe experiences for healing] * ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cloninger, S. (2018). Theories of personality : Understanding persons. Pearson Education. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] hdlcjgk2x9v89uhafkv23z25wb198td 2842680 2842675 2026-10-26T17:18:37Z Amirrorslens 3106278 /* Peak experiences */ 2842680 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This article focuses on awe as an emotion and it's associated experience and effect, defined by the prototypical definition given by Keltner and Haidt (2003) as requiring vastness and a need for accommodation. This accommodation, either successful or failed, is argued to leave lasting impacts on the individual, particuarly on perceptions of the self. * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as wonder, elevation or admiration. In [[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]]'s wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of the primary emotions suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). ''%%Other epistemic and non core emotions'' %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions - refer to table and heading later on'' ''- %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation'' In this prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). - power Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014). * "Although the term “vastness” implies great physical size, in this usage “vast” describes any stimulus that challenges one's accustomed frame of reference in some dimension ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) ===== Physical vastness ===== ''[Author's Note: Nature, Space, might be wise to mention depth perception studies here. Why particuarly these things. Work in thesis on space video here.]'' * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning things ** A stimulus may convey vastness in physical space, in time, in number, in complexity of detail, in ability, even in volume of human experience. *** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ** What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007) === Need for accommodation === * Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003) * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] * ''[Authors Note: Insert table of epistimec emotions such as wonder, elevation, sublime, admiration (Keltner and Haidt), not sure of relevance or format]'' ''- [Authors Note: unsure whether I should spend a sub section on schemas or not, or how much explanation should be done for these sorts of fundamental but still unfamiliar to reader concepts'' - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == === Maslow's theory of needs === ... ==== Self-actualisation ==== ... ==== Actualising tendency ==== ... === Peak experiences === [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|Peak experiences]] <blockquote>Maslow describes this characteristic of the capacity for mystical experiences as ''"feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable has happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by such experiences"'' (Maslow, 1954, as cited in Cloninger, 2018).</blockquote>... {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. == Effect of awe on the self == ''...'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. * not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; ** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). *** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === ''[Author's Note: find additional references for five processes and explain in paragraph]'' * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === *intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion and experience?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' * Focus Question: [How can the experience of awe be applied for social and individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [therapy, wellbeing, psycotherapy, deliberating triggering awe experiences for healing] * ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cloninger, S. (2018). Theories of personality : Understanding persons. Pearson Education. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] mn6a0ov0z8oigxc7uml8s2p0jlvclv1 2842771 2842680 2026-10-27T04:56:58Z Amirrorslens 3106278 fixed up focus questions in conlusion, tidied up comments, replaced bullet points with sentences, made some more headway on vastness, need to do more work on need for accommodation, want to do segmented scenarios, add quiz questions, need to update maslow theory, 2842771 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This article focuses on awe as an emotion and it's associated experience and effect, defined by the prototypical definition given by Keltner and Haidt (2003) as requiring vastness and a need for accommodation. This accommodation, either successful or failed, is argued to leave lasting impacts on the individual, particuarly on perceptions of the self. * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as wonder, elevation or admiration. In [[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]]'s wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of the primary emotions suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). ''%%Other epistemic and non core emotions'' %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions - refer to table and heading later on'' ''- %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation'' In this prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). While the term "vastness" implies great physical size, such as the incomprehensible depth of the Grand Canyon, here, vastness is used to describe any stimulus that challenge's one accustomed frame of reference in some dimension (see Need for accommodation later on). Vastness can be conveyed through physical space, in number or quantity, complexity of detail or concept, in ability or even the human experience ('''''reference'''''?). What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007). Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014) ''INSERT SCENARIO PART 1.2 ABOUT MATH EQUATION - vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. - mention the lagrangian'' * For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ===== Physical vastness ===== * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning thing ** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. === Need for accommodation === Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ??? * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distinguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} <br /> Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == === Maslow's theory of needs === ... ==== Self-actualisation ==== ... ==== Actualising tendency ==== ... === Peak experiences === [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|Peak experiences]] ... <blockquote>Maslow describes this characteristic of the capacity for mystical experiences as ''"feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable has happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by such experiences"'' (Maslow, 1954, as cited in Cloninger, 2018).</blockquote>... {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Effect of awe on the self == ''...'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. * not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; ** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). *** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cloninger, S. (2018). Theories of personality : Understanding persons. Pearson Education. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] qub15dpng08bog13a7wsw65bxk58ak2 2842772 2842771 2026-10-27T05:02:34Z Amirrorslens 3106278 adding in scenario code 2842772 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This article focuses on awe as an emotion and it's associated experience and effect, defined by the prototypical definition given by Keltner and Haidt (2003) as requiring vastness and a need for accommodation. This accommodation, either successful or failed, is argued to leave lasting impacts on the individual, particuarly on perceptions of the self. * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as wonder, elevation or admiration. In [[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]]'s wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of the primary emotions suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). ''%%Other epistemic and non core emotions'' %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions - refer to table and heading later on'' ''- %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation'' In this prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). While the term "vastness" implies great physical size, such as the incomprehensible depth of the Grand Canyon, here, vastness is used to describe any stimulus that challenge's one accustomed frame of reference in some dimension (see Need for accommodation later on). Vastness can be conveyed through physical space, in number or quantity, complexity of detail or concept, in ability or even the human experience ('''''reference'''''?). What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007). Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014) ''INSERT SCENARIO PART 1.2 ABOUT MATH EQUATION - vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. - mention the lagrangian'' * For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ===== Physical vastness ===== * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning thing ** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Need for accommodation === Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ??? * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distinguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} <br /> Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == === Maslow's theory of needs === ... ==== Self-actualisation ==== ... ==== Actualising tendency ==== ... === Peak experiences === [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|Peak experiences]] ... <blockquote>Maslow describes this characteristic of the capacity for mystical experiences as ''"feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable has happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by such experiences"'' (Maslow, 1954, as cited in Cloninger, 2018).</blockquote>... {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Effect of awe on the self == ''...'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. * not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; ** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). *** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cloninger, S. (2018). Theories of personality : Understanding persons. Pearson Education. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] qld8goniwf8kwwjvr7hybfo3ucg4dba 2842773 2842772 2026-10-27T05:09:44Z Amirrorslens 3106278 /* Overview */ 2842773 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|3}}}|icon=Nuvola apps kopete.png|title=Scenario - Part 1.1}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ;Scenario - Awe :Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. :This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This article focuses on awe as an emotion and it's associated experience and effect, defined by the prototypical definition given by Keltner and Haidt (2003) as requiring vastness and a need for accommodation. This accommodation, either successful or failed, is argued to leave lasting impacts on the individual, particuarly on perceptions of the self. * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as wonder, elevation or admiration. In [[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]]'s wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of the primary emotions suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). ''%%Other epistemic and non core emotions'' %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions - refer to table and heading later on'' ''- %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation'' In this prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). While the term "vastness" implies great physical size, such as the incomprehensible depth of the Grand Canyon, here, vastness is used to describe any stimulus that challenge's one accustomed frame of reference in some dimension (see Need for accommodation later on). Vastness can be conveyed through physical space, in number or quantity, complexity of detail or concept, in ability or even the human experience ('''''reference'''''?). What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007). Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014) ''INSERT SCENARIO PART 1.2 ABOUT MATH EQUATION - vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. - mention the lagrangian'' * For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ===== Physical vastness ===== * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning thing ** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Need for accommodation === Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ??? * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distinguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} <br /> Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == === Maslow's theory of needs === ... ==== Self-actualisation ==== ... ==== Actualising tendency ==== ... === Peak experiences === [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|Peak experiences]] ... <blockquote>Maslow describes this characteristic of the capacity for mystical experiences as ''"feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable has happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by such experiences"'' (Maslow, 1954, as cited in Cloninger, 2018).</blockquote>... {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Effect of awe on the self == ''...'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. * not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; ** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). *** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cloninger, S. (2018). Theories of personality : Understanding persons. Pearson Education. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] fqapvbkmrxu8voxcvz8l4m1vntw5cwq 2842774 2842773 2026-10-27T05:10:12Z Amirrorslens 3106278 /* Overview */ 2842774 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|3}}}|icon=Nuvola apps kopete.png|title=Scenario - Part 1.1}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ;Scenario - Awe :Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. :This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This article focuses on awe as an emotion and it's associated experience and effect, defined by the prototypical definition given by Keltner and Haidt (2003) as requiring vastness and a need for accommodation. This accommodation, either successful or failed, is argued to leave lasting impacts on the individual, particuarly on perceptions of the self. * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as wonder, elevation or admiration. In [[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]]'s wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of the primary emotions suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). ''%%Other epistemic and non core emotions'' %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions - refer to table and heading later on'' ''- %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation'' In this prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). While the term "vastness" implies great physical size, such as the incomprehensible depth of the Grand Canyon, here, vastness is used to describe any stimulus that challenge's one accustomed frame of reference in some dimension (see Need for accommodation later on). Vastness can be conveyed through physical space, in number or quantity, complexity of detail or concept, in ability or even the human experience ('''''reference'''''?). What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007). Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014) ''INSERT SCENARIO PART 1.2 ABOUT MATH EQUATION - vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. - mention the lagrangian'' * For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ===== Physical vastness ===== * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning thing ** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Need for accommodation === Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ??? * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distinguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} <br /> Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == === Maslow's theory of needs === ... ==== Self-actualisation ==== ... ==== Actualising tendency ==== ... === Peak experiences === [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|Peak experiences]] ... <blockquote>Maslow describes this characteristic of the capacity for mystical experiences as ''"feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable has happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by such experiences"'' (Maslow, 1954, as cited in Cloninger, 2018).</blockquote>... {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Effect of awe on the self == ''...'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. * not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; ** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). *** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cloninger, S. (2018). Theories of personality : Understanding persons. Pearson Education. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] ps1ve6lumqqfys5u1jvp277isxdl8ph 2842775 2842774 2026-10-27T05:10:49Z Amirrorslens 3106278 /* Overview */ 2842775 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|3}}}|icon=Nuvola apps kopete.png|title=Scenario - Part 1.1}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ;Scenario - Awe :Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. :This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} This article focuses on awe as an emotion and it's associated experience and effect, defined by the prototypical definition given by Keltner and Haidt (2003) as requiring vastness and a need for accommodation. This accommodation, either successful or failed, is argued to leave lasting impacts on the individual, particuarly on perceptions of the self. * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as wonder, elevation or admiration. In [[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]]'s wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of the primary emotions suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). ''%%Other epistemic and non core emotions'' %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions - refer to table and heading later on'' ''- %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation'' In this prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). While the term "vastness" implies great physical size, such as the incomprehensible depth of the Grand Canyon, here, vastness is used to describe any stimulus that challenge's one accustomed frame of reference in some dimension (see Need for accommodation later on). Vastness can be conveyed through physical space, in number or quantity, complexity of detail or concept, in ability or even the human experience ('''''reference'''''?). What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007). Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014) ''INSERT SCENARIO PART 1.2 ABOUT MATH EQUATION - vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. - mention the lagrangian'' * For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ===== Physical vastness ===== * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning thing ** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Need for accommodation === Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ??? * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distinguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} <br /> Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == === Maslow's theory of needs === ... ==== Self-actualisation ==== ... ==== Actualising tendency ==== ... === Peak experiences === [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|Peak experiences]] ... <blockquote>Maslow describes this characteristic of the capacity for mystical experiences as ''"feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable has happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by such experiences"'' (Maslow, 1954, as cited in Cloninger, 2018).</blockquote>... {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Effect of awe on the self == ''...'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. * not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; ** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). *** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cloninger, S. (2018). Theories of personality : Understanding persons. Pearson Education. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] deb15gi5jf4aump17zmdzdukictg7zp 2842776 2842775 2026-10-27T05:12:27Z Amirrorslens 3106278 2842776 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|3}}}|icon=Nuvola apps kopete.png|title=Scenario - Part 1.1}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ;Scenario - Awe :Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. :This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} This article focuses on awe as an emotion and it's associated experience and effect, defined by the prototypical definition given by Keltner and Haidt (2003) as requiring vastness and a need for accommodation. This accommodation, either successful or failed, is argued to leave lasting impacts on the individual, particuarly on perceptions of the self. * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) * Awe can have positive individual and community effects (pro-social behaviour) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as wonder, elevation or admiration. In [[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]]'s wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of the primary emotions suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). ''%%Other epistemic and non core emotions'' %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions - refer to table and heading later on'' ''- %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation'' In this prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). While the term "vastness" implies great physical size, such as the incomprehensible depth of the Grand Canyon, here, vastness is used to describe any stimulus that challenge's one accustomed frame of reference in some dimension (see Need for accommodation later on). Vastness can be conveyed through physical space, in number or quantity, complexity of detail or concept, in ability or even the human experience ('''''reference'''''?). What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007). Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014) ''INSERT SCENARIO PART 1.2 ABOUT MATH EQUATION - vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. - mention the lagrangian'' * For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ===== Physical vastness ===== * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning thing ** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Need for accommodation === Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ??? * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distinguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} <br /> Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == === Maslow's theory of needs === ... ==== Self-actualisation ==== ... ==== Actualising tendency ==== ... === Peak experiences === [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|Peak experiences]] ... <blockquote>Maslow describes this characteristic of the capacity for mystical experiences as ''"feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable has happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by such experiences"'' (Maslow, 1954, as cited in Cloninger, 2018).</blockquote>... {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Effect of awe on the self == ''...'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. * not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; ** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). *** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cloninger, S. (2018). Theories of personality : Understanding persons. Pearson Education. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] cp0stl6flqcit11hqrum82evx0xkrhl 2842777 2842776 2026-10-27T05:14:55Z Amirrorslens 3106278 /* Overview */ 2842777 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|3}}}|icon=Nuvola apps kopete.png|title=Scenario - Part 1.1}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ;:Scenario - Awe ::Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. ::This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} This article focuses on awe as an emotion and it's associated experience and effect, defined by the prototypical definition given by Keltner and Haidt (2003) as requiring vastness and a need for accommodation. This accommodation, either successful or failed, is argued to leave lasting impacts on the individual, particuarly on perceptions of the self. * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as wonder, elevation or admiration. In [[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]]'s wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of the primary emotions suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). ''%%Other epistemic and non core emotions'' %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions - refer to table and heading later on'' ''- %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation'' In this prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). While the term "vastness" implies great physical size, such as the incomprehensible depth of the Grand Canyon, here, vastness is used to describe any stimulus that challenge's one accustomed frame of reference in some dimension (see Need for accommodation later on). Vastness can be conveyed through physical space, in number or quantity, complexity of detail or concept, in ability or even the human experience ('''''reference'''''?). What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007). Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014) ''INSERT SCENARIO PART 1.2 ABOUT MATH EQUATION - vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. - mention the lagrangian'' * For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. ===== Physical vastness ===== * The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ===== Conceptual vastness ===== Witnessing other people or learning things, coming of age moments, witnessing things for the first time theories here. Music and virtues act of skills. * Acts of Virtue * Acts of skills * Learning thing ** For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Need for accommodation === Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ??? * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distinguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} <br /> Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == === Maslow's theory of needs === ... ==== Self-actualisation ==== ... ==== Actualising tendency ==== ... === Peak experiences === [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|Peak experiences]] ... <blockquote>Maslow describes this characteristic of the capacity for mystical experiences as ''"feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable has happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by such experiences"'' (Maslow, 1954, as cited in Cloninger, 2018).</blockquote>... {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Effect of awe on the self == ''...'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. * not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; ** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). *** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cloninger, S. (2018). Theories of personality : Understanding persons. Pearson Education. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] e9gipiljx8r77wiwvpr9gqvjndsox68 2842780 2842777 2026-10-27T05:51:12Z Amirrorslens 3106278 moving things around 2842780 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|3}}}|icon=Nuvola apps kopete.png|title=Scenario - Part 1.1}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ;:Scenario - Awe ::Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. ::This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} This article focuses on awe as an emotion and it's associated experience and effect, defined by the prototypical definition given by Keltner and Haidt (2003) as requiring vastness and a need for accommodation. This accommodation, either successful or failed, is argued to leave lasting impacts on the individual, particuarly on perceptions of the self. * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as wonder, elevation or admiration. In [[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]]'s wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of the primary emotions suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). ''%%Other epistemic and non core emotions'' %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions - refer to table and heading later on'' ''- %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation'' In this prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). While the term "vastness" implies great physical size, such as the incomprehensible depth of the Grand Canyon, here, vastness is used to describe any stimulus that challenge's one accustomed frame of reference in some dimension (see Need for accommodation later on). Vastness can be conveyed through physical space, in number or quantity, complexity of detail or concept, in ability or even the human experience ['''''reference'''''?]. What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007). Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014). [...] See Table 1 below. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distinguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} * For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict ''INSERT SCENARIO PART 1.2 ABOUT MATH EQUATION - vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. - mention the lagrangian'' Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions === Need for accommodation === Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ??? * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distinguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}} [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ; Scenario Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == === Maslow's theory of needs === ... ==== Self-actualisation ==== ... ==== Actualising tendency ==== ... === Peak experiences === [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|Peak experiences]] ... <blockquote>Maslow describes this characteristic of the capacity for mystical experiences as ''"feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable has happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by such experiences"'' (Maslow, 1954, as cited in Cloninger, 2018).</blockquote>... {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} === Failures to accommodate === ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Effect of awe on the self == ''...'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. * not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; ** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). *** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). *The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cloninger, S. (2018). Theories of personality : Understanding persons. Pearson Education. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] b60h3kps820hsft57bj9rx704n3gpk5 2842781 2842780 2026-10-27T05:56:48Z Amirrorslens 3106278 /* Overview */ adding in more scenarios 2842781 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Awe and the diminished self:<br>How does awe diminish the self and how can this be applied?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|3}}}|icon=Nuvola apps kopete.png|title=Scenario - Part 1.1}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ;:Scenario - Awe ::Leo walks into the desert late at night and is taken aback at the night sky above him. Being alone in the vast and flat plane lets him really perceive the vastness of the stars and leaves him feeling very present and aware of his smallness in comparison. This overwhelming feeling leaves Leo seeking connection with others, and a new found sense of purpose. ::This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} This article focuses on awe as an emotion and it's associated experience and effect, defined by the prototypical definition given by Keltner and Haidt (2003) as requiring vastness and a need for accommodation. This accommodation, either successful or failed, is argued to leave lasting impacts on the individual, particuarly on perceptions of the self. * ''KEY PIECE OF LITERATURE: Keltner and Haidt: Awe 2003'' *''Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development'' * Awe is considered a [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|peak experience]] according to Maslow [x] {{ic|Also consider awe as an emotion}}, (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Awe and well-being|Awe and well-being]]) ** Experiencing awe = indicator of reaching highest level of self-actualisation and self-transcendence) {{ic|The topic is not just about awe - it is about the effect of awe on self-perception}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=6}} '''Focus questions''' * What is awe as an emotion? * What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs? * What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences? * How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good? * How does the experience of awe diminish the self? * What is the effect of a diminished sense of self? * How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we produce the conditions for everyday and intentional moments of awe?{{RoundBoxBottom}} == Awe as an emotion == [[File:Plutchik-wheel.svg|thumb|Figure 2: Plutchik's wheel of emotions, where awe is modelled as a combination of suprise and fear.]] [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] is an emotion generally described as wonder, elevation or admiration. In [[wikipedia:Robert_Plutchik|Robert Plutchik]]'s wheel of emotion as seen in Figure 2, awe is modelled as a combination of the primary emotions suprise and fear (see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]]). ''%%Other epistemic and non core emotions'' %%''sentence about distinguishing from other emotions - refer to table and heading later on'' ''- %% we use the experience of awe to define the eliciting emotion . perception of something vast -> triggers awe -> requires need for accomodation'' In this prototypical perspectice of awe offered by Keltner and Haidt, (2003), two features are central to the experience of awe as an emotion; perceived vastness, and a following need for accommodation. === Vastness === Vastness refers to experiences that are perceived as being much larger than the self or their ordinary frame of reference. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). While the term "vastness" implies great physical size, such as the incomprehensible depth of the Grand Canyon, here, vastness is used to describe any stimulus that challenge's one accustomed frame of reference in some dimension (see Need for accommodation later on). Vastness can be conveyed through physical space, in number or quantity, complexity of detail or concept, in ability or even the human experience ['''''reference'''''?]. What is critical is that the stimulus dramatically expands the observer's usual frame of reference in some dimension or domain." (Shiota et al., 2007). Obscurity is another propertry that produces the 'sublime experience' (Burke, 1990, as cited in Keltner and Hiadt., 2014). [...] See Table 1 below. '''Table 1.''' ''Adapted table from Keltner and Haidt's 2003 article that distinguishes awe as an emotion from other related states and appraisals by identifying two central features of vastness and accommodation, as well as other "flavours". '''X''' denotes that the appraisal is usually made in this case. '''?''' denotes that the appraisal is sometimes made in the case and if it is made, it adds a flavour). ^'''a''' denotes states that are related to awe, but should not be labelled as awe.'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="8" |Keltner and Haidt's prototype approach to awe and related states |- ! ! colspan="2" |Central features ! colspan="5" |Peripheral or "flavouring" features |- !Eliciting Situations !Vastness !Accommodation !Threat !Beauty !Ability !Virtue !Supernatural |- |Prototype: Powerful leader |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | | | |- |Encounter with God |'''X''' |'''X''' |? |? | |'''X''' |'''X''' |- |Great skill (''Admiration^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | |'''X''' | | |- |Great virtue (''Elevation^'''a''''') | |'''X''' | | | |'''X''' | |- |Tornado |'''X''' |'''X''' |'''X''' |? | | |? |- |Grand vista |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' | | | |- |Cathedral |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |Awe-inspiring music |'''X''' |'''X''' | |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? |- |A beautiful painting (''Aesthetic pleasure^'''a''''') | | | |'''X''' |? | | |- |Grand theory |'''X''' |'''X''' | |? | | | |- |Seeing an object levitate (''Uncanny^'''a''''') | |'''X''' |? | | | |'''X''' |} * For example, one may experience a sense of vastness in a mathematical equation, not because the equation is literally long, but because of the vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict ''INSERT SCENARIO PART 1.2 ABOUT MATH EQUATION - vast number of observed physical processes it is able to explain and predict. - mention the lagrangian'' Could put a quiz in here and use the descriptions === Need for accommodation === Awe is defined by Keltner and Haidt as an inability to assimilate an experience into current mental structures. (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). ??? * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. * Accommodation is one of the two ongoing processes (assimilation being the other) in [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]], where existing [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|schemas]] are modified, or even created to deal with a new event or experience (Jean Piaget, {find specific reference}). ** See also: [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] - Discussion of what it means to require the need for knowledge structures to be updated. {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|3}}}|icon=Nuvola apps kopete.png|title=Scenario - Part 1.2}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|left|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ;:Scenario - Vastness and need for accommodation ::: This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} == The role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences == === Maslow's theory of needs === ... ==== Self-actualisation ==== ... ==== Actualising tendency ==== ... === Peak experiences === [[wikipedia:Peak_experience|Peak experiences]] ... <blockquote>Maslow describes this characteristic of the capacity for mystical experiences as ''"feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space with, finally, the conviction that something extremely important and valuable has happened, so that the subject is to some extent transformed and strengthened even in daily life by such experiences"'' (Maslow, 1954, as cited in Cloninger, 2018).</blockquote>... {| class="wikitable" |+ !Features of peak experience !Example of study |- |disorientation in time and space | |- |ego transcendece & self-forgetfulness |ego death |- |self-forgetfulness |meditation? |- |perception that the world is good, beautiful and desirable |is there a study that supports this resulting notion, |- |feeling passive, receptive and humble |non-attachment?, radical acceptable therapy, meditation/mindfulness |- |sense that polarities and dichotomies have been transcended or resolved |no borders or boundaries, the out of orbit // observer effect |- |feelings of being lucky, fortunate, or graced |gratitude practice |} {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|3}}}|icon=Nuvola apps kopete.png|title=Scenario - Part 1.3}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> [[File:NASA-HS201427a-HubbleUltraDeepField2014-20140603.jpg|left|thumb|200px|'''Figure 1'''. NASA Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] ;:Scenario - Peak experiences & observer effect ::: This experience leaves such a lasting impact on Leo, that he decides to enroll in an Astrophysics course at university, and encounters grand theories and abstract concepts. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} === Failures to accommodate === ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Effect of awe on the self == ''...'' === Key feelings and effects === * Awe diminishes the sense of self and shifts attention away from individual interests and concerns (Bai et al., 2017) * Differences among individuas for experiencing awe: ** higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 '''CRITICISMS / DISUCSSIONS ON AWE Blockages to / some people more likely to experience than others (class, personality, more likely to cultivate interntionally)''' In terms of the state of the research, Keltner and Haidt (2003) suggest in their analysis that one would expect people in upper echelons of societies to experience less awe than those in lower stratas. This was supported by Piff & Moskowitz, (2017) that found that individuals from higher classes reported less frequently experiencing awe compared to individuals from lower social classes. * not only religious but also non-religious individuals report experiencing awe; ** however, religious onementions explicitly religious or life-or-death events while non-religious one talks about the wonder of nature (Preston & Shin, 2017). *** simulation of viewing Earth from the space, individuals who experienced awe were non-religious (Reinerman-Jones, Sollins, Gallagher, & Janz, 2013). *The overview effect = witnessing Earth from the atmosphere = life-altering degree of awe -> transcendent -> complete breakdown of perception of borders and countries = feeling of connectedness (Yaden et al., 2016) * Eclipses: study that used twitter data (over 2 million users) -> individuals exhibited more awe and expressed less self focused and more pro social, affiliative, humble and collective language * Witnessing natural disasters may induce a state of negatively valenced awe (Chaudhury et al., 2022; Piff et al., 2015) ** Link to heading section 'Effect of awe on the self' -> threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt, 2003). {| class="wikitable" |+ !Key feelings and effects ! |- |Smallness | |- |Profoundness | |- |Connectedness | |- |Perception of the self | |- |Pro-social behaviour (b) | |} ==== Smallness ==== * study found that smallness was experienced but not insignificance (Edwards, et al. 2025) ** awe shrinks the self without making the individual feel insignificant ==== Profoundness ==== * [x] discuss significance of emotion * the present moment ** forced presence *time dilation (what article was that??) ==== Connectedness ==== * seeking connection after feelings of smallness * higher in openness tend to experience greater levels of awe (SK Chen, 2021) -> Shiota et al., 2006; Silvia et al., 2015 ===== Perception of the self ===== * presenting more balanced view of personal strengths and weaknesses * increased acknowledgment of outside forces in one's accomplishments (Stellar et al., 2018) * epistemic humility = measures of wisdom and moral character * positive self-transcendent experiences can be utilised as driving force for better understanding one's decision and perspectives impact others (Kim et al., 2023) === Self-perception === [[wikipedia:Self-concept|Self-concept]] = made up of one's self-schemas *possible selves ===== Ego-death ===== * small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * See also [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] = complete loss of subjective self concept * ''%% MOVE TO PSYCHEDLICS SECTION OR MOVE PSYCHEDELICS HERE AND REFERENCE HEADING IN THAT PARAGRAPH %%'' ==== Psychedelics ==== ''[Author's Note: I feel psychedelics needs its own subsection here as it is particuarly relevant to my applications, and provides a good segue to need for accommodations.]'' * psychedielic-occassioned mystical experience is characterised by profound awe ** small self -> construct that in the extreme is analogous to those of unitive experience and ego dissolution (diminishing of self) (Hendricks, 2018) * psychedelics have been shown to produce enduring positive change across a range of psychological and behavioural outcomes (Hendricks, 2018) via ''(Griffiths et al., 2018; Griffiths, Richards, Johnson, McCann, & Jesse, 2008, Griffiths et al., 2011; Griffiths, Richards, McCann, & Jesse, 2006; Lebedev et al., 2016; MacLean, Johnson, & Griffiths, 2011)'' as well as treatment of depression. === Behavioural changes === * Link back to need for accommodation and changes [x]. Link back to motivation content [x] ==== Pro-social behaviour ==== [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] refers to social behaviours that benefit everyone. * How does this relate back to the need for accommodation? [x] === Failures to accommodate === * Awe is more specifically defined in (Shiota et al. 2007) as an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that overwhelm current mental structures, yet facilitate ''attempts'' at accommodation. ** Segue intro into failures to accommodate, threat-based awe, etc ==== Fear ==== * Keltner and Haidt (2003) argued that awe is situated on the boundary of fear * Threat-based awe (Keltner and Haidt) - flavour of the stimulus * See Nihilism ==== Trauma ==== [x] * failure to accommodate threat-based awe experienes can result in trauma == Current applications == * experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) * (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]'' === Wellbeing === * experiences in nature, moved by mysic, psychedelics, spiritual contemplation promote mental health? via awe (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) ** awe engages five processes *** shifts in neurophysiology *** diminished focus on self *** increased prosocail realtionality *** greater social integration *** heightened sense of meaning (Monroy and Keltner, 2023) === Therapies === intro [x] ==== Existential Therapy ==== * death is a main consideration in existential thought (Yalom, 2008) * death awareness reults in anxiety which can be experienced in two different ways: ** a) an overwhelming anxiety (dread or depression) resulting in various dysfunctional behaviors and moodstates associated with the choice of escape from it ** b) an energizing source that leads to live life fully as much as possible. (Furman, 2003) ** awe can be considered as a possible way of dealing with death anxiety (Schenider, 2021) ===== Gestalt ===== * here and now * reliving past experiences in the present moment to reexperience and attempt to accommodate * (Corey, 2009) ==== Psychedelic therapies ==== * evidence [x] * how related to awe [x] == Conclusion == * Awe diminishes the self via the small self affect etc. * Awe requires perceived vastness (stimulus from nature, or learning or challenge to mental schema), and a need for accommodation * Diminishing the self results in pro-social behaviour * Awe and its resulting experience of self-transcendent emotions can be utilised for therapies and healing * Awe promotes wellbeing and underscores other positive stimuli such as psychedelics or spiritual contemplation and learning * Focus Question: [What is awe as an emotion?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe is made up of perceived vastness and a need for an accommodation that often leaves individuals with a smaller sense of self, connectedness and purpose/increased meaning] * Focus Question: [What is humanistic psychology and theory of needs?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [What is the role of awe in Maslow's peak experiences?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How can we apply awe as peak experiences for individual good?] ... Prelimary answer: [...] * Focus Question: [How does the experience of awe diminish the self?] ... Prelimary answer: [awe diminishes the self mostly through the small-self construct, as well as diminishing the ego and seperatedness feeling] * Focus Question: [What is the effect of a diminished sense of self?] ... Prelimary answer: [diminished sense of self results in prosocial behaviour (broad) need to specify what behaviours] * Focus Question: [How can awe be integrated into modern life? i.e. How can we trigger or experience everyday moments of awe?] ** Prelimary answer: [experiencing awe can be regulatory, used for finding balance, and coping with stress (Chen & Mongrain, 2020) ** (Rudd et al. 2012) found evidence that experience awe may alletive time scarcity feeling in modern life ''[Authors Note:'' (''link back to appraisal from K&H of time distortion)]]'' ''[Authors Note: summarise topic, significance, how psych science contributes to understanding and addressing topic, practical take home messages, 150-330 words, mirror in [[#Overview|Overview]]]'' ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Awe|Awe]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Awe as an emotion|Awe as an emotion]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[wikipedia:Ego_death|Ego death]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget's theory of cognitive development]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Schema_(psychology)|Schemas]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Self|Self-concept]] (Wikipedia) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bai, Y., Maruskin, L. A., Chen, S., Gordon, A. M., Stellar, J. E., McNeil, G. D., Peng, K., & Keltner, D. (2017). Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self. Journal of personality and social psychology, 113(2), 185. Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cloninger, S. (2018). Theories of personality : Understanding persons. Pearson Education. Edwards, M. E., Mendenhall, K., Sanders, C., & King, L. A. (2026). Small but still significant: Awe and the self. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 52(9), 3032-3045. Furman, R. (2003). Poetry therapy and existential practice. The Arts in Psychotherapy, 30(4), 195-200. Hendricks, P. S. (2018). Awe: a putative mechanism underlying the effects of classic psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy. International Review of Psychiatry, 30(4), 331-342. Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Kim, Y., Nusbaum, H. C., & Yang, F. (2023). Going beyond ourselves: The role of self-transcendent experiences in wisdom. Cognition and Emotion, 37(1), 98-116. Maslow, A. H. (1964). Religions, values, and peak-experiences. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press. Piff, P. K., Dietze, P., Feinberg, M., Stancato, D. M., & Keltner, D. (2015). Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 108(6), 883. Yaden, D. B., Iwry, J., Slack, K. J., Eichstaedt, J. C., Zhao, Y., Vaillant, G. E., & Newberg, A. B. (2016). The overview effect: Awe and self-transcendent experience in space flight. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3(1), 1. Yalom, I. D. (2008). Staring at the sun: Overcoming the terror of death. The Humanistic Psychologist, 36(3-4), 283. }} ==External links== * [https://self-transcendence.org/theory Self-transendence] (Self-transcendence.org) * [https://therapyintampa.com/the-neuroscience-of-awe-how-shared-wonder-supports-mental-health/ The Neuroscience of Awe: How Shared Wonder Supports Mental Health] (North Star Therapy) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Awe]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self]] 9xig404p0petm5w4uuaf695zl6coeqx 0 331639 2842778 2841190 2026-10-27T05:32:15Z Jtneill 10242 Copyediting 2842778 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making:<br>How is effort dynamically adjusted based on changing cost-benefit analysis during goal pursuit?}} __TOC__ ==Overview== {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Scenario At the start of an evening a student preparing for an important exam expects two more hours of study to improve their result. They silence their phone, choose challenging practice questions, and concentrate. After an hour. {{g}} However, the questions are taking longer than expected, they are becoming tired, and a friend invites them out. The exam still matters, but the expected value of another hour of studying may have changed. The student could keep going, change to a more efficient study method, take a break, or stop and rest. Each option has different possible benefits and costs.The important point is that effort can change while the goal remains the same. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Psychological research {{fact}} views effort as a finite, potentially costly resource. Models of effort-based decision-making {{f}} propose that individuals assess the expected benefits against the costs of exerting effort. Cognitive effort can thus be seen as part of a decision problem: how much control to exert and on what activity given the current circumstances? (Shenhav et al., 2017; Westbrook & Braver, 2015). This perspective helps explain the apparent paradox of the same person working intensely on one task but disengaging from another, the increase in willingness to work with an increase in reward, and the eventual reduction or redirection of effort as task difficulty increases. Research on effort discounting has also shown that increasing effort requirements can decrease an outcome's subjective value, but methods and definitions of effort differ substantially across studies (Gómez Escobar & Mitchell, 2025). '''Key points:''' * Effort is better understood as something people allocate than as a fixed amount of motivation * A goal’s value is only one part of the decision: people also consider whether effort is likely to improve the outcome. * Effort cost and benefits are subjective and can change during goal pursuit * Persistence is not always the most adaptive response; strategy changes and planned breaks can also support a goal. * Findings from laboratory tasks can inform everyday decisions, but they do not provide a complete account of real-world motivation {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions''' * What makes effort costly and beneficial during goal pursuit? * How are changing rewards, task demands, confidence, fatigue, and competing opportunities influencing effort allocation? * How does feedback during goal pursuit cause effort to increase, decrease or change form? * What psychological and neural mechanisms support dynamic effort regulation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Effort as a cost-benefit decision == [[File:Book chapter table.png|center|thumb|500x500px|'''Figure 1'''. A simplified cycle of effort regulation. The cycle draws on cost-benefit and control-allocation accounts ({{ic|based on?}} Shenhav et al., 2013, 2017; Westbrook & Braver, 2015).]] Effort-based decision-making {{ic|explain this concept}} research {{f}} examines how the work required to obtain an outcome affects its appeal. A demanding option may be rejected in favour of an easier one, unless the expected outcome makes the additional effort worthwhile. “Cost-benefit” is a framework for describing this pattern; it does not imply that people always make an accurate calculation or consciously compare numerical values (Westbrook & Braver, 2015). {{ic|What are the most important theoretical models about effort justification?}} The value of an outcome depends partly on a person’s circumstances and priorities. A high mark, improved health, financial reward, mastery or helping someone else may matter in different ways to different people. The same outcome may also feel more or less valuable depending on when it is available and what else competes for attention. A study session, for example, may become harder to choose when a valued social opportunity arises. {{f}} Effort can be physical, such as climbing stairs, or cognitive, or holding information in mind while solving a problem. These forms of effort can be studied with different tasks and should not automatically be treated as identical. Research {{f}} also uses different indicators - including choice, persistence, performance, time, and reported effort. A person may spend more time on a task without using a more {{ic|than?}} effective strategy, or report high effort without performing better. Researchers therefore need to define and measure effort carefully (Gómez Escobar & Mitchell, 2025; Westbrook & Braver, 2015). '''Key points:''' • Effort is treated as a response cost that influences action selection. {{vague}} • The value of an outcome depends partly on how much effort is required to obtain it. {{f}} • Effort allocation can be rational in the broad sense that control is preferentially deployed where its expected benefits justify its costs. {{example}} ;Quiz <quiz display="simple"> {Effort is considered a cost when deciding whether an outcome is worth pursuing: |type="()"} + True - False {Does increasing the amount of effort required always make an outcome more valuable?: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == The expected value of control == The Expected Value of Control (EVC) model proposes that cognitive control is allocated when its expected payoff justifies its costs {{f}}. Control refers to processes such as focusing attention, keeping a goal in mind, or resisting habitual response. The expected payoff depends on whether applying control is likely to improve performance and whether that improvement will make a difference to the outcome (Shenhav et al., 2013, 2017). This distinction helps explain why a goal can remain important even as effort falls. A student may care greatly about an exam, yet decide that another hour of studying is unlikely to help because concentration has faded or the study method is ineffective. Alternatively, if a short practice test shows that focused review is improving performance, the expected payoff of continuing may rise. In this account {{f}}, the question is not only “How much do I want the goal?” but also “Can this particular effort improve my chances of reaching it?” EVC is a theoretical framework {{f}}, not a direct description of a conscious inner calculation. It helps organise predictions about control, value, and effort, but does not by itself explain every reason that a person might persist or stop. <quiz display="simple"> {Can a goal remain important even if a person decides that more effort is unlikely to improve the outcome?{{g}}: |type="()"} + True - False {Does the EVC model claim that people consciously calculate the exact payoff of every effort decision?{{g}}: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Opportunity costs and task avoidance == An opportunity cost is the value of an alternative that is given up when someone chooses one activity {{f}}. Kurzban et al. (2013) proposed that mental effort may feel costly partly because attention and time spent on one task cannot be used for other activities. On this account, the student may experience studying as more costly when an appealing social activity is available, even if the task itself has not become harder. People may also avoid options that are described as cognitively demanding {{f}}. In laboratory experiments {{how}} {{where}}, {{who}} participants showed a preference for less demanding options, supporting the idea that anticipated cognitive demand can influence choice (Kool et al.,2010). Such avoidance is not necessarily irrational. Choosing an easier option could preserve time or energy for something more important; its value depends on the person’s goals and situation. {{example}} Opportunity-cost accounts help highlight competing alternatives, but they are not a complete explanation of effort. They must be considered alongside task demands, the expected effectiveness of control, personal values, and other constraints {{f}}. An individual may withdraw from a task because the costs are high, because success seems unlikely, because the goal has changed, or for reasons a laboratory choice task does not capture. '''Key points:''' • Reward value is subjective: importance, immediacy and personal relevance can change the benefit of effort. • People are more likely to persist when effort is expected to improve the chance of success. • Task demand, fatigue and competing goals can raise the effective cost of continued effort. ;Quiz <quiz display="simple"> {A person's belief about their chance of success influences their willingness to continue?: |type="()"} + True - False {Fatigue does not increase the cost of continuing to exert effort.: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == Difficultly, motivation and the effort paradox == Motivational Intensity Theory proposes that effort can rise with task difficulty when success is possible and worthwhile. When a task seems impossible, or when its demands no longer seem justified by the goal, people may reduce their effort (Brehm & Self. 1989). Thus, increasing difficulty does not always produce either more or less effort: the response depends on how a person evaluates the task and its value. There is also an effort paradox. Effort can be costly and avoided, but it can also be valued. People sometimes choose demanding activities or value accomplishments partly because they worked for them (Inzlicht et al., 2018). This means that effort cannot be treated only as a burden to minimise. In the student scenario, difficulty might be frustrating, but mastering a challenging topic may also be meaningful. The value of effort can depend on whether the challenge supports a valued outcome, develops a skill, or feels worthwhile to the person. These perspectives share an emphasis on the relationship between effort and value, but they focus on different parts: problem EVC explains why control might be allocated when it can improve outcomes; opportunity-cost accounts emphasise alternatives that compete for attention; motivational-intensity accounts focus on effort  relative to task difficulty and success. Their  ideas can complement one another, but they should not be presented as interchangeable theories. == What changes the cost-benefit calculation? == Effort regulation depends on estimates that can vary between people and within the same person over time {{f}}. Reward value, beliefs about success, task demands, fatigue, and alternative opportunities can all change the appeal of continuing {{f}}. '''Benefits, reward, and chance of success''' Rewards can be material such as money, or personal things such as mastery, health, pride or support for someone else {{f}}. Their value is not universal {{f}}. People may also be more willing to make an effort when they believe that effort can influence their chances of success {{f}}. Laboratory research {{f}} illustrates how cognitive effort can affect reward valuation. Westbrook et al. (2013) used {{how}} choices between monetary rewards associated with lower - and higher-load cognitive tasks. Their findings indicated that perceived effort costs varied with the level of task demand and other factors, including individual differences. This approach helps researchers quantify choices, but a task involving paid laboratory trials is not the same as sustaining study or work over weeks. Monetary reward and a controlled task may not capture the personal meaning, habits, obligation, or social context that influence real-life decisions. The expectation that effort will make a difference is important. If someone believes a study technique is helping, further effort may seem worthwhile; if they see no progress, they may lose confidence in the method. The useful response could be to test a different strategy rather than simply increase the time spent. In other contexts, a person may decide that the goal matters but cannot currently be reached, or that another goal should take priority '''Key points:''' • Reward value is subjective: importance, immediacy and personal relevance can change the benefit of effort. • People are more likely to persist when effort is expected to improve the chance of success. • Task demand, fatigue and competing goals can raise the effective cost of continued effort. ;Quiz <quiz display="simple"> {Is changing strategies consider to be a form of effort regulation? {{g}} |type="()"} + True - False {Does reducing effort always mean that a person has abandoned their goal? {{g}} |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Dynamic effort regulation during goal pursuit== Demand can refer to the level of cognitive or physical challenge, the time needed, or the amount of uncertainty involved {{f}}. In a {{ic|what type of?}} study by Apps et al. (2015), participants’ choices showed that cognitive effort could devalue rewards, and that people were generally averse to uncertainty. This cautions against assuming that all kinds of cost are one general “difficulty” factor. {{example}} Fatigue may also affect a person’s willingness and ability to continue {{f}}. A {{ic|type of}} review of sleep-deprivation research, for example, found evidence that sleep loss can alter choices involving cognitive effort, though the effects may not apply equally to other forms of choice (Libedinsky et al., 2013). Fatigue should not be interpreted as a simple meter showing that a fixed resource has run out. A tired person may still continue when a goal is important, while someone with adequate energy may reasonably choose not to invest in a low-value task. The opportunity cost of continuing may also rise when time is needed for sleep, caregiving, working or another goal. This does not mean that a person lacks motivation. It means that decisions are made within competing demands and real constraints. '''A changing decision, not a one-time choice''' Goal pursuit contains repeated opportunities to reassess effort. Feedback can increase the expected benefit of continuing - for example, when practice results improve - or suggest that the current approach is not working. A student who repeatedly misses the same type of question might benefit more from a different explanation or help from a teacher than from doing more questions in the same way. Dynamic regulation therefore includes more than increasing or decreasing effort. People can switch strategies, alter task order, change the environment, ask for support, pause or stop. '''Practical tip: Reassess your effort''' When working towards a goal, occasionally ask yourself whether your current effort is helping you make progress. For example, if you have been studying for hours but are struggling to concentrate, taking a short break or changing your study method may be more beneficial than continuing without focus. Adjusting your approach does not mean abandoning your goal; it can be a way of using your effort more effectively (Shenhav et al., 2017).These responses may preserve commitment to a goal while changing how it is pursued. Taking a break, for example, is not automatically giving up; it may be a deliberate response to low concentration or diminish returns. Equally, continuing is not automatically adaptive if the current effort is {{g}} '''Key points:''' • Goal pursuit contains repeated opportunities to update effort rather than one irreversible decision. • Feedback can increase or decrease effort depending on how it changes expected benefit and cost. • Strategy switching, breaks and stopping can be forms of adaptive effort regulation rather than simple disengagement. <quiz display="simple"> {Dopamine can influence effort-related motivation and action selection: |type="()"} + True - False {A single brain region is solely responsible for regulating effort: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> == What research shows - and what it cannot yet establish == Researchers use effort-discounting tasks, cognitive-control experiments, behavioral choices, and brain-imaging methods to investigate different aspects of effort. Each method can offer useful evidence, but each also has limitations. In effort-discounting tasks, participants choose between an option requiring less work and a higher-value option requiring more effort. Bialaszek et al. (2017) compared models describing how both physical and cognitive effort affected reward value. Which mathematical model best represented choices depended in part on the model and task conditions. This matters because a numerical “effort discounting rate” is not a direct, context-free measure of motivation; it depends on how effort and choice are operationalised. Neuroscience research also investigates mechanisms that may contribute to effort decisions. Reviews describe dopamine as involved in effort-related activation and the willingness to work for outcomes, rather than as a simple “pleasure chemical” (Salamone & Correa, 2012, 2024). In a placebo-controlled study of healthy adults, Gómez et al. (2021) found that pharmacological changes affected dopamine altered aspects of effort allocation in a dynamic task. The findings are evidence that dopamine can contribute to effort related behaviour under the tested conditions. They do not establish that dopamine alone determines everyday motivation, or that a result from a short experiment can be translated directly into advice for an individual. A 2026 meta-analysis of {{ic|how many?}} neuroimaging studies reported that brain areas involved in processing reward and task demand were partly distinct, with some activity also consistent with integrating these signals in decisions about mental effort (Edgar et al., 2026). A meta-analysis can help identify patterns across studies, but brain activity alone cannot reveal a person’s full subjective experience, values, or reasons for acting. Nor does a brain region working during a task prove it is a single, isolated “effort centre”. Research on mental effort and daily activity has begun to connect laboratory measures with everyday behaviour. Crawford et al. (2023) studied 310 younger and older adults using a cognitive-effort choice task; a subset also reported mentally demanding daily activities over a seven-day period. The relationship between laboratory effort costs and daily activity differed across reward framing conditions {{vague}}. This is a promising bridge between laboratory and real life, but it remains a particular task and sample, not a universal measure of daily motivation. A broader systematic review found substantial differences in how {{ic|how many}} human effort-discounting studies defined effort, designed tasks, and modelled choice (Gómez Escobar & Mitchell, 2025). This heterogeneity limits direct comparisons and firm claims about a single underlying process. Studies may differ in whether they measure physical or cognitive effort, what counts as a reward are real or hypothetical, and how effort requirements are presented. A finding in one task should therefore not be treated as proof that all types of effort work in the same way. The overall evidence supports the idea that people’s willingness to work can depend on perceived demands, outcomes, and context. It does not show that people always make optimal decisions, that a single formula explains every choice, or that one behaviour reveals a person’s general motivation. Group-level research findings also cannot diagnose an individual or tell them what decision they should make. '''Applying the research to everyday goals''' The research suggests practical questions that help people make more deliberate effort decisions. These questions are applications of board {{sp}} psychological principle, not guaranteed techniques. # '''Clarify the goa'''': What outcome is being pursued, and does it matter? A concrete outcome can help a person decide whether continued effort is worthwhile. # '''Ask whether the current effort can help''': Is there a reasonable chance that more effort will improve the result? If not, changing the method of seeking help may be more useful than simply working longer. # '''Notice costs and competing demands''': Consider time, energy, uncertainty, responsibilities, and  meaningful alternatives. These are relevant parts of the decision, not evidence of laziness. # '''Use feedback to update the plan:''' A short practice task. A progress check. Or a review of what is and is not working can inform the next steps. # '''Choose deliberately among persistence, adjustment, and rest:'''  Continuing may be valuable when effort is effective. Switching strategies, taking a break, or stopping may be more appropriate when conditions have changed. In the opening scenario, the student could ask whether another hour is likely to improve understanding, whether a different method could work better and whether sleep would support exam performance more than late-night study. There may be no single correct answer without knowing the student’s circumstances. The purpose of effort regulation is not maximise work at every moment but to make considered choices about how to pursue valued goals. '''Pause and reflect''' Think of a goal that has required sustained effort. What changed as you pursued it: the value of the outcome, your belief that you  could succeed, the tasks demands, your energy, or the appeal of alternatives? Did you persist, adjust your strategy, pause, or stop? Looking back, what information would have helped you choose? == Conclusion == Effort regulation is an ongoing process of deciding how to pursue goals as conditions change. The Expected Value of Control model, opportunity-cost accounts, and motivational-intensity theory explain different aspects of why people may invest, redirect, or withdraw effort. Research supports the importance of reward, demands, expectations, and context, while also showing that findings depend on how effort is defined and measured. The central practical message is that persistence is only one possible form of adaptive goal pursuit. Effort is more likely to be useful when it can improve an outcome that matters. When it is not, changing strategy, seeking help, resting, or redirecting effort may be more appropriate. Improving  motivation does not always mean doing more; it can mean allocating effort more wisely. • Effort regulation is an ongoing process of updating the expected value of control. • The best level of effort can change even when the goal remains unchanged. • Adaptive goal pursuit involves both persistence and strategic reallocation of effort. ==See also== * [[w:Self-determination theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Executive_functions|Executive functions]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making|Effort regulation and cost-benefit decision-making]] (Book chapter, 2026) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Apps, M. A. J., Grima, L. L., Manohar, S., & Husain, M. (2015). The role of cognitive effort in subjective reward devaluation and risky decision-making. Scientific Reports, 5, Article 16880. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep16880 Bialaszek, W., Marcowski, P., & Ostaszewski, P. (2017). Physical and cognitive effort discounting across different reward magnitudes: Tests of discounting models. PLOS ONE, 12(7), e0182353. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182353 Brehm, J. W., & Self, E. A. (1989). The intensity of motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 109–131. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.40.020189.000545 Botvinick, M. M., & Braver, T. S. (2015). Motivation and cognitive control: From behavior to neural mechanism. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 83–113. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015044 Crawford, J. L., Chiew, K. S., Collins, A. G. E., & Westbrook, A. (2023). Cognitive effort-based decision-making across experimental and daily life indices in younger and older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 78(1), 40–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbac167 Croxson, P. L., Walton, M. E., O’Reilly, J. X., Behrens, T. E. J., & Rushworth, M. F. S. (2009). Effort-based cost–benefit valuation and the human brain. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29(14), 4531–4541. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4515-08.2009 Edgar, N., da Silva Castanheira, K., Turner, G. R., Spreng, R. N., Vassena, E., & Otto, A. R. (2026). The neural basis of cost–benefit trade-offs in effort investment: A quantitative activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-026-01468-4 Gómez, A., Dallérac, G., Chemaly, N., Olasagasti, I., & Prémoli, I. (2021). The role of dopamine in dynamic effort-reward integration. Neuropsychopharmacology, 46, 1364–1373. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-020-0669-0 Gómez Escobar, G. G., & Mitchell, S. H. (2025). A systematic review of effort discounting research in humans: Current knowledge, recommendations, and future directions. Judgment and Decision Making, 20, e33. https://doi.org/10.1017/jdm.2025.10009 Inzlicht, M., Shenhav, A., & Olivola, C. Y. (2018). The effort paradox: Effort is both costly and valued. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(4), 337–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.01.007 Kool, W., McGuire, J. T., Rosen, Z. B., & Botvinick, M. M. (2010). Decision making and the avoidance of cognitive demand. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139(4), 665–682. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020198 Kurzban, R., Duckworth, A., Kable, J. W., & Myers, J. (2013). An opportunity cost model of subjective effort and task performance. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36(6), 661–679. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X12003196 Libedinsky, C., Massar, S. A. A., Ling, A., Chee, W., Huettel, S. A., & Chee, M. W. L. (2013). Sleep deprivation alters effort discounting but not delay discounting of monetary rewards. Sleep, 36(6), 899–904. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.2720 Salamone, J. D., & Correa, M. (2012). The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron, 76(3), 470–485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021 Salamone, J. D., & Correa, M. (2024). The neurobiology of activational aspects of motivation: Exertion of effort, effort-based decision making, and the role of dopamine. Annual Review of Psychology, 75, 1–32.https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-020223-012208 Shenhav, A., Botvinick, M. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2013). The expected value of control: An integrative theory of anterior cingulate cortex function. Neuron, 79(2), 217–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.07.007 Shenhav, A., Musslick, S., Lieder, F., Kool, W., Griffiths, T. L., Cohen, J. D., & Botvinick, M. M. (2017). Toward a rational and mechanistic account of mental effort. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 40, 99–124. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-neuro-072116-031526 Treadway, M. T., Buckholtz, J. W., Schwartzman, A. N., Lambert, W. E., & Zald, D. H. (2009). Worth the ‘EEfRT’? The Effort Expenditure for Rewards Task as an objective measure of motivation and anhedonia. PLOS ONE, 4(8), e6598. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006598 Westbrook, A., & Braver, T. S. (2015). Cognitive effort: A neuroeconomic approach. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 15(2), 395–415. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-015-0334-y Westbrook, A., Kester, D., & Braver, T. S. (2013). What is the subjective cost of cognitive effort? Load, trait, and aging effects revealed by economic preference. PLOS ONE, 8(7), e68210. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068210 }} ==External links== {{expand}} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Decision making]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Effort]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Goal pursuit]] 37mi2lbnmhsxgkzpdp6t5qcjavbz3rs 3 331823 2842720 2831032 2026-10-26T21:45:16Z U3280122 3110471 /* Feedback */ new section 2842720 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], U3280122!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. 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See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:48, 3 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} == Feedback == I liked the chapter's discussion of how various theories in psychology relate to the motivation for love and belonging, such as attachment theory and the self-determination theory. Another thought was to build on this a bit more in the section on how love inspires caring and pro-social actions – this is mentioned in the focus questions, but not worked through as much in the main section. A practical example or research to support the relationship between theory and real life behavior might be helpful. The chapter, generally, leads to an interesting discussion on the motivational need for love. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:45, 26 October 2026 (UTC) sp4ooqmn0cqpp5flfzw2vg9537sbjvg 2842722 2842720 2026-10-26T21:54:44Z U3280122 3110471 /* Feedback */ new section 2842722 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], U3280122!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. 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See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:48, 3 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} == Feedback == I liked the chapter's discussion of how various theories in psychology relate to the motivation for love and belonging, such as attachment theory and the self-determination theory. Another thought was to build on this a bit more in the section on how love inspires caring and pro-social actions – this is mentioned in the focus questions, but not worked through as much in the main section. A practical example or research to support the relationship between theory and real life behavior might be helpful. The chapter, generally, leads to an interesting discussion on the motivational need for love. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:45, 26 October 2026 (UTC) == Feedback == I liked the chapter's explanation of the three elements of cognitive hardiness—control, commitment, and challenge—as well as the introductory workplace example. One recommendation would be to improve the section on how cognitive hardiness fosters resilience, as some of it still consists of planning notes rather than finished explanations. The relationship between theory and practical applications would be strengthened by incorporating research findings into these parts. Additionally, I saw that "Kobasa (REF)" is a placeholder citation in the Overview that might be changed to the correct reference. All things considered, this is a fascinating subject with a solid basis. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:54, 26 October 2026 (UTC) 1z8zva06146feb1j2nnxuogh900mrwu 2842723 2842722 2026-10-26T21:55:37Z U3280122 3110471 /* Feedback */ 2842723 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], U3280122!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. 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See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:48, 3 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} == Feedback == I liked the chapter's discussion of how various theories in psychology relate to the motivation for love and belonging, such as attachment theory and the self-determination theory. Another thought was to build on this a bit more in the section on how love inspires caring and pro-social actions – this is mentioned in the focus questions, but not worked through as much in the main section. A practical example or research to support the relationship between theory and real life behavior might be helpful. The chapter, generally, leads to an interesting discussion on the motivational need for love. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:45, 26 October 2026 (UTC) == Feedback for Need to love and be loved == I liked the chapter's explanation of the three elements of cognitive hardiness—control, commitment, and challenge—as well as the introductory workplace example. One recommendation would be to improve the section on how cognitive hardiness fosters resilience, as some of it still consists of planning notes rather than finished explanations. The relationship between theory and practical applications would be strengthened by incorporating research findings into these parts. Additionally, I saw that "Kobasa (REF)" is a placeholder citation in the Overview that might be changed to the correct reference. All things considered, this is a fascinating subject with a solid basis. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:54, 26 October 2026 (UTC) cpquugkt5wwre2d9y4bkm2r5rc663bz 2842724 2842723 2026-10-26T21:56:13Z U3280122 3110471 /* Feedback */ 2842724 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], U3280122!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. 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See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:48, 3 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} == Feedback for need to love and be loved == I liked the chapter's discussion of how various theories in psychology relate to the motivation for love and belonging, such as attachment theory and the self-determination theory. Another thought was to build on this a bit more in the section on how love inspires caring and pro-social actions – this is mentioned in the focus questions, but not worked through as much in the main section. A practical example or research to support the relationship between theory and real life behavior might be helpful. The chapter, generally, leads to an interesting discussion on the motivational need for love. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:45, 26 October 2026 (UTC) == Feedback for Need to love and be loved == I liked the chapter's explanation of the three elements of cognitive hardiness—control, commitment, and challenge—as well as the introductory workplace example. One recommendation would be to improve the section on how cognitive hardiness fosters resilience, as some of it still consists of planning notes rather than finished explanations. The relationship between theory and practical applications would be strengthened by incorporating research findings into these parts. Additionally, I saw that "Kobasa (REF)" is a placeholder citation in the Overview that might be changed to the correct reference. All things considered, this is a fascinating subject with a solid basis. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:54, 26 October 2026 (UTC) njj3z1l0gb9itoegf0f732o6ov93gi4 2842725 2842724 2026-10-26T21:57:00Z U3280122 3110471 /* Feedback for Need to love and be loved */ 2842725 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], U3280122!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. 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See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:48, 3 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} == Feedback for need to love and be loved == I liked the chapter's discussion of how various theories in psychology relate to the motivation for love and belonging, such as attachment theory and the self-determination theory. Another thought was to build on this a bit more in the section on how love inspires caring and pro-social actions – this is mentioned in the focus questions, but not worked through as much in the main section. A practical example or research to support the relationship between theory and real life behavior might be helpful. The chapter, generally, leads to an interesting discussion on the motivational need for love. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:45, 26 October 2026 (UTC) == feedback for Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience= I liked the chapter's explanation of the three elements of cognitive hardiness—control, commitment, and challenge—as well as the introductory workplace example. One recommendation would be to improve the section on how cognitive hardiness fosters resilience, as some of it still consists of planning notes rather than finished explanations. The relationship between theory and practical applications would be strengthened by incorporating research findings into these parts. Additionally, I saw that "Kobasa (REF)" is a placeholder citation in the Overview that might be changed to the correct reference. All things considered, this is a fascinating subject with a solid basis. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:54, 26 October 2026 (UTC) ff5gc2lt3dgji804gfvqmlcb9363ust 2842726 2842725 2026-10-26T21:57:29Z U3280122 3110471 /* Feedback for need to love and be loved */ 2842726 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], U3280122!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. 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See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:48, 3 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} == Feedback for need to love and be loved == I liked the chapter's discussion of how various theories in psychology relate to the motivation for love and belonging, such as attachment theory and the self determination theory. Another thought was to build on this a bit more in the section on how love inspires caring and pro-social actions this is mentioned in the focus questions, but not worked through as much in the main section. A practical example or research to support the relationship between theory and real life behavior might be helpful. The chapter, generally, leads to an interesting discussion on the motivational need for love. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:45, 26 October 2026 (UTC) == feedback for Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience= I liked the chapter's explanation of the three elements of cognitive hardiness—control, commitment, and challenge—as well as the introductory workplace example. One recommendation would be to improve the section on how cognitive hardiness fosters resilience, as some of it still consists of planning notes rather than finished explanations. The relationship between theory and practical applications would be strengthened by incorporating research findings into these parts. Additionally, I saw that "Kobasa (REF)" is a placeholder citation in the Overview that might be changed to the correct reference. All things considered, this is a fascinating subject with a solid basis. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:54, 26 October 2026 (UTC) nvd24fu0hvd93t3y1fuw7vjjbx77dcm 2842727 2842726 2026-10-26T21:57:50Z U3280122 3110471 /* = feedback for Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience */ 2842727 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], U3280122!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Jtneill|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. Remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature#How to add your signature|sign]] your comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. Using the signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] makes it simple. We invite you to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] and [[Wikiversity|assume good faith]]. Please abide by our [[Wikiversity:Civility|civility]], [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|privacy]], and [[Foundation:Terms of Use|terms of use]] policies. To find your way around, check out: <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Wikiversity:Introduction|Introduction to Wikiversity]] * [[Help:Guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|how to edit]] * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] or visit an educational level portal:<br>[[Portal:Pre-school Education|pre-school]] | [[Portal:Primary Education|primary]] | [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]] | [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]] | [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal]] * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] links in left-hand navigation menu </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] * Learn [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your observations * Discuss issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] </div> <br clear="both"/> To get started, experiment in the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or on [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! ---- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 21:48, 3 September 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} == Feedback for need to love and be loved == I liked the chapter's discussion of how various theories in psychology relate to the motivation for love and belonging, such as attachment theory and the self determination theory. Another thought was to build on this a bit more in the section on how love inspires caring and pro-social actions this is mentioned in the focus questions, but not worked through as much in the main section. A practical example or research to support the relationship between theory and real life behavior might be helpful. The chapter, generally, leads to an interesting discussion on the motivational need for love. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:45, 26 October 2026 (UTC) == feedback for Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience= I liked the chapter's explanation of the three elements of cognitive hardiness control, commitment, and challenge as well as the introductory workplace example. One recommendation would be to improve the section on how cognitive hardiness fosters resilience, as some of it still consists of planning notes rather than finished explanations. The relationship between theory and practical applications would be strengthened by incorporating research findings into these parts. Additionally, I saw that "Kobasa (REF)" is a placeholder citation in the Overview that might be changed to the correct reference. All things considered, this is a fascinating subject with a solid basis. [[User:U3280122|U3280122]] ([[User talk:U3280122|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3280122|contribs]]) 21:54, 26 October 2026 (UTC) fctvun31jcbau3ius4ugkc4ndetzbe4 0 331857 2842703 2833308 2026-10-26T20:53:26Z U3280122 3110471 The existing chapter was reviewed for content with the help of ChatGPT (OpenAI), which provided feedback on its content and offered suggestions to improve the structure, clarity, and language of the existing chapter. Feedback was given on how to improve some of the areas that were identified and how to make the theory and research more integrated. All work and research is my own. 2842703 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion: <br>How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Conversation - RWiC.png|thumb|right|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Supportive conversation can create opportunities to express emotions, clarify interpersonal problems, and strengthen social connection.]] ;Scenario Sam recently moved to a new city to begin university. Although the move was exciting, it also meant leaving close friends and family behind. Over time, Sam began feeling lonely, irritable, and emotionally exhausted. Calls with family became shorter, disagreements with a close friend became more frequent, and Sam started avoiding social activities. When Sam began interpersonal psychotherapy, it did not focus only on the feelings of sadness. Instead, Sam and the therapist explored how the recent life transition had changed important relationships. Sam began identifying feelings of loneliness and disappointment, communicating needs more clearly, reconnecting with supportive people, and developing new friendships. As these relationships became more supportive and less stressful, Sam's mood gradually improved. The interpersonal situation had changed, but so had Sam's emotional experience. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Figure 1. Supportive conversation can provide a space for emotional expression, problem solving around interpersonal issues and build social bonds. Keep the original image credit and licence. Relationships can give us a sense of belonging, emotional security and practical support, and they can also be a source of conflict, loss and rejection. Emotional issues can affect communication, retreats and reaction to conflict. This can form a vicious cycle, as interpersonal issues increase distress and emotional distress can cause interpersonal issues (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012; Stuart et al., 2024). Interpersonal Psychotherapy is a time-limited, structured psychotherapy that targets the present interpersonal context. IPT was originally designed for the treatment of depression, but it has also been shown to be effective in treating other key interpersonal problems and adapting to social role changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). This chapter reviews four potential mechanisms: increase in social support, decrease in interpersonal stress, emotional processing, and interpersonal skills. It also takes into account if research has shown how these changes contribute to emotional wellbeing.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ;Focus questions * What is interpersonal psychotherapy and how does it connect relationships with emotion? * Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? * Through which psychological mechanisms can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? * What does research show about the effectiveness and limitations of IPT? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is interpersonal psychotherapy? == IPT is grounded in the notion that emotional symptoms are in the context of interpersonal relations. The therapist and the client agree upon a current interpersonal problem that is closely related to the client's symptoms and then use this as the major focus for treatment. IPT does not try to explain all relationships or think that all emotional issues are related to relationships. The typical number of sessions for an acute depression treatment is approximately 12 to 16 sessions per week (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). Since then, IPT has been adapted for various age groups and psychological states (Cuijpers et al., 2016). IPT is based on interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and studies of life stress and social support. The interpersonal approach (Harry Stack Sullivan) focuses on how present interactions influence distress. John Bowlby's attachment theory proposes that a secure relationship can be a source of security in times of stress, and that expectations about others could affect the likelihood of seeking help. Importantly, IPT targets current interpersonal situations or context, not just early attachment experiences. All of these ideas provide alternative explanations and do not demonstrate that changes in attachment are necessarily exclusive to the effects of IPT (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). === The interpersonal perspective === IPT was influenced by interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and research examining the relationship between stressful life events, social support, and mental health (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). Its central assumption is reciprocal: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Interpersonal difficulty → emotional distress → further interpersonal difficulty''' For example, conflict may increase sadness and anxiety. Those emotions may then contribute to withdrawal, irritability, avoidance, or ineffective communication, which can create additional conflict. IPT attempts to interrupt this cycle by improving the interpersonal situation while helping the person understand and communicate emotion more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This perspective is particularly relevant to emotion because feelings such as sadness, anger, guilt, anxiety, and loneliness often contain information about social situations. For example, sadness may occur following loss, anger may signal unresolved conflict, and loneliness may indicate unmet needs for connection. IPT encourages people to recognise these emotions and consider what they communicate about current relationships (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). There is evidence of the effectiveness of IPT, but no clear evidence on the exact mechanisms. A review by Cuijpers et al. (2011) of 38 studies with 4,356 participants showed that IPT had a therapeutic effect on depression relative to other control treatments. A later systematic review of 90 studies that included 11,434 people with acute depression showed some evidence for IPT and relatively small differences between IPT and other proven psychological treatments (Cuijpers et al., 2016). The findings of these studies show treatment benefit, but these findings don't provide evidence of the unique effect of relationship change. Some effects may be due to shared processes among therapies. === How IPT is structured === IPT generally consists of three stages: initial stage, middle phase, and termination phase. The first phase is the identification of symptoms and primary interpersonal problem. The second phase is the emotional exploration, communication analysis and practical strategies to that problem. During the last stage, progress is assessed and preparations are made for future challenges. Table 1 provides a summary of the relationship of each stage and emotional wellbeing (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Main phases of interpersonal psychotherapy !Phase !Main tasks !Connection with emotional wellbeing |- |'''Initial phase''' |Identify emotional symptoms, complete an interpersonal inventory, explore important relationships, and select a central interpersonal focus. |Helps connect emotional distress with significant current relationships and life events. |- |'''Middle phase''' |Work actively on the selected interpersonal problem using emotional exploration, communication analysis, problem-solving, and role-play. |Provides opportunities to reduce relationship stress, express emotions, and develop more effective interpersonal responses. |- |'''Termination phase''' |Review progress, discuss feelings about ending therapy, consolidate interpersonal skills, and identify strategies for future difficulties. |Strengthens confidence in maintaining supportive relationships and managing future emotional challenges. |} Note. Based on the IPT framework discussed by Markowitz and Weissman (2012) and Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013). == Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? == IPT has traditionally emphasized a few interpersonal problem areas. Choosing a primary problem can make therapy more real and manageable, but it can be hard to establish one primary problem, especially when there are multiple difficulties that may overlap (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). The areas are summarised in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Common IPT interpersonal problem areas !Problem area !What it involves !Example |- |'''Grief and loss''' |Emotional difficulty following the death or significant loss of an important person. |Someone becomes socially isolated and depressed following the death of a partner. |- |'''Role disputes''' |Conflict caused by different expectations between the person and someone important to them. |Two partners repeatedly argue because each expects different levels of emotional support. |- |'''Role transitions''' |Difficulty adapting to a major life change that alters identity, responsibilities, or relationships. |Starting university, becoming a parent, migrating, divorce, retirement, or changing employment. |- |'''Interpersonal sensitivities or deficits''' |Persistent difficulty initiating, maintaining, or feeling secure within relationships. |A person feels disconnected from others and finds it difficult to form supportive friendships. |} The categories are especially important because emotional experiences can be linked to relationship changes and social expectations. Sam's going on to university is a role transition, for instance, in which he is leaving behind those he already knows and has an unknown identity and is facing the difficulty of making relationships. During a role conflict the focus may rather be on articulating expectations, establishing boundaries, or re-negotiating a relationship. IPT does not mean that all relationships need to be maintained, sometimes it is more appropriate to recognise boundaries or end an unhealthy relationship. Practical application of IPT is demonstrated with research on life transitions. In a systematic review, Sockol (2018) noted that the IPT intervention was able to decrease symptoms of perinatal depression and anxiety and enhance some interpersonal functions. In a similar fashion, Uncu and Doğan (2026) analysed 9 RCTs with 1269 participants, and observed that there were decreases in PP depressive symptoms relative to routine care. The results are in line with the IPT goal of role transition, but do not prove that a role transition effort led to improvement, as a comparison with routine care is not possible.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key point:''' IPT does not simply aim to make a person "more social". The goal is to identify the interpersonal situation most closely connected to current emotional distress and help the person respond to it more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? == Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013) outline 4 proposed mechanisms of change in IPT. In their model, the main interpersonal problem can be resolved thus increasing social support and decreasing interpersonal stress, whereas, emotional processing and interpersonal skills facilitate the person to work through the main interpersonal problem. These processes can also feed into each other. The theory is well formed, but improvement in symptoms cannot be used to determine which process produced the improvement. === Enhancing social support === Social Support encompasses emotional reassurance, practical support, guidance and a sense of belonging. When someone withdraws, avoids asking for help, or is expecting to be rejected, support may be even more difficult to obtain as a result of their depression and other feelings of distress. IPT invites individuals to recognize reliable relationships, express needs, repair relationships as needed, and explore other resources for support (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Maintaining good relationships is more important than having more social contacts. A few close relationships with trusted individuals may be more beneficial than many relationships full of criticism or conflict. Supportive relationships might thus offer resources to cope with stressful experiences as shown in Figure 2. Bian et al. (2023) pooled 11 randomised trials and reported beneficial outcomes on social functioning and decreased symptoms of depression and anxiety. Perhaps more importantly, social functioning effects were more apparent in the adolescent and perinatal samples than the adult depression sample, though not significant. Nor was the improvement in the overall functioning well established. This facilitates a valid interpretation: interpersonal improvement is possible, but it is of variable consistency based on the outcome and the population. Furthermore, social functioning does not equal perceived support and enhanced mood can also stimulate further contact. Consider this: If a relationship provides support is it helpful or stressful due to the continual conflict? Both can be true.[[File:Main_effect_model.png|right|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 2.''' Social relationships and social support can influence psychological wellbeing.]] === Reducing interpersonal stress === Emotional stress can happen over and over again as a result of conflict, rejection, uncertainty and unspoken expectations. IPT enables individuals to identify these patterns, communicate what each person is hoping to get from the situation, and think about how this might be changed. For instance, two friends could be perpetually at odds because one thinks he should text the other a lot more and one thinks that he should text the other a little bit less. It may help to talk through these assumptions to minimize misunderstandings It is not necessary to resolve all disagreements or keep all relationships in order to reduce interpersonal stress. This can be about establishing limits, re-negotiating boundaries or simply deciding to end the relationship. Such changes can help to minimize stress exposure, but stress situations will still occur that may not be in a person's control and cannot be changed by therapy (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Lemmens et al., (2017), examined potential mechanisms underlying cognitive therapy (CT) and IPT treatment for adults with depression. The results provided some support for exclusively treatment-specific processes, and interpersonal functioning improved more quickly during IPT. This is key: Better relationships can play a role in emotional recovery but are not a specific process exclusive to IPT. Consider this: Is it helpful to agree to a boundary or is it helpful to end an unhealthy relationship in order to solve this conflict? === Facilitating emotional processing === IPT recognizes the importance of emotions in interpersonal experiences and does not view them as road blocks or barriers to problem-solving. It assists individuals in recognising, accepting, expressing and understanding emotions around significant relationships. For example, if your partner is hurt by having to clean the house, then they may also feel disappointed or afraid that they are not being supported. Understanding the underlying emotion can help to explain the message that needs to be conveyed. Emotions can elicit varying reactions. Loss-related sadness can trigger a desire to reconnect and anger can signal that a boundary has been transgressed. But it's not necessary to be aggressive to recognise anger. Emotional processing is designed to assist a person to respond rather than react in a thoughtful way. This is related to the unit focus on emotions being adaptive signals, affecting social behavior. The theory seems convincing, although it is not explicitly shown in effectiveness studies that emotional processing is the mediating factor. Many trials report depression scores, but do not demonstrate any increase in emotional recognition or expression prior to symptom reduction. Thus, there may be other therapies that could also be relevant for emotional processing, which makes it difficult to draw conclusions about the effects of IPT (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Lemmens et al., 2017). Consider this: What would be the impact on the person requesting a desired outcome if they called it “disappointment?” === Improving interpersonal skills === [[File:Two-people-talking-logo.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|'''Figure 3.''' IPT uses communication-focused techniques to help people practise more effective ways of interacting.]] Communication and conflict-management skills can be reinforced with IPT techniques like: communication analysis and role-play. Communication analysis looks at the meaning that a person was trying to convey, the words chosen, the reaction of the other person and any potential misunderstanding. Use role play to practise making a request, expressing disappointment or a boundary before using in real life. For instance, if someone says "You never care about me," it is likely to elicit defensiveness, but if someone says "I feel hurt when our plans are cancelled; can we arrange another time?" it is likely to communicate a concern more directly. The interaction may be more effective and lead to lower relationship stress and increased confidence, as shown in Figure 3. These are potential benefits and do not represent a promise. There's an important qualification added to the research on attachment. Abapolnikova et al. (2026) investigated whether increases in attachment security explained increases in depression. Similar changes were seen in the cognitive behavioural therapy, however, earlier increases in attachment security were linked to lower later depression. The concept of relational improvement might consequently be a more general therapeutic trajectory and not just a characteristic of IPT. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 3.''' Proposed interpersonal mechanisms of emotional change !Mechanism !What changes? !Possible emotional benefit |- |'''Enhanced social support''' |Supportive relationships become more available or accessible. |Reduced loneliness and greater belonging, reassurance, and coping resources. |- |'''Reduced interpersonal stress''' |Conflict, ambiguity, or unresolved relationship difficulties decrease. |Less repeated exposure to stressful emotional situations. |- |'''Emotional processing''' |Feelings are identified, understood, tolerated, and communicated. |Greater emotional clarity and more adaptive responses to difficult feelings. |- |'''Improved interpersonal skills''' |Communication and relationship-management skills become more effective. |Fewer misunderstandings and greater confidence in managing relationships. |} {{Robelbox|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best represents the central assumption of interpersonal psychotherapy? |type="()"} - Emotional difficulties are caused entirely by irrational thoughts. - The number of friendships a person has determines their emotional wellbeing. + Relationships and emotional symptoms can influence one another, so improving a current interpersonal problem may help reduce emotional distress. - IPT attempts to analyse every childhood relationship. {Which of the following is one of the proposed mechanisms of change in IPT? |type="()"} - Avoiding emotional discussion + Enhancing social support - Eliminating all interpersonal disagreement - Increasing dependence on the therapist {A person becomes distressed after moving to another country and struggling with changes in identity, friendships, and responsibilities. Which IPT problem area is most relevant? |type="()"} - Grief only - Interpersonal dispute + Role transition - Cognitive distortion {Why is communication analysis used in IPT? |type="()"} - To determine who is objectively responsible for an argument + To examine how an interaction occurred and identify more effective ways of communicating - To prevent the person from experiencing strong emotion - To increase the number of social contacts </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == IPT techniques in practice == IPT brings about change by focusing on interpersonal issues identified by techniques specific to the client's primary problem. The interpersonal inventory charts critical relationships, support, expectations, and conflict. Communication analysis focuses on specific communication interaction, with attention to differences between intended and received messages. Role-play gives the opportunity to rehearse alternative conversations in therapy before trying them out in real life. Affect exploration can be used to determine feelings of grief, anger, shame, disappointment or loneliness in a relationship. Decision analysis and interpersonal problem-solving helps the individual consider and compare realistic responses and their consequences. It is possible to combine these techniques: Knowledge of an emotional response can help clarify what communication is needed, and practising a different response can help reduce the stress of the next interaction (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013).'''Interpersonal inventory''' involves mapping important current relationships and considering their quality, expectations, communication patterns, sources of support, and areas of conflict. This helps identify where interpersonal difficulties and emotional symptoms may be connected.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Reflection exercise Imagine that a friend repeatedly cancels plans at the last minute. The person begins feeling rejected but never mentions this and instead gradually withdraws from the friendship. Consider the following: * What emotion might be communicating an unmet interpersonal need? * How could avoiding the conversation increase interpersonal stress? * What could be communicated more directly? * How might the relationship and emotional experience change if the conversation were handled constructively? This example illustrates the reciprocal cycle emphasised by IPT: emotion influences interpersonal behaviour, and interpersonal behaviour can subsequently influence emotion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What does the research show? == IPT has a substantial evidence base, particularly for depression. However, there is an important difference between showing that a therapy improves outcomes and demonstrating precisely ''why'' it works. This distinction is especially important when evaluating the claim that relationship changes produce emotional improvement. === Depression and emotional symptoms === A meta-analysis by Cuijpers et al. (2011) examined 38 studies involving 4,356 participants. IPT produced a significant improvement in depression compared with control conditions, while its effects were broadly comparable with other established psychological treatments. A later comprehensive meta-analysis examined 90 studies involving 11,434 participants across different mental health problems. IPT demonstrated moderate-to-large effects for acute depression compared with control groups, while differences between IPT and other psychotherapies were relatively small (Cuijpers et al., 2016). A systematic review of individual IPT for adult major depression similarly concluded that IPT is an evidence-supported treatment, although differences between established treatments are not always large (van Hees et al., 2013). These findings suggest that IPT can reduce emotional symptoms, particularly depression. However, equivalent outcomes across therapies also raise an important theoretical question: if several therapies produce similar symptom improvement using different theoretical explanations, some benefits may involve factors common to psychotherapy rather than uniquely interpersonal mechanisms. === Social functioning and relationships === Research increasingly examines whether IPT changes interpersonal functioning in addition to symptoms. Bian et al. (2023) reviewed 11 randomised controlled trials and found that IPT improved social functioning and reduced depressive and anxiety symptoms. Effects on broader overall functioning were less clear, and results varied between groups. This finding supports an important component of IPT theory because treatment appears capable of improving both emotional symptoms and aspects of social functioning. Nevertheless, improvement in two variables does not automatically demonstrate that one caused the other. Lemmens et al. (2017) directly investigated possible mechanisms in adults receiving either cognitive therapy or IPT for depression. Interpersonal functioning improved more rapidly during IPT, but the study found relatively limited support for the idea that changes occurred exclusively through the mechanisms predicted by each therapy's theoretical model. More recently, Abapolnikova et al. (2026) examined attachment security as a possible mediator of depression improvement in IPT compared with cognitive behavioural therapy. Attachment security improved, and earlier increases were associated with lower later depression. However, the effect was not unique to IPT because similar change occurred in cognitive behavioural therapy. This suggests that relational improvement may sometimes operate as a broader psychotherapy process rather than an exclusively IPT-specific mechanism. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Research caution:''' Evidence that IPT ''works'' is stronger than evidence proving exactly ''how'' it works. Relationship functioning, attachment, social support, and symptoms can improve together, but stronger longitudinal and mediation studies are needed to determine whether interpersonal changes specifically cause later emotional improvement. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Adolescence and interpersonal development === Relationships are especially important during adolescence, when peer belonging, family relationships, identity, and increasing independence can have powerful emotional significance. Mufson et al. (2004) found that interpersonal psychotherapy adapted for adolescents (IPT-A) was effective for depressed adolescents in school-based settings. A later systematic review and meta-analysis found substantial improvements in depressive symptoms and interpersonal difficulties following IPT-A (Duffy et al., 2019). However, Duffy et al. (2019) also found that IPT-A was not significantly better than active comparison interventions for improving interpersonal difficulties. This is theoretically important. If interpersonal change is the distinctive pathway through which IPT works, stronger IPT-specific interpersonal effects might be expected. The finding therefore supports the effectiveness of IPT-A while also highlighting uncertainty about its precise mechanisms. === Perinatal and postpartum periods === Pregnancy and becoming a parent involve major changes in identity, responsibilities, intimate relationships, support networks, and everyday roles. This makes the perinatal period particularly relevant to IPT's concept of role transition. Sockol's (2018) systematic review and meta-analysis found evidence that IPT can reduce perinatal depression and anxiety while also improving aspects of interpersonal functioning. More recently, Uncu and Doğan (2026) reviewed nine randomised controlled trials involving 1,269 participants and found that IPT reduced postpartum depressive symptoms compared with routine care. These findings provide contemporary support for applying IPT where emotional distress occurs alongside significant interpersonal and social-role changes. == Critical evaluation == While interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is backed by much research, especially for depression, there are some limitations to consider when assessing the role of relationship change in emotional well-being. Most of the available data is based on clinical depression and not general population. Such results regarding depressive symptom reduction cannot therefore be considered representative of regular emotional problems or psychological well-being, in general. One of the key restrictions is the reciprocal nature of the relationship between interpersonal functioning and wellbeing. Feelings of improvement can make people more likely to communicate with others and become reengaged in their relationships, and greater connection with others can also help with emotional improvement. It is important thus to determine if interpersonal changes directly affect the emotional outcomes, so repeated measurements during treatment are needed. Also, many studies are conducted that compare IPT to waiting lists, normal treatment, medication, or alternative forms of psychotherapies. The participants and therapists are seldom blinded to psychological treatment, so expectations and treatment processes common to all psychological treatments can affect response. The findings are also not generalisable because of individual differences. Bernecker et al. (2017) found few consistent patient factors that reliably determine which patients will be more likely to respond better to IPT than to other therapies. This emphasizes the importance of looking at the individual symptoms, preferences, interpersonal situations and cultural context when deciding whether treatment is appropriate. In general, augmenting social support, decreasing interpersonal stress, aiding in emotional processing and enhancing interpersonal functioning are plausible, theoretical explanations for why IPT works. These mechanisms must not, however, be understood as causal pathways. Studies to understand the exact mechanisms by which IPT leads to emotional improvement are less developed than studies that demonstrate the clinical efficacy of IPT (Lemmens et al., 2017; Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). == Applying the model: Return to the scenario == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Sam's interpersonal change At the beginning of the chapter, Sam was struggling after moving away from familiar relationships. The transition was followed by loneliness, withdrawal, and increasing conflict. From an IPT perspective, the move could be understood as a '''role transition'''. Therapy could examine both what had been lost and what the new role required. As Sam begins reconnecting with existing friends and developing supportive new relationships, '''social support''' increases. By discussing expectations directly rather than withdrawing after disagreements, '''interpersonal stress''' may decrease. By recognising loneliness, disappointment, and fear of rejection rather than avoiding these emotions, '''emotional processing''' becomes possible. Finally, practising clearer requests for support and more direct conversations may strengthen '''interpersonal skills'''. These changes can reinforce one another. Improved communication may produce more supportive interactions; supportive interactions may reduce loneliness; improved mood may make further social engagement easier. Emotional and interpersonal improvement can therefore develop as a reciprocal process rather than a single one-way cause. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == IPT links emotion with relationship and social contexts where emotions are experienced. It concentrates on issues in current interpersonal relationships that are meaningful, such as loss, conflict, change, and ongoing interpersonal challenges. The four mechanisms suggested (amplifying social support, diminishing interpersonal stress, enabling emotional processing, and enhancing interpersonal skills) account for the possible emotional benefits of relationship changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Meta-analyses have yielded significant evidence for the efficacy of IPT in reducing depressive symptoms and research also points at improvement in interpersonal and social functioning (Bian et al., 2023; Cuijpers et al., 2016). But these results do not confirm that the changes in relationships are the only cause of emotional improvement. There are other processes (such as attachment, therapeutic support) that may play a role in various treatments. The message to take away is that the relationship between feelings and existing relationships is evident; that it is important to find a reliable support system; to communicate interpersonal needs openly and effectively; and to engage in conflict resolution in a constructive manner where it is safe to do so. These can be incorporated into day to day wellbeing and treatment options should continue to be tailored to individual circumstances and evidence. Take-home message: IPT can be used as evidence-based treatment for depression, targeting key interpersonal issues. Better relationships is one possible route to a better emotional wellbeing, however, the research is ongoing to understand what changes bring the benefits and to which individuals.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take home message:''' Emotional wellbeing is closely connected with interpersonal life. IPT helps people address relationship problems linked to emotional distress by strengthening support, reducing interpersonal stress, processing emotions, and developing more effective interpersonal skills. Evidence strongly supports IPT's effectiveness for depression, although research is still determining exactly how much of this improvement is specifically caused by changes in relationships. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal psychotherapy|Interpersonal psychotherapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Attachment theory|Attachment theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social support|Social support]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal relationship|Interpersonal relationship]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotion]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abapolnikova, M., Coyne, A. E., Glushka, L., Liu, C. J., Constantino, M. J., Atkinson, L. R., Bagby, R. M., Ravitz, P., & McBride, C. (2026). Does attachment change serve as a theory-specific mediator of depression reduction in interpersonal psychotherapy versus cognitive behavioral therapy? ''Psychotherapy Research''. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2026.2656698 Bernecker, S. L., Coyne, A. E., Constantino, M. J., & Ravitz, P. (2017). For whom does interpersonal psychotherapy work? A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 56'', 82–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.07.001 Bian, C., Zhao, W.-W., Yan, S.-R., Chen, S.-Y., Cheng, Y., & Zhang, Y.-H. (2023). Effect of interpersonal psychotherapy on social functioning, overall functioning and negative emotions for depression: A meta-analysis. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 320'', 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.119 Cuijpers, P., Donker, T., Weissman, M. M., Ravitz, P., & Cristea, I. A. (2016). Interpersonal psychotherapy for mental health problems: A comprehensive meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 173''(7), 680–687. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15091141 Cuijpers, P., Geraedts, A. S., van Oppen, P., Andersson, G., Markowitz, J. C., & van Straten, A. (2011). Interpersonal psychotherapy for depression: A meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 168''(6), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10101411 Duffy, F., Sharpe, H., & Schwannauer, M. (2019). Review: The effectiveness of interpersonal psychotherapy for adolescents with depression – A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 24''(4), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12342 Lemmens, L. H. J. M., Galindo-Garre, F., Arntz, A., Peeters, F., Hollon, S. D., DeRubeis, R. J., & Huibers, M. J. H. (2017). Exploring mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy for adult depression. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 94'', 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.005 Lipsitz, J. D., & Markowitz, J. C. (2013). Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy (IPT). ''Clinical Psychology Review, 33''(8), 1134–1147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.09.002 Markowitz, J. C., & Weissman, M. M. (2012). Interpersonal psychotherapy: Past, present and future. ''Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19''(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1774 Mufson, L., Dorta, K. P., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Olfson, M., & Weissman, M. M. (2004). A randomized effectiveness trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. ''Archives of General Psychiatry, 61''(6), 577–584. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.6.577 Sockol, L. E. (2018). A systematic review and meta-analysis of interpersonal psychotherapy for perinatal women. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 232'', 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.01.018 Stuart, S., Schultz, J., Palmer Molina, A., & Siber-Sanderowitz, S. (2024). Interpersonal psychotherapy: A review of theory, history, and evidence of efficacy. ''Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 52''(3), 370–407. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2024.52.3.370 Uncu, B., & Doğan, E. (2026). Effects of interpersonal psychotherapy on postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. ''Journal of Psychiatric Research, 198'', 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2026.03.038 van Hees, M. L. J. M., Rotter, T., Ellermann, T., & Evers, S. M. A. A. (2013). The effectiveness of individual interpersonal psychotherapy as a treatment for major depressive disorder in adult outpatients: A systematic review. ''BMC Psychiatry, 13'', Article 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-22}} == External links == * [https://interpersonalpsychotherapy.org/ipt-basics/overview-of-ipt/ Overview of interpersonal psychotherapy] (International Society of Interpersonal Psychotherapy) * [https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MSD-MER-16.4 Group interpersonal therapy for depression] (World Health Organization) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4109031/ Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy] (National Library of Medicine) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] pn4adj49eixdjm4b79pzlmk4fulvrlg 2842704 2842703 2026-10-26T20:56:04Z U3280122 3110471 2842704 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion: <br>How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Conversation - RWiC.png|thumb|right|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Supportive conversation can create opportunities to express emotions, clarify interpersonal problems, and strengthen social connection.]] ;Scenario Sam recently moved to a new city to begin university. Although the move was exciting, it also meant leaving close friends and family behind. Over time, Sam began feeling lonely, irritable, and emotionally exhausted. Calls with family became shorter, disagreements with a close friend became more frequent, and Sam started avoiding social activities. When Sam began interpersonal psychotherapy, it did not focus only on the feelings of sadness. Instead, Sam and the therapist explored how the recent life transition had changed important relationships. Sam began identifying feelings of loneliness and disappointment, communicating needs more clearly, reconnecting with supportive people, and developing new friendships. As these relationships became more supportive and less stressful, Sam's mood gradually improved. The interpersonal situation had changed, but so had Sam's emotional experience. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Figure 1. Supportive conversation can provide a space for emotional expression, problem solving around interpersonal issues and build social bonds. Keep the original image credit and licence. Relationships can give us a sense of belonging, emotional security and practical support, and they can also be a source of conflict, loss and rejection. Emotional issues can affect communication, retreats and reaction to conflict. This can form a vicious cycle, as interpersonal issues increase distress and emotional distress can cause interpersonal issues (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012; Stuart et al., 2024). Interpersonal Psychotherapy is a time-limited, structured psychotherapy that targets the present interpersonal context. IPT was originally designed for the treatment of depression, but it has also been shown to be effective in treating other key interpersonal problems and adapting to social role changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). This chapter reviews four potential mechanisms: increase in social support, decrease in interpersonal stress, emotional processing, and interpersonal skills. It also takes into account if research has shown how these changes contribute to emotional wellbeing.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ;Focus questions * What is interpersonal psychotherapy and how does it connect relationships with emotion? * Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? * Through which psychological mechanisms can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? * What does research show about the effectiveness and limitations of IPT? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is interpersonal psychotherapy? == IPT is grounded in the notion that emotional symptoms are in the context of interpersonal relations. The therapist and the client agree upon a current interpersonal problem that is closely related to the client's symptoms and then use this as the major focus for treatment. IPT does not try to explain all relationships or think that all emotional issues are related to relationships. The typical number of sessions for an acute depression treatment is approximately 12 to 16 sessions per week (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). Since then, IPT has been adapted for various age groups and psychological states (Cuijpers et al., 2016). IPT is based on interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and studies of life stress and social support. The interpersonal approach (Harry Stack Sullivan) focuses on how present interactions influence distress. John Bowlby's attachment theory proposes that a secure relationship can be a source of security in times of stress, and that expectations about others could affect the likelihood of seeking help. Importantly, IPT targets current interpersonal situations or context, not just early attachment experiences. All of these ideas provide alternative explanations and do not demonstrate that changes in attachment are necessarily exclusive to the effects of IPT (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). === The interpersonal perspective === IPT was influenced by interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and research examining the relationship between stressful life events, social support, and mental health (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). Its central assumption is reciprocal: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Interpersonal difficulty → emotional distress → further interpersonal difficulty''' For example, conflict may increase sadness and anxiety. Those emotions may then contribute to withdrawal, irritability, avoidance, or ineffective communication, which can create additional conflict. IPT attempts to interrupt this cycle by improving the interpersonal situation while helping the person understand and communicate emotion more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} This perspective is particularly relevant to emotion because feelings such as sadness, anger, guilt, anxiety, and loneliness often contain information about social situations. For example, sadness may occur following loss, anger may signal unresolved conflict, and loneliness may indicate unmet needs for connection. IPT encourages people to recognise these emotions and consider what they communicate about current relationships (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). There is evidence of the effectiveness of IPT, but no clear evidence on the exact mechanisms. A review by Cuijpers et al. (2011) of 38 studies with 4,356 participants showed that IPT had a therapeutic effect on depression relative to other control treatments. A later systematic review of 90 studies that included 11,434 people with acute depression showed some evidence for IPT and relatively small differences between IPT and other proven psychological treatments (Cuijpers et al., 2016). The findings of these studies show treatment benefit, but these findings don't provide evidence of the unique effect of relationship change. Some effects may be due to shared processes among therapies. === How IPT is structured === IPT generally consists of three stages: initial stage, middle phase, and termination phase. The first phase is the identification of symptoms and primary interpersonal problem. The second phase is the emotional exploration, communication analysis and practical strategies to that problem. During the last stage, progress is assessed and preparations are made for future challenges. Table 1 provides a summary of the relationship of each stage and emotional wellbeing (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Main phases of interpersonal psychotherapy !Phase !Main tasks !Connection with emotional wellbeing |- |'''Initial phase''' |Identify emotional symptoms, complete an interpersonal inventory, explore important relationships, and select a central interpersonal focus. |Helps connect emotional distress with significant current relationships and life events. |- |'''Middle phase''' |Work actively on the selected interpersonal problem using emotional exploration, communication analysis, problem-solving, and role-play. |Provides opportunities to reduce relationship stress, express emotions, and develop more effective interpersonal responses. |- |'''Termination phase''' |Review progress, discuss feelings about ending therapy, consolidate interpersonal skills, and identify strategies for future difficulties. |Strengthens confidence in maintaining supportive relationships and managing future emotional challenges. |} Note. Based on the IPT framework discussed by Markowitz and Weissman (2012) and Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013). == Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? == IPT has traditionally emphasized a few interpersonal problem areas. Choosing a primary problem can make therapy more real and manageable, but it can be hard to establish one primary problem, especially when there are multiple difficulties that may overlap (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). The areas are summarised in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Common IPT interpersonal problem areas !Problem area !What it involves !Example |- |'''Grief and loss''' |Emotional difficulty following the death or significant loss of an important person. |Someone becomes socially isolated and depressed following the death of a partner. |- |'''Role disputes''' |Conflict caused by different expectations between the person and someone important to them. |Two partners repeatedly argue because each expects different levels of emotional support. |- |'''Role transitions''' |Difficulty adapting to a major life change that alters identity, responsibilities, or relationships. |Starting university, becoming a parent, migrating, divorce, retirement, or changing employment. |- |'''Interpersonal sensitivities or deficits''' |Persistent difficulty initiating, maintaining, or feeling secure within relationships. |A person feels disconnected from others and finds it difficult to form supportive friendships. |} The categories are especially important because emotional experiences can be linked to relationship changes and social expectations. Sam's going on to university is a role transition, for instance, in which he is leaving behind those he already knows and has an unknown identity and is facing the difficulty of making relationships. During a role conflict the focus may rather be on articulating expectations, establishing boundaries, or re-negotiating a relationship. IPT does not mean that all relationships need to be maintained, sometimes it is more appropriate to recognise boundaries or end an unhealthy relationship. Practical application of IPT is demonstrated with research on life transitions. In a systematic review, Sockol (2018) noted that the IPT intervention was able to decrease symptoms of perinatal depression and anxiety and enhance some interpersonal functions. In a similar fashion, Uncu and Doğan (2026) analysed 9 RCTs with 1269 participants, and observed that there were decreases in PP depressive symptoms relative to routine care. The results are in line with the IPT goal of role transition, but do not prove that a role transition effort led to improvement, as a comparison with routine care is not possible.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key point:''' IPT does not simply aim to make a person "more social". The goal is to identify the interpersonal situation most closely connected to current emotional distress and help the person respond to it more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? == Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013) outline 4 proposed mechanisms of change in IPT. In their model, the main interpersonal problem can be resolved thus increasing social support and decreasing interpersonal stress, whereas, emotional processing and interpersonal skills facilitate the person to work through the main interpersonal problem. These processes can also feed into each other. The theory is well formed, but improvement in symptoms cannot be used to determine which process produced the improvement. === Enhancing social support === Social Support encompasses emotional reassurance, practical support, guidance and a sense of belonging. When someone withdraws, avoids asking for help, or is expecting to be rejected, support may be even more difficult to obtain as a result of their depression and other feelings of distress. IPT invites individuals to recognize reliable relationships, express needs, repair relationships as needed, and explore other resources for support (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Maintaining good relationships is more important than having more social contacts. A few close relationships with trusted individuals may be more beneficial than many relationships full of criticism or conflict. Supportive relationships might thus offer resources to cope with stressful experiences as shown in Figure 2. Bian et al. (2023) pooled 11 randomised trials and reported beneficial outcomes on social functioning and decreased symptoms of depression and anxiety. Perhaps more importantly, social functioning effects were more apparent in the adolescent and perinatal samples than the adult depression sample, though not significant. Nor was the improvement in the overall functioning well established. This facilitates a valid interpretation: interpersonal improvement is possible, but it is of variable consistency based on the outcome and the population. Furthermore, social functioning does not equal perceived support and enhanced mood can also stimulate further contact. Consider this: If a relationship provides support is it helpful or stressful due to the continual conflict? Both can be true.[[File:Main_effect_model.png|right|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 2.''' Social relationships and social support can influence psychological wellbeing.]] === Reducing interpersonal stress === Emotional stress can happen over and over again as a result of conflict, rejection, uncertainty and unspoken expectations. IPT enables individuals to identify these patterns, communicate what each person is hoping to get from the situation, and think about how this might be changed. For instance, two friends could be perpetually at odds because one thinks he should text the other a lot more and one thinks that he should text the other a little bit less. It may help to talk through these assumptions to minimize misunderstandings It is not necessary to resolve all disagreements or keep all relationships in order to reduce interpersonal stress. This can be about establishing limits, re-negotiating boundaries or simply deciding to end the relationship. Such changes can help to minimize stress exposure, but stress situations will still occur that may not be in a person's control and cannot be changed by therapy (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Lemmens et al., (2017), examined potential mechanisms underlying cognitive therapy (CT) and IPT treatment for adults with depression. The results provided some support for exclusively treatment-specific processes, and interpersonal functioning improved more quickly during IPT. This is key: Better relationships can play a role in emotional recovery but are not a specific process exclusive to IPT. Consider this: Is it helpful to agree to a boundary or is it helpful to end an unhealthy relationship in order to solve this conflict? === Facilitating emotional processing === IPT recognizes the importance of emotions in interpersonal experiences and does not view them as road blocks or barriers to problem-solving. It assists individuals in recognising, accepting, expressing and understanding emotions around significant relationships. For example, if your partner is hurt by having to clean the house, then they may also feel disappointed or afraid that they are not being supported. Understanding the underlying emotion can help to explain the message that needs to be conveyed. Emotions can elicit varying reactions. Loss-related sadness can trigger a desire to reconnect and anger can signal that a boundary has been transgressed. But it's not necessary to be aggressive to recognise anger. Emotional processing is designed to assist a person to respond rather than react in a thoughtful way. This is related to the unit focus on emotions being adaptive signals, affecting social behavior. The theory seems convincing, although it is not explicitly shown in effectiveness studies that emotional processing is the mediating factor. Many trials report depression scores, but do not demonstrate any increase in emotional recognition or expression prior to symptom reduction. Thus, there may be other therapies that could also be relevant for emotional processing, which makes it difficult to draw conclusions about the effects of IPT (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Lemmens et al., 2017). Consider this: What would be the impact on the person requesting a desired outcome if they called it “disappointment?” === Improving interpersonal skills === [[File:Two-people-talking-logo.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|'''Figure 3.''' IPT uses communication-focused techniques to help people practise more effective ways of interacting.]] Communication and conflict-management skills can be reinforced with IPT techniques like: communication analysis and role-play. Communication analysis looks at the meaning that a person was trying to convey, the words chosen, the reaction of the other person and any potential misunderstanding. Use role play to practise making a request, expressing disappointment or a boundary before using in real life. For instance, if someone says "You never care about me," it is likely to elicit defensiveness, but if someone says "I feel hurt when our plans are cancelled; can we arrange another time?" it is likely to communicate a concern more directly. The interaction may be more effective and lead to lower relationship stress and increased confidence, as shown in Figure 3. These are potential benefits and do not represent a promise. There's an important qualification added to the research on attachment. Abapolnikova et al. (2026) investigated whether increases in attachment security explained increases in depression. Similar changes were seen in the cognitive behavioural therapy, however, earlier increases in attachment security were linked to lower later depression. The concept of relational improvement might consequently be a more general therapeutic trajectory and not just a characteristic of IPT. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 3.''' Proposed interpersonal mechanisms of emotional change !Mechanism !What changes? !Possible emotional benefit |- |'''Enhanced social support''' |Supportive relationships become more available or accessible. |Reduced loneliness and greater belonging, reassurance, and coping resources. |- |'''Reduced interpersonal stress''' |Conflict, ambiguity, or unresolved relationship difficulties decrease. |Less repeated exposure to stressful emotional situations. |- |'''Emotional processing''' |Feelings are identified, understood, tolerated, and communicated. |Greater emotional clarity and more adaptive responses to difficult feelings. |- |'''Improved interpersonal skills''' |Communication and relationship-management skills become more effective. |Fewer misunderstandings and greater confidence in managing relationships. |} {{Robelbox|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best represents the central assumption of interpersonal psychotherapy? |type="()"} - Emotional difficulties are caused entirely by irrational thoughts. - The number of friendships a person has determines their emotional wellbeing. + Relationships and emotional symptoms can influence one another, so improving a current interpersonal problem may help reduce emotional distress. - IPT attempts to analyse every childhood relationship. {Which of the following is one of the proposed mechanisms of change in IPT? |type="()"} - Avoiding emotional discussion + Enhancing social support - Eliminating all interpersonal disagreement - Increasing dependence on the therapist {A person becomes distressed after moving to another country and struggling with changes in identity, friendships, and responsibilities. Which IPT problem area is most relevant? |type="()"} - Grief only - Interpersonal dispute + Role transition - Cognitive distortion {Why is communication analysis used in IPT? |type="()"} - To determine who is objectively responsible for an argument + To examine how an interaction occurred and identify more effective ways of communicating - To prevent the person from experiencing strong emotion - To increase the number of social contacts </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == IPT techniques in practice == IPT brings about change by focusing on interpersonal issues identified by techniques specific to the client's primary problem. The interpersonal inventory charts critical relationships, support, expectations, and conflict. Communication analysis focuses on specific communication interaction, with attention to differences between intended and received messages. Role-play gives the opportunity to rehearse alternative conversations in therapy before trying them out in real life. Affect exploration can be used to determine feelings of grief, anger, shame, disappointment or loneliness in a relationship. Decision analysis and interpersonal problem-solving helps the individual consider and compare realistic responses and their consequences. It is possible to combine these techniques: Knowledge of an emotional response can help clarify what communication is needed, and practising a different response can help reduce the stress of the next interaction (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013).'''Interpersonal inventory''' involves mapping important current relationships and considering their quality, expectations, communication patterns, sources of support, and areas of conflict. This helps identify where interpersonal difficulties and emotional symptoms may be connected.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Reflection exercise Imagine that a friend repeatedly cancels plans at the last minute. The person begins feeling rejected but never mentions this and instead gradually withdraws from the friendship. Consider the following: * What emotion might be communicating an unmet interpersonal need? * How could avoiding the conversation increase interpersonal stress? * What could be communicated more directly? * How might the relationship and emotional experience change if the conversation were handled constructively? This example illustrates the reciprocal cycle emphasised by IPT: emotion influences interpersonal behaviour, and interpersonal behaviour can subsequently influence emotion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What does the research show? == IPT has a substantial evidence base, particularly for depression. However, there is an important difference between showing that a therapy improves outcomes and demonstrating precisely ''why'' it works. This distinction is especially important when evaluating the claim that relationship changes produce emotional improvement. === Depression and emotional symptoms === A meta-analysis by Cuijpers et al. (2011) examined 38 studies involving 4,356 participants. IPT produced a significant improvement in depression compared with control conditions, while its effects were broadly comparable with other established psychological treatments. A later comprehensive meta-analysis examined 90 studies involving 11,434 participants across different mental health problems. IPT demonstrated moderate-to-large effects for acute depression compared with control groups, while differences between IPT and other psychotherapies were relatively small (Cuijpers et al., 2016). A systematic review of individual IPT for adult major depression similarly concluded that IPT is an evidence-supported treatment, although differences between established treatments are not always large (van Hees et al., 2013). These findings suggest that IPT can reduce emotional symptoms, particularly depression. However, equivalent outcomes across therapies also raise an important theoretical question: if several therapies produce similar symptom improvement using different theoretical explanations, some benefits may involve factors common to psychotherapy rather than uniquely interpersonal mechanisms. === Social functioning and relationships === Research increasingly examines whether IPT changes interpersonal functioning in addition to symptoms. Bian et al. (2023) reviewed 11 randomised controlled trials and found that IPT improved social functioning and reduced depressive and anxiety symptoms. Effects on broader overall functioning were less clear, and results varied between groups. This finding supports an important component of IPT theory because treatment appears capable of improving both emotional symptoms and aspects of social functioning. Nevertheless, improvement in two variables does not automatically demonstrate that one caused the other. Lemmens et al. (2017) directly investigated possible mechanisms in adults receiving either cognitive therapy or IPT for depression. Interpersonal functioning improved more rapidly during IPT, but the study found relatively limited support for the idea that changes occurred exclusively through the mechanisms predicted by each therapy's theoretical model. More recently, Abapolnikova et al. (2026) examined attachment security as a possible mediator of depression improvement in IPT compared with cognitive behavioural therapy. Attachment security improved, and earlier increases were associated with lower later depression. However, the effect was not unique to IPT because similar change occurred in cognitive behavioural therapy. This suggests that relational improvement may sometimes operate as a broader psychotherapy process rather than an exclusively IPT-specific mechanism. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Research caution:''' Evidence that IPT ''works'' is stronger than evidence proving exactly ''how'' it works. Relationship functioning, attachment, social support, and symptoms can improve together, but stronger longitudinal and mediation studies are needed to determine whether interpersonal changes specifically cause later emotional improvement. {{RoundBoxBottom}} === Adolescence and interpersonal development === Relationships are especially important during adolescence, when peer belonging, family relationships, identity, and increasing independence can have powerful emotional significance. Mufson et al. (2004) found that interpersonal psychotherapy adapted for adolescents (IPT-A) was effective for depressed adolescents in school-based settings. A later systematic review and meta-analysis found substantial improvements in depressive symptoms and interpersonal difficulties following IPT-A (Duffy et al., 2019). However, Duffy et al. (2019) also found that IPT-A was not significantly better than active comparison interventions for improving interpersonal difficulties. This is theoretically important. If interpersonal change is the distinctive pathway through which IPT works, stronger IPT-specific interpersonal effects might be expected. The finding therefore supports the effectiveness of IPT-A while also highlighting uncertainty about its precise mechanisms. === Perinatal and postpartum periods === Pregnancy and becoming a parent involve major changes in identity, responsibilities, intimate relationships, support networks, and everyday roles. This makes the perinatal period particularly relevant to IPT's concept of role transition. Sockol's (2018) systematic review and meta-analysis found evidence that IPT can reduce perinatal depression and anxiety while also improving aspects of interpersonal functioning. More recently, Uncu and Doğan (2026) reviewed nine randomised controlled trials involving 1,269 participants and found that IPT reduced postpartum depressive symptoms compared with routine care. These findings provide contemporary support for applying IPT where emotional distress occurs alongside significant interpersonal and social-role changes. == Critical evaluation == While interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is backed by much research, especially for depression, there are some limitations to consider when assessing the role of relationship change in emotional well-being. Most of the available data is based on clinical depression and not general population. Such results regarding depressive symptom reduction cannot therefore be considered representative of regular emotional problems or psychological well-being, in general. One of the key restrictions is the reciprocal nature of the relationship between interpersonal functioning and wellbeing. Feelings of improvement can make people more likely to communicate with others and become reengaged in their relationships, and greater connection with others can also help with emotional improvement. It is important thus to determine if interpersonal changes directly affect the emotional outcomes, so repeated measurements during treatment are needed. Also, many studies are conducted that compare IPT to waiting lists, normal treatment, medication, or alternative forms of psychotherapies. The participants and therapists are seldom blinded to psychological treatment, so expectations and treatment processes common to all psychological treatments can affect response. The findings are also not generalisable because of individual differences. Bernecker et al. (2017) found few consistent patient factors that reliably determine which patients will be more likely to respond better to IPT than to other therapies. This emphasizes the importance of looking at the individual symptoms, preferences, interpersonal situations and cultural context when deciding whether treatment is appropriate. In general, augmenting social support, decreasing interpersonal stress, aiding in emotional processing and enhancing interpersonal functioning are plausible, theoretical explanations for why IPT works. These mechanisms must not, however, be understood as causal pathways. Studies to understand the exact mechanisms by which IPT leads to emotional improvement are less developed than studies that demonstrate the clinical efficacy of IPT (Lemmens et al., 2017; Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). == Applying the model: Return to the scenario == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Sam's interpersonal change At the beginning of the chapter, Sam was struggling after moving away from familiar relationships. The transition was followed by loneliness, withdrawal, and increasing conflict. From an IPT perspective, the move could be understood as a '''role transition'''. Therapy could examine both what had been lost and what the new role required. As Sam begins reconnecting with existing friends and developing supportive new relationships, '''social support''' increases. By discussing expectations directly rather than withdrawing after disagreements, '''interpersonal stress''' may decrease. By recognising loneliness, disappointment, and fear of rejection rather than avoiding these emotions, '''emotional processing''' becomes possible. Finally, practising clearer requests for support and more direct conversations may strengthen '''interpersonal skills'''. These changes can reinforce one another. Improved communication may produce more supportive interactions; supportive interactions may reduce loneliness; improved mood may make further social engagement easier. Emotional and interpersonal improvement can therefore develop as a reciprocal process rather than a single one-way cause. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == IPT links emotion with relationship and social contexts where emotions are experienced. It concentrates on issues in current interpersonal relationships that are meaningful, such as loss, conflict, change, and ongoing interpersonal challenges. The four mechanisms suggested (amplifying social support, diminishing interpersonal stress, enabling emotional processing, and enhancing interpersonal skills) account for the possible emotional benefits of relationship changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Meta-analyses have yielded significant evidence for the efficacy of IPT in reducing depressive symptoms and research also points at improvement in interpersonal and social functioning (Bian et al., 2023; Cuijpers et al., 2016). But these results do not confirm that the changes in relationships are the only cause of emotional improvement. There are other processes (such as attachment, therapeutic support) that may play a role in various treatments. The message to take away is that the relationship between feelings and existing relationships is evident; that it is important to find a reliable support system; to communicate interpersonal needs openly and effectively; and to engage in conflict resolution in a constructive manner where it is safe to do so. These can be incorporated into day to day wellbeing and treatment options should continue to be tailored to individual circumstances and evidence. Take-home message: IPT can be used as evidence-based treatment for depression, targeting key interpersonal issues. Better relationships is one possible route to a better emotional wellbeing, however, the research is ongoing to understand what changes bring the benefits and to which individuals.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take home message:''' Emotional wellbeing is closely connected with interpersonal life. IPT helps people address relationship problems linked to emotional distress by strengthening support, reducing interpersonal stress, processing emotions, and developing more effective interpersonal skills. Evidence strongly supports IPT's effectiveness for depression, although research is still determining exactly how much of this improvement is specifically caused by changes in relationships. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal psychotherapy|Interpersonal psychotherapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Attachment theory|Attachment theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social support|Social support]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal relationship|Interpersonal relationship]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotion]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abapolnikova, M., Coyne, A. E., Glushka, L., Liu, C. J., Constantino, M. J., Atkinson, L. R., Bagby, R. M., Ravitz, P., & McBride, C. (2026). Does attachment change serve as a theory-specific mediator of depression reduction in interpersonal psychotherapy versus cognitive behavioral therapy? ''Psychotherapy Research''. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2026.2656698 Bernecker, S. L., Coyne, A. E., Constantino, M. J., & Ravitz, P. (2017). For whom does interpersonal psychotherapy work? A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 56'', 82–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.07.001 Bian, C., Zhao, W.-W., Yan, S.-R., Chen, S.-Y., Cheng, Y., & Zhang, Y.-H. (2023). Effect of interpersonal psychotherapy on social functioning, overall functioning and negative emotions for depression: A meta-analysis. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 320'', 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.119 Cuijpers, P., Donker, T., Weissman, M. M., Ravitz, P., & Cristea, I. A. (2016). Interpersonal psychotherapy for mental health problems: A comprehensive meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 173''(7), 680–687. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15091141 Cuijpers, P., Geraedts, A. S., van Oppen, P., Andersson, G., Markowitz, J. C., & van Straten, A. (2011). Interpersonal psychotherapy for depression: A meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 168''(6), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10101411 Duffy, F., Sharpe, H., & Schwannauer, M. (2019). Review: The effectiveness of interpersonal psychotherapy for adolescents with depression – A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 24''(4), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12342 Lemmens, L. H. J. M., Galindo-Garre, F., Arntz, A., Peeters, F., Hollon, S. D., DeRubeis, R. J., & Huibers, M. J. H. (2017). Exploring mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy for adult depression. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 94'', 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.005 Lipsitz, J. D., & Markowitz, J. C. (2013). Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy (IPT). ''Clinical Psychology Review, 33''(8), 1134–1147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.09.002 Markowitz, J. C., & Weissman, M. M. (2012). Interpersonal psychotherapy: Past, present and future. ''Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19''(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1774 Mufson, L., Dorta, K. P., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Olfson, M., & Weissman, M. M. (2004). A randomized effectiveness trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. ''Archives of General Psychiatry, 61''(6), 577–584. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.6.577 Sockol, L. E. (2018). A systematic review and meta-analysis of interpersonal psychotherapy for perinatal women. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 232'', 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.01.018 Stuart, S., Schultz, J., Palmer Molina, A., & Siber-Sanderowitz, S. (2024). Interpersonal psychotherapy: A review of theory, history, and evidence of efficacy. ''Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 52''(3), 370–407. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2024.52.3.370 Uncu, B., & Doğan, E. (2026). Effects of interpersonal psychotherapy on postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. ''Journal of Psychiatric Research, 198'', 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2026.03.038 van Hees, M. L. J. M., Rotter, T., Ellermann, T., & Evers, S. M. A. A. (2013). The effectiveness of individual interpersonal psychotherapy as a treatment for major depressive disorder in adult outpatients: A systematic review. ''BMC Psychiatry, 13'', Article 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-22}} == External links == * [https://interpersonalpsychotherapy.org/ipt-basics/overview-of-ipt/ Overview of interpersonal psychotherapy] (International Society of Interpersonal Psychotherapy) * [https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MSD-MER-16.4 Group interpersonal therapy for depression] (World Health Organization) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4109031/ Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy] (National Library of Medicine) * The existing chapter was reviewed for content with the help of ChatGPT (OpenAI), which provided feedback on its content and offered suggestions to improve the structure, clarity, and language of the existing chapter. Feedback was given on how to improve some of the areas that were identified and how to make the theory and research more integrated. All work and research is my own. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] eljk7umm5bwvwsjouwtbrj4373bel3z 2842711 2842704 2026-10-26T21:19:11Z U3280122 3110471 2842711 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion: <br>How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Conversation - RWiC.png|thumb|right|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Supportive conversation can create opportunities to express emotions, clarify interpersonal problems, and strengthen social connection.]] ;Scenario Sam recently moved to a new city to begin university. Although the move was exciting, it also meant leaving close friends and family behind. Over time, Sam began feeling lonely, irritable, and emotionally exhausted. Calls with family became shorter, disagreements with a close friend became more frequent, and Sam started avoiding social activities. When Sam began interpersonal psychotherapy, it did not focus only on the feelings of sadness. Instead, Sam and the therapist explored how the recent life transition had changed important relationships. Sam began identifying feelings of loneliness and disappointment, communicating needs more clearly, reconnecting with supportive people, and developing new friendships. As these relationships became more supportive and less stressful, Sam's mood gradually improved. The interpersonal situation had changed, but so had Sam's emotional experience. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Figure 1. Supportive conversation can provide a space for emotional expression, problem solving around interpersonal issues and build social bonds. Keep the original image credit and licence. Relationships can give us a sense of belonging, emotional security and practical support, and they can also be a source of conflict, loss and rejection. Emotional issues can affect communication, retreats and reaction to conflict. This can form a vicious cycle, as interpersonal issues increase distress and emotional distress can cause interpersonal issues (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012; Stuart et al., 2024). Interpersonal Psychotherapy is a time-limited, structured psychotherapy that targets the present interpersonal context. IPT was originally designed for the treatment of depression, but it has also been shown to be effective in treating other key interpersonal problems and adapting to social role changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). This chapter reviews four potential mechanisms: increase in social support, decrease in interpersonal stress, emotional processing, and interpersonal skills. It also takes into account if research has shown how these changes contribute to emotional wellbeing.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ;Focus questions * What is interpersonal psychotherapy and how does it connect relationships with emotion? * Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? * Through which psychological mechanisms can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? * What does research show about the effectiveness and limitations of IPT? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is interpersonal psychotherapy? == IPT works on the current interpersonal problems and their relationship to emotional symptoms. Therapists and clients agree that during treatment, a major relationship issue that needs to be corrected is present, generally requiring about 12–16 sessions per week for depression (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). IPT has also been modified for various age groups and psychological states (Cuijpers et al., 2016). The interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and social support and life stress research literature are drawn on to support the foundations of IPT. Both Sullivan's interpersonal theory and Bowlby's attachment theory stress the importance of relationships to feelings of distress, and emotional security through relationships that are dependable, respectively. The early attachment experiences are not a primary focus of IPT, however, and attachment change is not exclusive to IPT (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). === The interpersonal perspective === IPT was influenced by interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and research examining the relationship between stressful life events, social support, and mental health (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). Its central assumption is reciprocal: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Interpersonal difficulty → emotional distress → further interpersonal difficulty''' For example, conflict may increase sadness and anxiety. Those emotions may then contribute to withdrawal, irritability, avoidance, or ineffective communication, which can create additional conflict. IPT attempts to interrupt this cycle by improving the interpersonal situation while helping the person understand and communicate emotion more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Sadness, anger and loneliness are all associated with interpersonal challenges, such as loss, conflict or unmet needs for interpersonal connection. IPT assists people identify these emotions and grasp their interpersonal situation (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). A review of 38 studies (4,356 subjects) by Cuijpers et al. (2011) showed that IPT was effective in reducing depression. A second larger meta-analysis of 90 studies with 11,434 participants also found IPT effective, but with relatively few differences from other proven psychotherapies (Cuijpers et al., 2016). These results are not sufficient, however, to conclude that the relationship change is the only process that is effective for improving outcomes, since other therapeutic processes may be effective. === How IPT is structured === IPT generally consists of three stages: initial stage, middle phase, and termination phase. The first phase is the identification of symptoms and primary interpersonal problem. The second phase is the emotional exploration, communication analysis and practical strategies to that problem. During the last stage, progress is assessed and preparations are made for future challenges. Table 1 provides a summary of the relationship of each stage and emotional wellbeing (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Main phases of interpersonal psychotherapy !Phase !Main tasks !Connection with emotional wellbeing |- |'''Initial phase''' |Identify emotional symptoms, complete an interpersonal inventory, explore important relationships, and select a central interpersonal focus. |Helps connect emotional distress with significant current relationships and life events. |- |'''Middle phase''' |Work actively on the selected interpersonal problem using emotional exploration, communication analysis, problem-solving, and role-play. |Provides opportunities to reduce relationship stress, express emotions, and develop more effective interpersonal responses. |- |'''Termination phase''' |Review progress, discuss feelings about ending therapy, consolidate interpersonal skills, and identify strategies for future difficulties. |Strengthens confidence in maintaining supportive relationships and managing future emotional challenges. |} Note. Based on the IPT framework discussed by Markowitz and Weissman (2012) and Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013). == Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? == IPT has traditionally emphasized a few interpersonal problem areas. Choosing a primary problem can make therapy more real and manageable, but it can be hard to establish one primary problem, especially when there are multiple difficulties that may overlap (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). The areas are summarised in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Common IPT interpersonal problem areas !Problem area !What it involves !Example |- |'''Grief and loss''' |Emotional difficulty following the death or significant loss of an important person. |Someone becomes socially isolated and depressed following the death of a partner. |- |'''Role disputes''' |Conflict caused by different expectations between the person and someone important to them. |Two partners repeatedly argue because each expects different levels of emotional support. |- |'''Role transitions''' |Difficulty adapting to a major life change that alters identity, responsibilities, or relationships. |Starting university, becoming a parent, migrating, divorce, retirement, or changing employment. |- |'''Interpersonal sensitivities or deficits''' |Persistent difficulty initiating, maintaining, or feeling secure within relationships. |A person feels disconnected from others and finds it difficult to form supportive friendships. |} The categories are especially important because emotional experiences can be linked to relationship changes and social expectations. Sam's going on to university is a role transition, for instance, in which he is leaving behind those he already knows and has an unknown identity and is facing the difficulty of making relationships. During a role conflict the focus may rather be on articulating expectations, establishing boundaries, or re-negotiating a relationship. IPT does not mean that all relationships need to be maintained, sometimes it is more appropriate to recognise boundaries or end an unhealthy relationship. Practical application of IPT is demonstrated with research on life transitions. In a systematic review, Sockol (2018) noted that the IPT intervention was able to decrease symptoms of perinatal depression and anxiety and enhance some interpersonal functions. In a similar fashion, Uncu and Doğan (2026) analysed 9 RCTs with 1269 participants, and observed that there were decreases in PP depressive symptoms relative to routine care. The results are in line with the IPT goal of role transition, but do not prove that a role transition effort led to improvement, as a comparison with routine care is not possible.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key point:''' IPT does not simply aim to make a person "more social". The goal is to identify the interpersonal situation most closely connected to current emotional distress and help the person respond to it more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? == Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013) outline 4 proposed mechanisms of change in IPT. In their model, the main interpersonal problem can be resolved thus increasing social support and decreasing interpersonal stress, whereas, emotional processing and interpersonal skills facilitate the person to work through the main interpersonal problem. These processes can also feed into each other. The theory is well formed, but improvement in symptoms cannot be used to determine which process produced the improvement. === Enhancing social support === Depression can lead to isolation or a fear of rejection, which can decrease access to supports. Through IPT, people learn to recognize reliable relationships, communicate their needs and enhance relationships (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). The number of contacts is not as significant as the quality of the relationships, as shown in figure 2. Bian et al (2023) identified 11 RCTs and concluded that there was an evidence of social functioning improvement, along with a decrease in depression and anxiety. Improvements in overall functioning were not clear across all adult depression groups, but were clearer in adolescent and perinatal groups. Social functioning, however, is not synonymous with perceived support and better mood can motivate social connection as well. Thus, it is not a causal effect of the increase in support for emotional improvement. Think about it: Can a relationship offer support and be a source of emotional strain?[[File:Main_effect_model.png|right|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 2.''' Social relationships and social support can influence psychological wellbeing.]] === Reducing interpersonal stress === Emotional stress can be a continuous issue when there is conflict, rejection and unclear expectations. IPT assists people to identify these patterns, to express needs and to identify workable solutions. For instance, a friend who has different expectations about communication may minimize misunderstandings by talking about his or her needs. There may also be times when it is not possible to set limits or to end unhealthy relationships, but this can still help to lower stress when it is possible (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Lemmens et al. (2017) reported a greater improvement in interpersonal functioning in IPT compared to CT, but there was less evidence for IPT-specific mechanisms. Thus, lowering interpersonal stress could help with emotional recovery but would not be a process unique to IPT. What about this: When could it be better to set limits than to break up a relationship? === Facilitating emotional processing === IPT assists people to identify, acknowledge and process their feelings in key relationships. Household conflict, for instance, about household responsibilities, may be a sign of disappointment in terms of unequal household support. Understanding emotions can help to determine the message to convey. The sadness can be a sign of loss, and the anger can be a reflection of unmet expectations or boundaries. IPT promotes reflection (rather than reaction) (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). But the mechanism of emotional processing is still a possibility. Research has been conducted to assess depression symptoms but failed to establish that better awareness of the emotions is a prerequisite to recovery. Other therapies might be affected in similar ways, and it can be hard to conclude an IPT-specific effect (Lemmens et al., 2017). Think about it: What do you think might happen if you showed some feeling of disappointment to communicate your emotional needs? === Improving interpersonal skills === [[File:Two-people-talking-logo.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|'''Figure 3.''' IPT uses communication-focused techniques to help people practise more effective ways of interacting.]] Improving interpersonal skills IPT communication analysis and role play builds communication, resolves conflict and practises boundary setting. For instance, "I was sad when plans were cancelled" is a more productive message than "You don't care about me. Good communication can help to mitigate relationship stress and boost confidence (refer to Figure 3). Abapolnikova et al. (2026) reported that attachment security improvements in the subsequent years led to a decrease in depression symptoms. Other changes also took place in cognitive behavioural therapy, however, indicating that relational improvement could be a factor in emotional recovery that is not specific to IPT. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 3.''' Proposed interpersonal mechanisms of emotional change !Mechanism !What changes? !Possible emotional benefit |- |'''Enhanced social support''' |Supportive relationships become more available or accessible. |Reduced loneliness and greater belonging, reassurance, and coping resources. |- |'''Reduced interpersonal stress''' |Conflict, ambiguity, or unresolved relationship difficulties decrease. |Less repeated exposure to stressful emotional situations. |- |'''Emotional processing''' |Feelings are identified, understood, tolerated, and communicated. |Greater emotional clarity and more adaptive responses to difficult feelings. |- |'''Improved interpersonal skills''' |Communication and relationship-management skills become more effective. |Fewer misunderstandings and greater confidence in managing relationships. |} {{Robelbox|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best represents the central assumption of interpersonal psychotherapy? |type="()"} - Emotional difficulties are caused entirely by irrational thoughts. - The number of friendships a person has determines their emotional wellbeing. + Relationships and emotional symptoms can influence one another, so improving a current interpersonal problem may help reduce emotional distress. - IPT attempts to analyse every childhood relationship. {Which of the following is one of the proposed mechanisms of change in IPT? |type="()"} - Avoiding emotional discussion + Enhancing social support - Eliminating all interpersonal disagreement - Increasing dependence on the therapist {A person becomes distressed after moving to another country and struggling with changes in identity, friendships, and responsibilities. Which IPT problem area is most relevant? |type="()"} - Grief only - Interpersonal dispute + Role transition - Cognitive distortion {Why is communication analysis used in IPT? |type="()"} - To determine who is objectively responsible for an argument + To examine how an interaction occurred and identify more effective ways of communicating - To prevent the person from experiencing strong emotion - To increase the number of social contacts </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == IPT techniques in practice == IPT brings about change by focusing on interpersonal issues identified by techniques specific to the client's primary problem. The interpersonal inventory charts critical relationships, support, expectations, and conflict. Communication analysis focuses on specific communication interaction, with attention to differences between intended and received messages. Role-play gives the opportunity to rehearse alternative conversations in therapy before trying them out in real life. Affect exploration can be used to determine feelings of grief, anger, shame, disappointment or loneliness in a relationship. Decision analysis and interpersonal problem-solving helps the individual consider and compare realistic responses and their consequences. It is possible to combine these techniques: Knowledge of an emotional response can help clarify what communication is needed, and practising a different response can help reduce the stress of the next interaction (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013).'''Interpersonal inventory''' involves mapping important current relationships and considering their quality, expectations, communication patterns, sources of support, and areas of conflict. This helps identify where interpersonal difficulties and emotional symptoms may be connected.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Reflection exercise Imagine that a friend repeatedly cancels plans at the last minute. The person begins feeling rejected but never mentions this and instead gradually withdraws from the friendship. Consider the following: * What emotion might be communicating an unmet interpersonal need? * How could avoiding the conversation increase interpersonal stress? * What could be communicated more directly? * How might the relationship and emotional experience change if the conversation were handled constructively? This example illustrates the reciprocal cycle emphasised by IPT: emotion influences interpersonal behaviour, and interpersonal behaviour can subsequently influence emotion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What does the research show? == IPT has a substantial evidence base, particularly for depression. However, there is an important difference between showing that a therapy improves outcomes and demonstrating precisely ''why'' it works. This distinction is especially important when evaluating the claim that relationship changes produce emotional improvement. Neurotic symptoms, depression Cuijpers et al. (2011) reviewed 38 studies with 4,356 participants that revealed IPT had a significant intervention effect, reducing depressive symptoms, compared to control interventions. This was confirmed by a larger meta-analysis of 90 studies with 11,434 participants in which it was shown to be effective for acute depression (Cuijpers et al., 2016). Likewise, van Hees et al. (2013) found that IPT was effective for treating adult depression. But strikingly similar results of various psychotherapies indicate that similar therapeutic procedures, not uniquely interpersonal ones, may play a role in improvement. Interpersonal and social skills A review of 11 randomised controlled trials by Bian et al. (2023) revealed improvements in social functioning, depression, and anxiety, with less consistent outcomes for greater functioning. Lemmens et al. (2017) reported a faster improvement in interpersonal functioning during IPT as compared to CT and suggested limited evidence for treatment-specific mechanisms. The results are consistent with IPT interpersonal orientation and provide evidence that although relationships and emotional symptoms may improve, these changes do not necessarily represent a causal relationship. More recently, Abapolnikova et al. (2026) examined attachment security as a possible mediator of depression improvement in IPT compared with cognitive behavioural therapy. Attachment security improved, and earlier increases were associated with lower later depression. However, the effect was not unique to IPT because similar change occurred in cognitive behavioural therapy. This suggests that relational improvement may sometimes operate as a broader psychotherapy process rather than an exclusively IPT-specific mechanism. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Research caution:''' Evidence that IPT ''works'' is stronger than evidence proving exactly ''how'' it works. Relationship functioning, attachment, social support, and symptoms can improve together, but stronger longitudinal and mediation studies are needed to determine whether interpersonal changes specifically cause later emotional improvement. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Adolescence and inter-personal development Adolescents' emotional well-being is strongly shaped by their relationships with peers and family members. Mufson et al. (2004), found that the IPT for adolescents (IPT-A) was effective in school settings. Duffy et al. (2019) also found an improvement in interpersonal difficulties and depression. IPT-A did not significantly differ from active treatments in interpersonal outcomes and its mechanisms remain unclear. Peri and post-natal periods There are major changes in role and relationship that occur during pregnancy and parenthood. A study by Sockol (2018) showed that IPT was able to decrease perceptions of perinatal depression and anxiety, and increase interpersonal functioning. In another study, 1269 women participated in nine randomized trials that showed that postpartum depression was lower compared to control groups (Uncu & Doğan, 2026). The results, however, do not prove that the changes in relationships were direct causes of the improvement in symptoms. == Critical evaluation == Despite the fact that there is some evidence for the effectiveness of IPT in the treatment of depression, the majority of research has been conducted in clinical populations and hence has limited generalisability to the day-to-day context of emotional wellbeing. In addition, relationships and emotions are interrelated: positive mood can foster a sense of connection and emotions, and positive relationships can foster positive mood. Multiple observations are required to establish causality, therefore. Participant expectations and shared therapeutic processes may also lead to comparisons with other treatments. Another limitation is individual differences. Bernecker et al. (2017) identified a small number of consistent features which distinguished the more effective alternative therapies from IPT. Therefore, the suitability of treatment should take into account the individual's symptoms, preferences and cultural context. Overall, the effect of IPT is plausible and can be attributed to changes in social support, interpersonal stress, emotional processing and interpersonal skills. The mechanisms, however, are not yet fully understood as causal pathways and research on how IPT works is still developing compared to evidence supporting its effectiveness (Lemmens et al., 2017; Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). == Applying the model: Return to the scenario == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Sam's interpersonal change At the beginning of the chapter, Sam was struggling after moving away from familiar relationships. The transition was followed by loneliness, withdrawal, and increasing conflict. From an IPT perspective, the move could be understood as a '''role transition'''. Therapy could examine both what had been lost and what the new role required. As Sam begins reconnecting with existing friends and developing supportive new relationships, '''social support''' increases. By discussing expectations directly rather than withdrawing after disagreements, '''interpersonal stress''' may decrease. By recognising loneliness, disappointment, and fear of rejection rather than avoiding these emotions, '''emotional processing''' becomes possible. Finally, practising clearer requests for support and more direct conversations may strengthen '''interpersonal skills'''. These changes can reinforce one another. Improved communication may produce more supportive interactions; supportive interactions may reduce loneliness; improved mood may make further social engagement easier. Emotional and interpersonal improvement can therefore develop as a reciprocal process rather than a single one-way cause. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == IPT links emotion with relationship and social contexts where emotions are experienced. It concentrates on issues in current interpersonal relationships that are meaningful, such as loss, conflict, change, and ongoing interpersonal challenges. The four mechanisms suggested (amplifying social support, diminishing interpersonal stress, enabling emotional processing, and enhancing interpersonal skills) account for the possible emotional benefits of relationship changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Meta-analyses have yielded significant evidence for the efficacy of IPT in reducing depressive symptoms and research also points at improvement in interpersonal and social functioning (Bian et al., 2023; Cuijpers et al., 2016). But these results do not confirm that the changes in relationships are the only cause of emotional improvement. There are other processes (such as attachment, therapeutic support) that may play a role in various treatments. The message to take away is that the relationship between feelings and existing relationships is evident; that it is important to find a reliable support system; to communicate interpersonal needs openly and effectively; and to engage in conflict resolution in a constructive manner where it is safe to do so. These can be incorporated into day to day wellbeing and treatment options should continue to be tailored to individual circumstances and evidence. Take-home message: IPT can be used as evidence-based treatment for depression, targeting key interpersonal issues. Better relationships is one possible route to a better emotional wellbeing, however, the research is ongoing to understand what changes bring the benefits and to which individuals.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take home message:''' Emotional wellbeing is closely connected with interpersonal life. IPT helps people address relationship problems linked to emotional distress by strengthening support, reducing interpersonal stress, processing emotions, and developing more effective interpersonal skills. Evidence strongly supports IPT's effectiveness for depression, although research is still determining exactly how much of this improvement is specifically caused by changes in relationships. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal psychotherapy|Interpersonal psychotherapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Attachment theory|Attachment theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social support|Social support]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal relationship|Interpersonal relationship]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotion]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abapolnikova, M., Coyne, A. E., Glushka, L., Liu, C. J., Constantino, M. J., Atkinson, L. R., Bagby, R. M., Ravitz, P., & McBride, C. (2026). Does attachment change serve as a theory-specific mediator of depression reduction in interpersonal psychotherapy versus cognitive behavioral therapy? ''Psychotherapy Research''. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2026.2656698 Bernecker, S. L., Coyne, A. E., Constantino, M. J., & Ravitz, P. (2017). For whom does interpersonal psychotherapy work? A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 56'', 82–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.07.001 Bian, C., Zhao, W.-W., Yan, S.-R., Chen, S.-Y., Cheng, Y., & Zhang, Y.-H. (2023). Effect of interpersonal psychotherapy on social functioning, overall functioning and negative emotions for depression: A meta-analysis. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 320'', 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.119 Cuijpers, P., Donker, T., Weissman, M. M., Ravitz, P., & Cristea, I. A. (2016). Interpersonal psychotherapy for mental health problems: A comprehensive meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 173''(7), 680–687. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15091141 Cuijpers, P., Geraedts, A. S., van Oppen, P., Andersson, G., Markowitz, J. C., & van Straten, A. (2011). Interpersonal psychotherapy for depression: A meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 168''(6), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10101411 Duffy, F., Sharpe, H., & Schwannauer, M. (2019). Review: The effectiveness of interpersonal psychotherapy for adolescents with depression – A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 24''(4), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12342 Lemmens, L. H. J. M., Galindo-Garre, F., Arntz, A., Peeters, F., Hollon, S. D., DeRubeis, R. J., & Huibers, M. J. H. (2017). Exploring mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy for adult depression. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 94'', 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.005 Lipsitz, J. D., & Markowitz, J. C. (2013). Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy (IPT). ''Clinical Psychology Review, 33''(8), 1134–1147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.09.002 Markowitz, J. C., & Weissman, M. M. (2012). Interpersonal psychotherapy: Past, present and future. ''Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19''(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1774 Mufson, L., Dorta, K. P., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Olfson, M., & Weissman, M. M. (2004). A randomized effectiveness trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. ''Archives of General Psychiatry, 61''(6), 577–584. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.6.577 Sockol, L. E. (2018). A systematic review and meta-analysis of interpersonal psychotherapy for perinatal women. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 232'', 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.01.018 Stuart, S., Schultz, J., Palmer Molina, A., & Siber-Sanderowitz, S. (2024). Interpersonal psychotherapy: A review of theory, history, and evidence of efficacy. ''Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 52''(3), 370–407. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2024.52.3.370 Uncu, B., & Doğan, E. (2026). Effects of interpersonal psychotherapy on postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. ''Journal of Psychiatric Research, 198'', 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2026.03.038 van Hees, M. L. J. M., Rotter, T., Ellermann, T., & Evers, S. M. A. A. (2013). The effectiveness of individual interpersonal psychotherapy as a treatment for major depressive disorder in adult outpatients: A systematic review. ''BMC Psychiatry, 13'', Article 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-22}} == External links == * [https://interpersonalpsychotherapy.org/ipt-basics/overview-of-ipt/ Overview of interpersonal psychotherapy] (International Society of Interpersonal Psychotherapy) * [https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MSD-MER-16.4 Group interpersonal therapy for depression] (World Health Organization) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4109031/ Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy] (National Library of Medicine) * The existing chapter was reviewed for content with the help of ChatGPT (OpenAI), which provided feedback on its content and offered suggestions to improve the structure, clarity, and language of the existing chapter. Feedback was given on how to improve some of the areas that were identified and how to make the theory and research more integrated. All work and research is my own. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] i96vjuvwoge4aybwiy6ehhpbgnd2ght 2842713 2842711 2026-10-26T21:25:27Z U3280122 3110471 2842713 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion: <br>How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Conversation - RWiC.png|thumb|right|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Supportive conversation can create opportunities to express emotions, clarify interpersonal problems, and strengthen social connection.]] ;Scenario Sam recently moved to a new city to begin university. Although the move was exciting, it also meant leaving close friends and family behind. Over time, Sam began feeling lonely, irritable, and emotionally exhausted. Calls with family became shorter, disagreements with a close friend became more frequent, and Sam started avoiding social activities. When Sam began interpersonal psychotherapy, it did not focus only on the feelings of sadness. Instead, Sam and the therapist explored how the recent life transition had changed important relationships. Sam began identifying feelings of loneliness and disappointment, communicating needs more clearly, reconnecting with supportive people, and developing new friendships. As these relationships became more supportive and less stressful, Sam's mood gradually improved. The interpersonal situation had changed, but so had Sam's emotional experience. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Figure 1. Supportive conversation can provide a space for emotional expression, problem solving around interpersonal issues and build social bonds. Keep the original image credit and licence. Relationships can give us a sense of belonging, emotional security and practical support, and they can also be a source of conflict, loss and rejection. Emotional issues can affect communication, retreats and reaction to conflict. This can form a vicious cycle, as interpersonal issues increase distress and emotional distress can cause interpersonal issues (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012; Stuart et al., 2024). Interpersonal Psychotherapy is a time-limited, structured psychotherapy that targets the present interpersonal context. IPT was originally designed for the treatment of depression, but it has also been shown to be effective in treating other key interpersonal problems and adapting to social role changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). This chapter reviews four potential mechanisms: increase in social support, decrease in interpersonal stress, emotional processing, and interpersonal skills. It also takes into account if research has shown how these changes contribute to emotional wellbeing.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ;Focus questions * What is interpersonal psychotherapy and how does it connect relationships with emotion? * Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? * Through which psychological mechanisms can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? * What does research show about the effectiveness and limitations of IPT? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is interpersonal psychotherapy? == IPT works on the current interpersonal problems and their relationship to emotional symptoms. Therapists and clients agree that during treatment, a major relationship issue that needs to be corrected is present, generally requiring about 12–16 sessions per week for depression (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). IPT has also been modified for various age groups and psychological states (Cuijpers et al., 2016). The interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and social support and life stress research literature are drawn on to support the foundations of IPT. Both Sullivan's interpersonal theory and Bowlby's attachment theory stress the importance of relationships to feelings of distress, and emotional security through relationships that are dependable, respectively. The early attachment experiences are not a primary focus of IPT, however, and attachment change is not exclusive to IPT (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). === The interpersonal perspective === IPT was influenced by interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and research examining the relationship between stressful life events, social support, and mental health (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). Its central assumption is reciprocal: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Interpersonal difficulty → emotional distress → further interpersonal difficulty''' For example, conflict may increase sadness and anxiety. Those emotions may then contribute to withdrawal, irritability, avoidance, or ineffective communication, which can create additional conflict. IPT attempts to interrupt this cycle by improving the interpersonal situation while helping the person understand and communicate emotion more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Sadness, anger and loneliness are all associated with interpersonal challenges, such as loss, conflict or unmet needs for interpersonal connection. IPT assists people identify these emotions and grasp their interpersonal situation (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). A review of 38 studies (4,356 subjects) by Cuijpers et al. (2011) showed that IPT was effective in reducing depression. A second larger meta-analysis of 90 studies with 11,434 participants also found IPT effective, but with relatively few differences from other proven psychotherapies (Cuijpers et al., 2016). These results are not sufficient, however, to conclude that the relationship change is the only process that is effective for improving outcomes, since other therapeutic processes may be effective. === How IPT is structured === IPT generally consists of three stages: initial stage, middle phase, and termination phase. The first phase is the identification of symptoms and primary interpersonal problem. The second phase is the emotional exploration, communication analysis and practical strategies to that problem. During the last stage, progress is assessed and preparations are made for future challenges. Table 1 provides a summary of the relationship of each stage and emotional wellbeing (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Main phases of interpersonal psychotherapy !Phase !Main tasks !Connection with emotional wellbeing |- |'''Initial phase''' |Identify emotional symptoms, complete an interpersonal inventory, explore important relationships, and select a central interpersonal focus. |Helps connect emotional distress with significant current relationships and life events. |- |'''Middle phase''' |Work actively on the selected interpersonal problem using emotional exploration, communication analysis, problem-solving, and role-play. |Provides opportunities to reduce relationship stress, express emotions, and develop more effective interpersonal responses. |- |'''Termination phase''' |Review progress, discuss feelings about ending therapy, consolidate interpersonal skills, and identify strategies for future difficulties. |Strengthens confidence in maintaining supportive relationships and managing future emotional challenges. |} Note. Based on the IPT framework discussed by Markowitz and Weissman (2012) and Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013). == Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? == IPT has traditionally emphasized a few interpersonal problem areas. Choosing a primary problem can make therapy more real and manageable, but it can be hard to establish one primary problem, especially when there are multiple difficulties that may overlap (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). The areas are summarised in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Common IPT interpersonal problem areas !Problem area !What it involves !Example |- |'''Grief and loss''' |Emotional difficulty following the death or significant loss of an important person. |Someone becomes socially isolated and depressed following the death of a partner. |- |'''Role disputes''' |Conflict caused by different expectations between the person and someone important to them. |Two partners repeatedly argue because each expects different levels of emotional support. |- |'''Role transitions''' |Difficulty adapting to a major life change that alters identity, responsibilities, or relationships. |Starting university, becoming a parent, migrating, divorce, retirement, or changing employment. |- |'''Interpersonal sensitivities or deficits''' |Persistent difficulty initiating, maintaining, or feeling secure within relationships. |A person feels disconnected from others and finds it difficult to form supportive friendships. |} The categories are especially important because emotional experiences can be linked to relationship changes and social expectations. Sam's going on to university is a role transition, for instance, in which he is leaving behind those he already knows and has an unknown identity and is facing the difficulty of making relationships. During a role conflict the focus may rather be on articulating expectations, establishing boundaries, or re-negotiating a relationship. IPT does not mean that all relationships need to be maintained, sometimes it is more appropriate to recognise boundaries or end an unhealthy relationship. Practical application of IPT is demonstrated with research on life transitions. In a systematic review, Sockol (2018) noted that the IPT intervention was able to decrease symptoms of perinatal depression and anxiety and enhance some interpersonal functions. In a similar fashion, Uncu and Doğan (2026) analysed 9 RCTs with 1269 participants, and observed that there were decreases in PP depressive symptoms relative to routine care. The results are in line with the IPT goal of role transition, but do not prove that a role transition effort led to improvement, as a comparison with routine care is not possible.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key point:''' IPT does not simply aim to make a person "more social". The goal is to identify the interpersonal situation most closely connected to current emotional distress and help the person respond to it more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? == Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013) outline 4 proposed mechanisms of change in IPT. In their model, the main interpersonal problem can be resolved thus increasing social support and decreasing interpersonal stress, whereas, emotional processing and interpersonal skills facilitate the person to work through the main interpersonal problem. These processes can also feed into each other. The theory is well formed, but improvement in symptoms cannot be used to determine which process produced the improvement. === Enhancing social support === Depression can lead to isolation or a fear of rejection, which can decrease access to supports. Through IPT, people learn to recognize reliable relationships, communicate their needs and enhance relationships (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). The number of contacts is not as significant as the quality of the relationships, as shown in figure 2. Bian et al (2023) identified 11 RCTs and concluded that there was an evidence of social functioning improvement, along with a decrease in depression and anxiety. Improvements in overall functioning were not clear across all adult depression groups, but were clearer in adolescent and perinatal groups. Social functioning, however, is not synonymous with perceived support and better mood can motivate social connection as well. Thus, it is not a causal effect of the increase in support for emotional improvement. Think about it: Can a relationship offer support and be a source of emotional strain?[[File:Main_effect_model.png|right|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 2.''' Social relationships and social support can influence psychological wellbeing.]] === Reducing interpersonal stress === Emotional stress can be a continuous issue when there is conflict, rejection and unclear expectations. IPT assists people to identify these patterns, to express needs and to identify workable solutions. For instance, a friend who has different expectations about communication may minimize misunderstandings by talking about his or her needs. There may also be times when it is not possible to set limits or to end unhealthy relationships, but this can still help to lower stress when it is possible (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Lemmens et al. (2017) reported a greater improvement in interpersonal functioning in IPT compared to CT, but there was less evidence for IPT-specific mechanisms. Thus, lowering interpersonal stress could help with emotional recovery but would not be a process unique to IPT. What about this: When could it be better to set limits than to break up a relationship? === Facilitating emotional processing === IPT assists people to identify, acknowledge and process their feelings in key relationships. Household conflict, for instance, about household responsibilities, may be a sign of disappointment in terms of unequal household support. Understanding emotions can help to determine the message to convey. The sadness can be a sign of loss, and the anger can be a reflection of unmet expectations or boundaries. IPT promotes reflection (rather than reaction) (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). But the mechanism of emotional processing is still a possibility. Research has been conducted to assess depression symptoms but failed to establish that better awareness of the emotions is a prerequisite to recovery. Other therapies might be affected in similar ways, and it can be hard to conclude an IPT-specific effect (Lemmens et al., 2017). Think about it: What do you think might happen if you showed some feeling of disappointment to communicate your emotional needs? === Improving interpersonal skills === [[File:Two-people-talking-logo.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|'''Figure 3.''' IPT uses communication-focused techniques to help people practise more effective ways of interacting.]] Improving interpersonal skills IPT communication analysis and role play builds communication, resolves conflict and practises boundary setting. For instance, "I was sad when plans were cancelled" is a more productive message than "You don't care about me. Good communication can help to mitigate relationship stress and boost confidence (refer to Figure 3). Abapolnikova et al. (2026) reported that attachment security improvements in the subsequent years led to a decrease in depression symptoms. Other changes also took place in cognitive behavioural therapy, however, indicating that relational improvement could be a factor in emotional recovery that is not specific to IPT. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 3.''' Proposed interpersonal mechanisms of emotional change !Mechanism !What changes? !Possible emotional benefit |- |'''Enhanced social support''' |Supportive relationships become more available or accessible. |Reduced loneliness and greater belonging, reassurance, and coping resources. |- |'''Reduced interpersonal stress''' |Conflict, ambiguity, or unresolved relationship difficulties decrease. |Less repeated exposure to stressful emotional situations. |- |'''Emotional processing''' |Feelings are identified, understood, tolerated, and communicated. |Greater emotional clarity and more adaptive responses to difficult feelings. |- |'''Improved interpersonal skills''' |Communication and relationship-management skills become more effective. |Fewer misunderstandings and greater confidence in managing relationships. |} {{Robelbox|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best represents the central assumption of interpersonal psychotherapy? |type="()"} - Emotional difficulties are caused entirely by irrational thoughts. - The number of friendships a person has determines their emotional wellbeing. + Relationships and emotional symptoms can influence one another, so improving a current interpersonal problem may help reduce emotional distress. - IPT attempts to analyse every childhood relationship. {Which of the following is one of the proposed mechanisms of change in IPT? |type="()"} - Avoiding emotional discussion + Enhancing social support - Eliminating all interpersonal disagreement - Increasing dependence on the therapist {A person becomes distressed after moving to another country and struggling with changes in identity, friendships, and responsibilities. Which IPT problem area is most relevant? |type="()"} - Grief only - Interpersonal dispute + Role transition - Cognitive distortion {Why is communication analysis used in IPT? |type="()"} - To determine who is objectively responsible for an argument + To examine how an interaction occurred and identify more effective ways of communicating - To prevent the person from experiencing strong emotion - To increase the number of social contacts </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == IPT techniques in practice == IPT brings about change by focusing on interpersonal issues identified by techniques specific to the client's primary problem. The interpersonal inventory charts critical relationships, support, expectations, and conflict. Communication analysis focuses on specific communication interaction, with attention to differences between intended and received messages. Role-play gives the opportunity to rehearse alternative conversations in therapy before trying them out in real life. Affect exploration can be used to determine feelings of grief, anger, shame, disappointment or loneliness in a relationship. Decision analysis and interpersonal problem-solving helps the individual consider and compare realistic responses and their consequences. It is possible to combine these techniques: Knowledge of an emotional response can help clarify what communication is needed, and practising a different response can help reduce the stress of the next interaction (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013).'''Interpersonal inventory''' involves mapping important current relationships and considering their quality, expectations, communication patterns, sources of support, and areas of conflict. This helps identify where interpersonal difficulties and emotional symptoms may be connected.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Reflection exercise Imagine that a friend repeatedly cancels plans at the last minute. The person begins feeling rejected but never mentions this and instead gradually withdraws from the friendship. Consider the following: * What emotion might be communicating an unmet interpersonal need? * How could avoiding the conversation increase interpersonal stress? * What could be communicated more directly? * How might the relationship and emotional experience change if the conversation were handled constructively? This example illustrates the reciprocal cycle emphasised by IPT: emotion influences interpersonal behaviour, and interpersonal behaviour can subsequently influence emotion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What does the research show? == Research findings There is good evidence to support IPT, especially for depression. But making it work doesn't always give an explanation for how it works, or whether there is a direct link between change in relationships and emotional wellbeing. There are emotional symptoms and depression.There is depression, and emotional symptoms. Cuijpers et al. (2011) conducted a study of 38 studies with 4356 participants and determined that IPT significantly reduces depressive symptoms. A larger meta-analysis of 90 studies with 11,434 subjects found its effectiveness in acute depression (Cuijpers et al., 2016). Likewise, van Hees et al. (2013) found that IPT was effective for adults suffering from depression. But similar results found with different therapies indicate that there are similar therapeutic processes that can lead to improvement. Social skills and interactions Bian et al. (2023) conducted a review of 11 randomised trials and determined that there were improvements in social functioning, depression and anxiety, though this was not consistent across all broader functioning outcomes. There was evidence for greater interpersonal improvement in IPT than cognitive therapy (Lemmens et al., 2017), and limited evidence for treatment-specific mechanisms. These findings corroborate IPT's interpersonal model, but do not prove that alteration in interpersonal relationships leads to emotional improvement. More recently, Abapolnikova et al. (2026) examined attachment security as a possible mediator of depression improvement in IPT compared with cognitive behavioural therapy. Attachment security improved, and earlier increases were associated with lower later depression. However, the effect was not unique to IPT because similar change occurred in cognitive behavioural therapy. This suggests that relational improvement may sometimes operate as a broader psychotherapy process rather than an exclusively IPT-specific mechanism. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Research caution:''' Evidence that IPT ''works'' is stronger than evidence proving exactly ''how'' it works. Relationship functioning, attachment, social support, and symptoms can improve together, but stronger longitudinal and mediation studies are needed to determine whether interpersonal changes specifically cause later emotional improvement. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Critical evaluation == Despite the fact that there is some evidence for the effectiveness of IPT in the treatment of depression, the majority of research has been conducted in clinical populations and hence has limited generalisability to the day-to-day context of emotional wellbeing. In addition, relationships and emotions are interrelated: positive mood can foster a sense of connection and emotions, and positive relationships can foster positive mood. Multiple observations are required to establish causality, therefore. Participant expectations and shared therapeutic processes may also lead to comparisons with other treatments. Another limitation is individual differences. Bernecker et al. (2017) identified a small number of consistent features which distinguished the more effective alternative therapies from IPT. Therefore, the suitability of treatment should take into account the individual's symptoms, preferences and cultural context. Overall, the effect of IPT is plausible and can be attributed to changes in social support, interpersonal stress, emotional processing and interpersonal skills. The mechanisms, however, are not yet fully understood as causal pathways and research on how IPT works is still developing compared to evidence supporting its effectiveness (Lemmens et al., 2017; Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). == Applying the model: Return to the scenario == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Sam's interpersonal change At the beginning of the chapter, Sam was struggling after moving away from familiar relationships. The transition was followed by loneliness, withdrawal, and increasing conflict. From an IPT perspective, the move could be understood as a '''role transition'''. Therapy could examine both what had been lost and what the new role required. As Sam begins reconnecting with existing friends and developing supportive new relationships, '''social support''' increases. By discussing expectations directly rather than withdrawing after disagreements, '''interpersonal stress''' may decrease. By recognising loneliness, disappointment, and fear of rejection rather than avoiding these emotions, '''emotional processing''' becomes possible. Finally, practising clearer requests for support and more direct conversations may strengthen '''interpersonal skills'''. These changes can reinforce one another. Improved communication may produce more supportive interactions; supportive interactions may reduce loneliness; improved mood may make further social engagement easier. Emotional and interpersonal improvement can therefore develop as a reciprocal process rather than a single one-way cause. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == IPT links emotion with relationship and social contexts where emotions are experienced. It concentrates on issues in current interpersonal relationships that are meaningful, such as loss, conflict, change, and ongoing interpersonal challenges. The four mechanisms suggested (amplifying social support, diminishing interpersonal stress, enabling emotional processing, and enhancing interpersonal skills) account for the possible emotional benefits of relationship changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Meta-analyses have yielded significant evidence for the efficacy of IPT in reducing depressive symptoms and research also points at improvement in interpersonal and social functioning (Bian et al., 2023; Cuijpers et al., 2016). But these results do not confirm that the changes in relationships are the only cause of emotional improvement. There are other processes (such as attachment, therapeutic support) that may play a role in various treatments. The message to take away is that the relationship between feelings and existing relationships is evident; that it is important to find a reliable support system; to communicate interpersonal needs openly and effectively; and to engage in conflict resolution in a constructive manner where it is safe to do so. These can be incorporated into day to day wellbeing and treatment options should continue to be tailored to individual circumstances and evidence. Take-home message: IPT can be used as evidence-based treatment for depression, targeting key interpersonal issues. Better relationships is one possible route to a better emotional wellbeing, however, the research is ongoing to understand what changes bring the benefits and to which individuals.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take home message:''' Emotional wellbeing is closely connected with interpersonal life. IPT helps people address relationship problems linked to emotional distress by strengthening support, reducing interpersonal stress, processing emotions, and developing more effective interpersonal skills. Evidence strongly supports IPT's effectiveness for depression, although research is still determining exactly how much of this improvement is specifically caused by changes in relationships. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal psychotherapy|Interpersonal psychotherapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Attachment theory|Attachment theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social support|Social support]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal relationship|Interpersonal relationship]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotion]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abapolnikova, M., Coyne, A. E., Glushka, L., Liu, C. J., Constantino, M. J., Atkinson, L. R., Bagby, R. M., Ravitz, P., & McBride, C. (2026). Does attachment change serve as a theory-specific mediator of depression reduction in interpersonal psychotherapy versus cognitive behavioral therapy? ''Psychotherapy Research''. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2026.2656698 Bernecker, S. L., Coyne, A. E., Constantino, M. J., & Ravitz, P. (2017). For whom does interpersonal psychotherapy work? A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 56'', 82–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.07.001 Bian, C., Zhao, W.-W., Yan, S.-R., Chen, S.-Y., Cheng, Y., & Zhang, Y.-H. (2023). Effect of interpersonal psychotherapy on social functioning, overall functioning and negative emotions for depression: A meta-analysis. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 320'', 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.119 Cuijpers, P., Donker, T., Weissman, M. M., Ravitz, P., & Cristea, I. A. (2016). Interpersonal psychotherapy for mental health problems: A comprehensive meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 173''(7), 680–687. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15091141 Cuijpers, P., Geraedts, A. S., van Oppen, P., Andersson, G., Markowitz, J. C., & van Straten, A. (2011). Interpersonal psychotherapy for depression: A meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 168''(6), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10101411 Duffy, F., Sharpe, H., & Schwannauer, M. (2019). Review: The effectiveness of interpersonal psychotherapy for adolescents with depression – A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 24''(4), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12342 Lemmens, L. H. J. M., Galindo-Garre, F., Arntz, A., Peeters, F., Hollon, S. D., DeRubeis, R. J., & Huibers, M. J. H. (2017). Exploring mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy for adult depression. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 94'', 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.005 Lipsitz, J. D., & Markowitz, J. C. (2013). Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy (IPT). ''Clinical Psychology Review, 33''(8), 1134–1147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.09.002 Markowitz, J. C., & Weissman, M. M. (2012). Interpersonal psychotherapy: Past, present and future. ''Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19''(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1774 Mufson, L., Dorta, K. P., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Olfson, M., & Weissman, M. M. (2004). A randomized effectiveness trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. ''Archives of General Psychiatry, 61''(6), 577–584. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.6.577 Sockol, L. E. (2018). A systematic review and meta-analysis of interpersonal psychotherapy for perinatal women. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 232'', 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.01.018 Stuart, S., Schultz, J., Palmer Molina, A., & Siber-Sanderowitz, S. (2024). Interpersonal psychotherapy: A review of theory, history, and evidence of efficacy. ''Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 52''(3), 370–407. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2024.52.3.370 Uncu, B., & Doğan, E. (2026). Effects of interpersonal psychotherapy on postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. ''Journal of Psychiatric Research, 198'', 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2026.03.038 van Hees, M. L. J. M., Rotter, T., Ellermann, T., & Evers, S. M. A. A. (2013). The effectiveness of individual interpersonal psychotherapy as a treatment for major depressive disorder in adult outpatients: A systematic review. ''BMC Psychiatry, 13'', Article 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-22}} == External links == * [https://interpersonalpsychotherapy.org/ipt-basics/overview-of-ipt/ Overview of interpersonal psychotherapy] (International Society of Interpersonal Psychotherapy) * [https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MSD-MER-16.4 Group interpersonal therapy for depression] (World Health Organization) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4109031/ Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy] (National Library of Medicine) * The existing chapter was reviewed for content with the help of ChatGPT (OpenAI), which provided feedback on its content and offered suggestions to improve the structure, clarity, and language of the existing chapter. Feedback was given on how to improve some of the areas that were identified and how to make the theory and research more integrated. All work and research is my own. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] q2riqe9d7rvuqg0mlnqe900sdqnqvbk 2842714 2842713 2026-10-26T21:25:41Z U3280122 3110471 2842714 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion: <br>How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Conversation - RWiC.png|thumb|right|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Supportive conversation can create opportunities to express emotions, clarify interpersonal problems, and strengthen social connection.]] ;Scenario Sam recently moved to a new city to begin university. Although the move was exciting, it also meant leaving close friends and family behind. Over time, Sam began feeling lonely, irritable, and emotionally exhausted. Calls with family became shorter, disagreements with a close friend became more frequent, and Sam started avoiding social activities. When Sam began interpersonal psychotherapy, it did not focus only on the feelings of sadness. Instead, Sam and the therapist explored how the recent life transition had changed important relationships. Sam began identifying feelings of loneliness and disappointment, communicating needs more clearly, reconnecting with supportive people, and developing new friendships. As these relationships became more supportive and less stressful, Sam's mood gradually improved. The interpersonal situation had changed, but so had Sam's emotional experience. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Figure 1. Supportive conversation can provide a space for emotional expression, problem solving around interpersonal issues and build social bonds. Keep the original image credit and licence. Relationships can give us a sense of belonging, emotional security and practical support, and they can also be a source of conflict, loss and rejection. Emotional issues can affect communication, retreats and reaction to conflict. This can form a vicious cycle, as interpersonal issues increase distress and emotional distress can cause interpersonal issues (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012; Stuart et al., 2024). Interpersonal Psychotherapy is a time-limited, structured psychotherapy that targets the present interpersonal context. IPT was originally designed for the treatment of depression, but it has also been shown to be effective in treating other key interpersonal problems and adapting to social role changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). This chapter reviews four potential mechanisms: increase in social support, decrease in interpersonal stress, emotional processing, and interpersonal skills. It also takes into account if research has shown how these changes contribute to emotional wellbeing.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ;Focus questions * What is interpersonal psychotherapy and how does it connect relationships with emotion? * Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? * Through which psychological mechanisms can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? * What does research show about the effectiveness and limitations of IPT? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is interpersonal psychotherapy? == IPT works on the current interpersonal problems and their relationship to emotional symptoms. Therapists and clients agree that during treatment, a major relationship issue that needs to be corrected is present, generally requiring about 12–16 sessions per week for depression (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). IPT has also been modified for various age groups and psychological states (Cuijpers et al., 2016). The interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and social support and life stress research literature are drawn on to support the foundations of IPT. Both Sullivan's interpersonal theory and Bowlby's attachment theory stress the importance of relationships to feelings of distress, and emotional security through relationships that are dependable, respectively. The early attachment experiences are not a primary focus of IPT, however, and attachment change is not exclusive to IPT (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). === The interpersonal perspective === IPT was influenced by interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and research examining the relationship between stressful life events, social support, and mental health (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). Its central assumption is reciprocal: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Interpersonal difficulty → emotional distress → further interpersonal difficulty''' For example, conflict may increase sadness and anxiety. Those emotions may then contribute to withdrawal, irritability, avoidance, or ineffective communication, which can create additional conflict. IPT attempts to interrupt this cycle by improving the interpersonal situation while helping the person understand and communicate emotion more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Sadness, anger and loneliness are all associated with interpersonal challenges, such as loss, conflict or unmet needs for interpersonal connection. IPT assists people identify these emotions and grasp their interpersonal situation (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). A review of 38 studies (4,356 subjects) by Cuijpers et al. (2011) showed that IPT was effective in reducing depression. A second larger meta-analysis of 90 studies with 11,434 participants also found IPT effective, but with relatively few differences from other proven psychotherapies (Cuijpers et al., 2016). These results are not sufficient, however, to conclude that the relationship change is the only process that is effective for improving outcomes, since other therapeutic processes may be effective. === How IPT is structured === IPT generally consists of three stages: initial stage, middle phase, and termination phase. The first phase is the identification of symptoms and primary interpersonal problem. The second phase is the emotional exploration, communication analysis and practical strategies to that problem. During the last stage, progress is assessed and preparations are made for future challenges. Table 1 provides a summary of the relationship of each stage and emotional wellbeing (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Main phases of interpersonal psychotherapy !Phase !Main tasks !Connection with emotional wellbeing |- |'''Initial phase''' |Identify emotional symptoms, complete an interpersonal inventory, explore important relationships, and select a central interpersonal focus. |Helps connect emotional distress with significant current relationships and life events. |- |'''Middle phase''' |Work actively on the selected interpersonal problem using emotional exploration, communication analysis, problem-solving, and role-play. |Provides opportunities to reduce relationship stress, express emotions, and develop more effective interpersonal responses. |- |'''Termination phase''' |Review progress, discuss feelings about ending therapy, consolidate interpersonal skills, and identify strategies for future difficulties. |Strengthens confidence in maintaining supportive relationships and managing future emotional challenges. |} Note. Based on the IPT framework discussed by Markowitz and Weissman (2012) and Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013). == Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? == IPT has traditionally emphasized a few interpersonal problem areas. Choosing a primary problem can make therapy more real and manageable, but it can be hard to establish one primary problem, especially when there are multiple difficulties that may overlap (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). The areas are summarised in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Common IPT interpersonal problem areas !Problem area !What it involves !Example |- |'''Grief and loss''' |Emotional difficulty following the death or significant loss of an important person. |Someone becomes socially isolated and depressed following the death of a partner. |- |'''Role disputes''' |Conflict caused by different expectations between the person and someone important to them. |Two partners repeatedly argue because each expects different levels of emotional support. |- |'''Role transitions''' |Difficulty adapting to a major life change that alters identity, responsibilities, or relationships. |Starting university, becoming a parent, migrating, divorce, retirement, or changing employment. |- |'''Interpersonal sensitivities or deficits''' |Persistent difficulty initiating, maintaining, or feeling secure within relationships. |A person feels disconnected from others and finds it difficult to form supportive friendships. |} The categories are especially important because emotional experiences can be linked to relationship changes and social expectations. Sam's going on to university is a role transition, for instance, in which he is leaving behind those he already knows and has an unknown identity and is facing the difficulty of making relationships. During a role conflict the focus may rather be on articulating expectations, establishing boundaries, or re-negotiating a relationship. IPT does not mean that all relationships need to be maintained, sometimes it is more appropriate to recognise boundaries or end an unhealthy relationship. Practical application of IPT is demonstrated with research on life transitions. In a systematic review, Sockol (2018) noted that the IPT intervention was able to decrease symptoms of perinatal depression and anxiety and enhance some interpersonal functions. In a similar fashion, Uncu and Doğan (2026) analysed 9 RCTs with 1269 participants, and observed that there were decreases in PP depressive symptoms relative to routine care. The results are in line with the IPT goal of role transition, but do not prove that a role transition effort led to improvement, as a comparison with routine care is not possible.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key point:''' IPT does not simply aim to make a person "more social". The goal is to identify the interpersonal situation most closely connected to current emotional distress and help the person respond to it more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? == Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013) outline 4 proposed mechanisms of change in IPT. In their model, the main interpersonal problem can be resolved thus increasing social support and decreasing interpersonal stress, whereas, emotional processing and interpersonal skills facilitate the person to work through the main interpersonal problem. These processes can also feed into each other. The theory is well formed, but improvement in symptoms cannot be used to determine which process produced the improvement. === Enhancing social support === Depression can lead to isolation or a fear of rejection, which can decrease access to supports. Through IPT, people learn to recognize reliable relationships, communicate their needs and enhance relationships (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). The number of contacts is not as significant as the quality of the relationships, as shown in figure 2. Bian et al (2023) identified 11 RCTs and concluded that there was an evidence of social functioning improvement, along with a decrease in depression and anxiety. Improvements in overall functioning were not clear across all adult depression groups, but were clearer in adolescent and perinatal groups. Social functioning, however, is not synonymous with perceived support and better mood can motivate social connection as well. Thus, it is not a causal effect of the increase in support for emotional improvement. Think about it: Can a relationship offer support and be a source of emotional strain?[[File:Main_effect_model.png|right|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 2.''' Social relationships and social support can influence psychological wellbeing.]] === Reducing interpersonal stress === Emotional stress can be a continuous issue when there is conflict, rejection and unclear expectations. IPT assists people to identify these patterns, to express needs and to identify workable solutions. For instance, a friend who has different expectations about communication may minimize misunderstandings by talking about his or her needs. There may also be times when it is not possible to set limits or to end unhealthy relationships, but this can still help to lower stress when it is possible (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Lemmens et al. (2017) reported a greater improvement in interpersonal functioning in IPT compared to CT, but there was less evidence for IPT-specific mechanisms. Thus, lowering interpersonal stress could help with emotional recovery but would not be a process unique to IPT. What about this: When could it be better to set limits than to break up a relationship? === Facilitating emotional processing === IPT assists people to identify, acknowledge and process their feelings in key relationships. Household conflict, for instance, about household responsibilities, may be a sign of disappointment in terms of unequal household support. Understanding emotions can help to determine the message to convey. The sadness can be a sign of loss, and the anger can be a reflection of unmet expectations or boundaries. IPT promotes reflection (rather than reaction) (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). But the mechanism of emotional processing is still a possibility. Research has been conducted to assess depression symptoms but failed to establish that better awareness of the emotions is a prerequisite to recovery. Other therapies might be affected in similar ways, and it can be hard to conclude an IPT-specific effect (Lemmens et al., 2017). Think about it: What do you think might happen if you showed some feeling of disappointment to communicate your emotional needs? === Improving interpersonal skills === [[File:Two-people-talking-logo.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|'''Figure 3.''' IPT uses communication-focused techniques to help people practise more effective ways of interacting.]] Improving interpersonal skills IPT communication analysis and role play builds communication, resolves conflict and practises boundary setting. For instance, "I was sad when plans were cancelled" is a more productive message than "You don't care about me. Good communication can help to mitigate relationship stress and boost confidence (refer to Figure 3). Abapolnikova et al. (2026) reported that attachment security improvements in the subsequent years led to a decrease in depression symptoms. Other changes also took place in cognitive behavioural therapy, however, indicating that relational improvement could be a factor in emotional recovery that is not specific to IPT. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 3.''' Proposed interpersonal mechanisms of emotional change !Mechanism !What changes? !Possible emotional benefit |- |'''Enhanced social support''' |Supportive relationships become more available or accessible. |Reduced loneliness and greater belonging, reassurance, and coping resources. |- |'''Reduced interpersonal stress''' |Conflict, ambiguity, or unresolved relationship difficulties decrease. |Less repeated exposure to stressful emotional situations. |- |'''Emotional processing''' |Feelings are identified, understood, tolerated, and communicated. |Greater emotional clarity and more adaptive responses to difficult feelings. |- |'''Improved interpersonal skills''' |Communication and relationship-management skills become more effective. |Fewer misunderstandings and greater confidence in managing relationships. |} {{Robelbox|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best represents the central assumption of interpersonal psychotherapy? |type="()"} - Emotional difficulties are caused entirely by irrational thoughts. - The number of friendships a person has determines their emotional wellbeing. + Relationships and emotional symptoms can influence one another, so improving a current interpersonal problem may help reduce emotional distress. - IPT attempts to analyse every childhood relationship. {Which of the following is one of the proposed mechanisms of change in IPT? |type="()"} - Avoiding emotional discussion + Enhancing social support - Eliminating all interpersonal disagreement - Increasing dependence on the therapist {A person becomes distressed after moving to another country and struggling with changes in identity, friendships, and responsibilities. Which IPT problem area is most relevant? |type="()"} - Grief only - Interpersonal dispute + Role transition - Cognitive distortion {Why is communication analysis used in IPT? |type="()"} - To determine who is objectively responsible for an argument + To examine how an interaction occurred and identify more effective ways of communicating - To prevent the person from experiencing strong emotion - To increase the number of social contacts </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == IPT techniques in practice == IPT brings about change by focusing on interpersonal issues identified by techniques specific to the client's primary problem. The interpersonal inventory charts critical relationships, support, expectations, and conflict. Communication analysis focuses on specific communication interaction, with attention to differences between intended and received messages. Role-play gives the opportunity to rehearse alternative conversations in therapy before trying them out in real life. Affect exploration can be used to determine feelings of grief, anger, shame, disappointment or loneliness in a relationship. Decision analysis and interpersonal problem-solving helps the individual consider and compare realistic responses and their consequences. It is possible to combine these techniques: Knowledge of an emotional response can help clarify what communication is needed, and practising a different response can help reduce the stress of the next interaction (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013).'''Interpersonal inventory''' involves mapping important current relationships and considering their quality, expectations, communication patterns, sources of support, and areas of conflict. This helps identify where interpersonal difficulties and emotional symptoms may be connected.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Reflection exercise Imagine that a friend repeatedly cancels plans at the last minute. The person begins feeling rejected but never mentions this and instead gradually withdraws from the friendship. Consider the following: * What emotion might be communicating an unmet interpersonal need? * How could avoiding the conversation increase interpersonal stress? * What could be communicated more directly? * How might the relationship and emotional experience change if the conversation were handled constructively? This example illustrates the reciprocal cycle emphasised by IPT: emotion influences interpersonal behaviour, and interpersonal behaviour can subsequently influence emotion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What does the research show? == Research findings There is good evidence to support IPT, especially for depression. But making it work doesn't always give an explanation for how it works, or whether there is a direct link between change in relationships and emotional wellbeing. There are emotional symptoms and depression.There is depression, and emotional symptoms. Cuijpers et al. (2011) conducted a study of 38 studies with 4356 participants and determined that IPT significantly reduces depressive symptoms. A larger meta-analysis of 90 studies with 11,434 subjects found its effectiveness in acute depression (Cuijpers et al., 2016). Likewise, van Hees et al. (2013) found that IPT was effective for adults suffering from depression. But similar results found with different therapies indicate that there are similar therapeutic processes that can lead to improvement. Social skills and interactions Bian et al. (2023) conducted a review of 11 randomised trials and determined that there were improvements in social functioning, depression and anxiety, though this was not consistent across all broader functioning outcomes. There was evidence for greater interpersonal improvement in IPT than cognitive therapy (Lemmens et al., 2017), and limited evidence for treatment-specific mechanisms. These findings corroborate IPT's interpersonal model, but do not prove that alteration in interpersonal relationships leads to emotional improvement. More recently, Abapolnikova et al. (2026) examined attachment security as a possible mediator of depression improvement in IPT compared with cognitive behavioural therapy. Attachment security improved, and earlier increases were associated with lower later depression. However, the effect was not unique to IPT because similar change occurred in cognitive behavioural therapy. This suggests that relational improvement may sometimes operate as a broader psychotherapy process rather than an exclusively IPT-specific mechanism. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Research caution:''' Evidence that IPT ''works'' is stronger than evidence proving exactly ''how'' it works. Relationship functioning, attachment, social support, and symptoms can improve together, but stronger longitudinal and mediation studies are needed to determine whether interpersonal changes specifically cause later emotional improvement. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Critical evaluation == Despite the fact that there is some evidence for the effectiveness of IPT in the treatment of depression, the majority of research has been conducted in clinical populations and hence has limited generalisability to the day-to-day context of emotional wellbeing. In addition, relationships and emotions are interrelated: positive mood can foster a sense of connection and emotions, and positive relationships can foster positive mood. Multiple observations are required to establish causality, therefore. Participant expectations and shared therapeutic processes may also lead to comparisons with other treatments. Another limitation is individual differences. Bernecker et al. (2017) identified a small number of consistent features which distinguished the more effective alternative therapies from IPT. Therefore, the suitability of treatment should take into account the individual's symptoms, preferences and cultural context. Overall, the effect of IPT is plausible and can be attributed to changes in social support, interpersonal stress, emotional processing and interpersonal skills. The mechanisms, however, are not yet fully understood as causal pathways and research on how IPT works is still developing compared to evidence supporting its effectiveness (Lemmens et al., 2017; Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). == Applying the model: Return to the scenario == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Sam's interpersonal change At the beginning of the chapter, Sam was struggling after moving away from familiar relationships. The transition was followed by loneliness, withdrawal, and increasing conflict. From an IPT perspective, the move could be understood as a '''role transition'''. Therapy could examine both what had been lost and what the new role required. As Sam begins reconnecting with existing friends and developing supportive new relationships, '''social support''' increases. By discussing expectations directly rather than withdrawing after disagreements, '''interpersonal stress''' may decrease. By recognising loneliness, disappointment, and fear of rejection rather than avoiding these emotions, '''emotional processing''' becomes possible. Finally, practising clearer requests for support and more direct conversations may strengthen '''interpersonal skills'''. These changes can reinforce one another. Improved communication may produce more supportive interactions; supportive interactions may reduce loneliness; improved mood may make further social engagement easier. Emotional and interpersonal improvement can therefore develop as a reciprocal process rather than a single one-way cause. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == IPT links emotion with relationship and social contexts where emotions are experienced. It concentrates on issues in current interpersonal relationships that are meaningful, such as loss, conflict, change, and ongoing interpersonal challenges. The four mechanisms suggested (amplifying social support, diminishing interpersonal stress, enabling emotional processing, and enhancing interpersonal skills) account for the possible emotional benefits of relationship changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Meta-analyses have yielded significant evidence for the efficacy of IPT in reducing depressive symptoms and research also points at improvement in interpersonal and social functioning (Bian et al., 2023; Cuijpers et al., 2016). But these results do not confirm that the changes in relationships are the only cause of emotional improvement. There are other processes (such as attachment, therapeutic support) that may play a role in various treatments. The message to take away is that the relationship between feelings and existing relationships is evident; that it is important to find a reliable support system; to communicate interpersonal needs openly and effectively; and to engage in conflict resolution in a constructive manner where it is safe to do so. These can be incorporated into day to day wellbeing and treatment options should continue to be tailored to individual circumstances and evidence. Take-home message: IPT can be used as evidence-based treatment for depression, targeting key interpersonal issues. Better relationships is one possible route to a better emotional wellbeing, however, the research is ongoing to understand what changes bring the benefits and to which individuals.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take home message:''' Emotional wellbeing is closely connected with interpersonal life. IPT helps people address relationship problems linked to emotional distress by strengthening support, reducing interpersonal stress, processing emotions, and developing more effective interpersonal skills. Evidence strongly supports IPT's effectiveness for depression, although research is still determining exactly how much of this improvement is specifically caused by changes in relationships. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal psychotherapy|Interpersonal psychotherapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Attachment theory|Attachment theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social support|Social support]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal relationship|Interpersonal relationship]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotion]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abapolnikova, M., Coyne, A. E., Glushka, L., Liu, C. J., Constantino, M. J., Atkinson, L. R., Bagby, R. M., Ravitz, P., & McBride, C. (2026). Does attachment change serve as a theory-specific mediator of depression reduction in interpersonal psychotherapy versus cognitive behavioral therapy? ''Psychotherapy Research''. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2026.2656698 Bernecker, S. L., Coyne, A. E., Constantino, M. J., & Ravitz, P. (2017). For whom does interpersonal psychotherapy work? A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 56'', 82–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.07.001 Bian, C., Zhao, W.-W., Yan, S.-R., Chen, S.-Y., Cheng, Y., & Zhang, Y.-H. (2023). Effect of interpersonal psychotherapy on social functioning, overall functioning and negative emotions for depression: A meta-analysis. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 320'', 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.119 Cuijpers, P., Donker, T., Weissman, M. M., Ravitz, P., & Cristea, I. A. (2016). Interpersonal psychotherapy for mental health problems: A comprehensive meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 173''(7), 680–687. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15091141 Cuijpers, P., Geraedts, A. S., van Oppen, P., Andersson, G., Markowitz, J. C., & van Straten, A. (2011). Interpersonal psychotherapy for depression: A meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 168''(6), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10101411 Duffy, F., Sharpe, H., & Schwannauer, M. (2019). Review: The effectiveness of interpersonal psychotherapy for adolescents with depression – A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 24''(4), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12342 Lemmens, L. H. J. M., Galindo-Garre, F., Arntz, A., Peeters, F., Hollon, S. D., DeRubeis, R. J., & Huibers, M. J. H. (2017). Exploring mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy for adult depression. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 94'', 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.005 Lipsitz, J. D., & Markowitz, J. C. (2013). Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy (IPT). ''Clinical Psychology Review, 33''(8), 1134–1147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.09.002 Markowitz, J. C., & Weissman, M. M. (2012). Interpersonal psychotherapy: Past, present and future. ''Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19''(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1774 Mufson, L., Dorta, K. P., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Olfson, M., & Weissman, M. M. (2004). A randomized effectiveness trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. ''Archives of General Psychiatry, 61''(6), 577–584. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.6.577 Sockol, L. E. (2018). A systematic review and meta-analysis of interpersonal psychotherapy for perinatal women. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 232'', 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.01.018 Stuart, S., Schultz, J., Palmer Molina, A., & Siber-Sanderowitz, S. (2024). Interpersonal psychotherapy: A review of theory, history, and evidence of efficacy. ''Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 52''(3), 370–407. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2024.52.3.370 Uncu, B., & Doğan, E. (2026). Effects of interpersonal psychotherapy on postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. ''Journal of Psychiatric Research, 198'', 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2026.03.038 van Hees, M. L. J. M., Rotter, T., Ellermann, T., & Evers, S. M. A. A. (2013). The effectiveness of individual interpersonal psychotherapy as a treatment for major depressive disorder in adult outpatients: A systematic review. ''BMC Psychiatry, 13'', Article 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-22}} == External links == * [https://interpersonalpsychotherapy.org/ipt-basics/overview-of-ipt/ Overview of interpersonal psychotherapy] (International Society of Interpersonal Psychotherapy) * [https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MSD-MER-16.4 Group interpersonal therapy for depression] (World Health Organization) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4109031/ Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy] (National Library of Medicine) * The existing chapter was reviewed for content with the help of ChatGPT (OpenAI), which provided feedback on its content and offered suggestions to improve the structure, clarity, and language of the existing chapter. Feedback was given on how to improve some of the areas that were identified and how to make the theory and research more integrated. All work and research is my own. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] aslwzyn555wtmbpdvblnic3cd8yvaus 2842716 2842714 2026-10-26T21:28:38Z U3280122 3110471 2842716 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion: <br>How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Conversation - RWiC.png|thumb|right|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Supportive conversation can create opportunities to express emotions, clarify interpersonal problems, and strengthen social connection.]] ;Scenario Sam recently moved to a new city to begin university. Although the move was exciting, it also meant leaving close friends and family behind. Over time, Sam began feeling lonely, irritable, and emotionally exhausted. Calls with family became shorter, disagreements with a close friend became more frequent, and Sam started avoiding social activities. When Sam began interpersonal psychotherapy, it did not focus only on the feelings of sadness. Instead, Sam and the therapist explored how the recent life transition had changed important relationships. Sam began identifying feelings of loneliness and disappointment, communicating needs more clearly, reconnecting with supportive people, and developing new friendships. As these relationships became more supportive and less stressful, Sam's mood gradually improved. The interpersonal situation had changed, but so had Sam's emotional experience. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Figure 1. Supportive conversation can provide a space for emotional expression, problem solving around interpersonal issues and build social bonds. Keep the original image credit and licence. Relationships can give us a sense of belonging, emotional security and practical support, and they can also be a source of conflict, loss and rejection. Emotional issues can affect communication, retreats and reaction to conflict. This can form a vicious cycle, as interpersonal issues increase distress and emotional distress can cause interpersonal issues (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012; Stuart et al., 2024). Interpersonal Psychotherapy is a time-limited, structured psychotherapy that targets the present interpersonal context. IPT was originally designed for the treatment of depression, but it has also been shown to be effective in treating other key interpersonal problems and adapting to social role changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). This chapter reviews four potential mechanisms: increase in social support, decrease in interpersonal stress, emotional processing, and interpersonal skills. It also takes into account if research has shown how these changes contribute to emotional wellbeing.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ;Focus questions * What is interpersonal psychotherapy and how does it connect relationships with emotion? * Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? * Through which psychological mechanisms can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? * What does research show about the effectiveness and limitations of IPT? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is interpersonal psychotherapy? == IPT works on the current interpersonal problems and their relationship to emotional symptoms. Therapists and clients agree that during treatment, a major relationship issue that needs to be corrected is present, generally requiring about 12–16 sessions per week for depression (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). IPT has also been modified for various age groups and psychological states (Cuijpers et al., 2016). The interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and social support and life stress research literature are drawn on to support the foundations of IPT. Both Sullivan's interpersonal theory and Bowlby's attachment theory stress the importance of relationships to feelings of distress, and emotional security through relationships that are dependable, respectively. The early attachment experiences are not a primary focus of IPT, however, and attachment change is not exclusive to IPT (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). === The interpersonal perspective === IPT was influenced by interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and research examining the relationship between stressful life events, social support, and mental health (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). Its central assumption is reciprocal: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Interpersonal difficulty → emotional distress → further interpersonal difficulty''' For example, conflict may increase sadness and anxiety. Those emotions may then contribute to withdrawal, irritability, avoidance, or ineffective communication, which can create additional conflict. IPT attempts to interrupt this cycle by improving the interpersonal situation while helping the person understand and communicate emotion more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Sadness, anger and loneliness are all associated with interpersonal challenges, such as loss, conflict or unmet needs for interpersonal connection. IPT assists people identify these emotions and grasp their interpersonal situation (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). A review of 38 studies (4,356 subjects) by Cuijpers et al. (2011) showed that IPT was effective in reducing depression. A second larger meta-analysis of 90 studies with 11,434 participants also found IPT effective, but with relatively few differences from other proven psychotherapies (Cuijpers et al., 2016). These results are not sufficient, however, to conclude that the relationship change is the only process that is effective for improving outcomes, since other therapeutic processes may be effective. === How IPT is structured === IPT generally consists of three stages: initial stage, middle phase, and termination phase. The first phase is the identification of symptoms and primary interpersonal problem. The second phase is the emotional exploration, communication analysis and practical strategies to that problem. During the last stage, progress is assessed and preparations are made for future challenges. Table 1 provides a summary of the relationship of each stage and emotional wellbeing (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Main phases of interpersonal psychotherapy !Phase !Main tasks !Connection with emotional wellbeing |- |'''Initial phase''' |Identify emotional symptoms, complete an interpersonal inventory, explore important relationships, and select a central interpersonal focus. |Helps connect emotional distress with significant current relationships and life events. |- |'''Middle phase''' |Work actively on the selected interpersonal problem using emotional exploration, communication analysis, problem-solving, and role-play. |Provides opportunities to reduce relationship stress, express emotions, and develop more effective interpersonal responses. |- |'''Termination phase''' |Review progress, discuss feelings about ending therapy, consolidate interpersonal skills, and identify strategies for future difficulties. |Strengthens confidence in maintaining supportive relationships and managing future emotional challenges. |} Note. Based on the IPT framework discussed by Markowitz and Weissman (2012) and Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013). == Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? == IPT has traditionally emphasized a few interpersonal problem areas. Choosing a primary problem can make therapy more real and manageable, but it can be hard to establish one primary problem, especially when there are multiple difficulties that may overlap (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). The areas are summarised in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Common IPT interpersonal problem areas !Problem area !What it involves !Example |- |'''Grief and loss''' |Emotional difficulty following the death or significant loss of an important person. |Someone becomes socially isolated and depressed following the death of a partner. |- |'''Role disputes''' |Conflict caused by different expectations between the person and someone important to them. |Two partners repeatedly argue because each expects different levels of emotional support. |- |'''Role transitions''' |Difficulty adapting to a major life change that alters identity, responsibilities, or relationships. |Starting university, becoming a parent, migrating, divorce, retirement, or changing employment. |- |'''Interpersonal sensitivities or deficits''' |Persistent difficulty initiating, maintaining, or feeling secure within relationships. |A person feels disconnected from others and finds it difficult to form supportive friendships. |} The categories are especially important because emotional experiences can be linked to relationship changes and social expectations. Sam's going on to university is a role transition, for instance, in which he is leaving behind those he already knows and has an unknown identity and is facing the difficulty of making relationships. During a role conflict the focus may rather be on articulating expectations, establishing boundaries, or re-negotiating a relationship. IPT does not mean that all relationships need to be maintained, sometimes it is more appropriate to recognise boundaries or end an unhealthy relationship. Practical application of IPT is demonstrated with research on life transitions. In a systematic review, Sockol (2018) noted that the IPT intervention was able to decrease symptoms of perinatal depression and anxiety and enhance some interpersonal functions. In a similar fashion, Uncu and Doğan (2026) analysed 9 RCTs with 1269 participants, and observed that there were decreases in PP depressive symptoms relative to routine care. The results are in line with the IPT goal of role transition, but do not prove that a role transition effort led to improvement, as a comparison with routine care is not possible.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key point:''' IPT does not simply aim to make a person "more social". The goal is to identify the interpersonal situation most closely connected to current emotional distress and help the person respond to it more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? == Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013) outline 4 proposed mechanisms of change in IPT. In their model, the main interpersonal problem can be resolved thus increasing social support and decreasing interpersonal stress, whereas, emotional processing and interpersonal skills facilitate the person to work through the main interpersonal problem. These processes can also feed into each other. The theory is well formed, but improvement in symptoms cannot be used to determine which process produced the improvement. === Enhancing social support === Depression can lead to isolation or a fear of rejection, which can decrease access to supports. Through IPT, people learn to recognize reliable relationships, communicate their needs and enhance relationships (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). The number of contacts is not as significant as the quality of the relationships, as shown in figure 2. Bian et al (2023) identified 11 RCTs and concluded that there was an evidence of social functioning improvement, along with a decrease in depression and anxiety. Improvements in overall functioning were not clear across all adult depression groups, but were clearer in adolescent and perinatal groups. Social functioning, however, is not synonymous with perceived support and better mood can motivate social connection as well. Thus, it is not a causal effect of the increase in support for emotional improvement. Think about it: Can a relationship offer support and be a source of emotional strain?[[File:Main_effect_model.png|right|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 2.''' Social relationships and social support can influence psychological wellbeing.]] === Reducing interpersonal stress === Emotional stress can be a continuous issue when there is conflict, rejection and unclear expectations. IPT assists people to identify these patterns, to express needs and to identify workable solutions. For instance, a friend who has different expectations about communication may minimize misunderstandings by talking about his or her needs. There may also be times when it is not possible to set limits or to end unhealthy relationships, but this can still help to lower stress when it is possible (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Lemmens et al. (2017) reported a greater improvement in interpersonal functioning in IPT compared to CT, but there was less evidence for IPT-specific mechanisms. Thus, lowering interpersonal stress could help with emotional recovery but would not be a process unique to IPT. What about this: When could it be better to set limits than to break up a relationship? === Facilitating emotional processing === IPT assists people to identify, acknowledge and process their feelings in key relationships. Household conflict, for instance, about household responsibilities, may be a sign of disappointment in terms of unequal household support. Understanding emotions can help to determine the message to convey. The sadness can be a sign of loss, and the anger can be a reflection of unmet expectations or boundaries. IPT promotes reflection (rather than reaction) (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). But the mechanism of emotional processing is still a possibility. Research has been conducted to assess depression symptoms but failed to establish that better awareness of the emotions is a prerequisite to recovery. Other therapies might be affected in similar ways, and it can be hard to conclude an IPT-specific effect (Lemmens et al., 2017). Think about it: What do you think might happen if you showed some feeling of disappointment to communicate your emotional needs? === Improving interpersonal skills === [[File:Two-people-talking-logo.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|'''Figure 3.''' IPT uses communication-focused techniques to help people practise more effective ways of interacting.]] Communication analysis and role-play are incorporated in IPT to enhance communication skills, conflict management and practice boundaries. More explicit expression may help decrease relationship stress and help develop confidence (as illustrated in Figure 3). Later decreases in depression were related to better attachment security, as reported by Abapolnikova et al. (2026). But, as with CBT, there were also similar changes. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 3.''' Proposed interpersonal mechanisms of emotional change !Mechanism !What changes? !Possible emotional benefit |- |'''Enhanced social support''' |Supportive relationships become more available or accessible. |Reduced loneliness and greater belonging, reassurance, and coping resources. |- |'''Reduced interpersonal stress''' |Conflict, ambiguity, or unresolved relationship difficulties decrease. |Less repeated exposure to stressful emotional situations. |- |'''Emotional processing''' |Feelings are identified, understood, tolerated, and communicated. |Greater emotional clarity and more adaptive responses to difficult feelings. |- |'''Improved interpersonal skills''' |Communication and relationship-management skills become more effective. |Fewer misunderstandings and greater confidence in managing relationships. |} {{Robelbox|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best represents the central assumption of interpersonal psychotherapy? |type="()"} - Emotional difficulties are caused entirely by irrational thoughts. - The number of friendships a person has determines their emotional wellbeing. + Relationships and emotional symptoms can influence one another, so improving a current interpersonal problem may help reduce emotional distress. - IPT attempts to analyse every childhood relationship. {Which of the following is one of the proposed mechanisms of change in IPT? |type="()"} - Avoiding emotional discussion + Enhancing social support - Eliminating all interpersonal disagreement - Increasing dependence on the therapist {A person becomes distressed after moving to another country and struggling with changes in identity, friendships, and responsibilities. Which IPT problem area is most relevant? |type="()"} - Grief only - Interpersonal dispute + Role transition - Cognitive distortion {Why is communication analysis used in IPT? |type="()"} - To determine who is objectively responsible for an argument + To examine how an interaction occurred and identify more effective ways of communicating - To prevent the person from experiencing strong emotion - To increase the number of social contacts </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == IPT techniques in practice == IPT brings about change by focusing on interpersonal issues identified by techniques specific to the client's primary problem. The interpersonal inventory charts critical relationships, support, expectations, and conflict. Communication analysis focuses on specific communication interaction, with attention to differences between intended and received messages. Role-play gives the opportunity to rehearse alternative conversations in therapy before trying them out in real life. Affect exploration can be used to determine feelings of grief, anger, shame, disappointment or loneliness in a relationship. Decision analysis and interpersonal problem-solving helps the individual consider and compare realistic responses and their consequences. It is possible to combine these techniques: Knowledge of an emotional response can help clarify what communication is needed, and practising a different response can help reduce the stress of the next interaction (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013).'''Interpersonal inventory''' involves mapping important current relationships and considering their quality, expectations, communication patterns, sources of support, and areas of conflict. This helps identify where interpersonal difficulties and emotional symptoms may be connected.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Reflection exercise Imagine that a friend repeatedly cancels plans at the last minute. The person begins feeling rejected but never mentions this and instead gradually withdraws from the friendship. Consider the following: * What emotion might be communicating an unmet interpersonal need? * How could avoiding the conversation increase interpersonal stress? * What could be communicated more directly? * How might the relationship and emotional experience change if the conversation were handled constructively? This example illustrates the reciprocal cycle emphasised by IPT: emotion influences interpersonal behaviour, and interpersonal behaviour can subsequently influence emotion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What does the research show? == Research findings There is good evidence to support IPT, especially for depression. But making it work doesn't always give an explanation for how it works, or whether there is a direct link between change in relationships and emotional wellbeing. There are emotional symptoms and depression.There is depression, and emotional symptoms. Cuijpers et al. (2011) conducted a study of 38 studies with 4356 participants and determined that IPT significantly reduces depressive symptoms. A larger meta-analysis of 90 studies with 11,434 subjects found its effectiveness in acute depression (Cuijpers et al., 2016). Likewise, van Hees et al. (2013) found that IPT was effective for adults suffering from depression. But similar results found with different therapies indicate that there are similar therapeutic processes that can lead to improvement. Social skills and interactions Bian et al. (2023) conducted a review of 11 randomised trials and determined that there were improvements in social functioning, depression and anxiety, though this was not consistent across all broader functioning outcomes. There was evidence for greater interpersonal improvement in IPT than cognitive therapy (Lemmens et al., 2017), and limited evidence for treatment-specific mechanisms. These findings corroborate IPT's interpersonal model, but do not prove that alteration in interpersonal relationships leads to emotional improvement. More recently, Abapolnikova et al. (2026) examined attachment security as a possible mediator of depression improvement in IPT compared with cognitive behavioural therapy. Attachment security improved, and earlier increases were associated with lower later depression. However, the effect was not unique to IPT because similar change occurred in cognitive behavioural therapy. This suggests that relational improvement may sometimes operate as a broader psychotherapy process rather than an exclusively IPT-specific mechanism. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Research caution:''' Evidence that IPT ''works'' is stronger than evidence proving exactly ''how'' it works. Relationship functioning, attachment, social support, and symptoms can improve together, but stronger longitudinal and mediation studies are needed to determine whether interpersonal changes specifically cause later emotional improvement. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Critical evaluation == Despite the fact that there is some evidence for the effectiveness of IPT in the treatment of depression, the majority of research has been conducted in clinical populations and hence has limited generalisability to the day-to-day context of emotional wellbeing. In addition, relationships and emotions are interrelated: positive mood can foster a sense of connection and emotions, and positive relationships can foster positive mood. Multiple observations are required to establish causality, therefore. Participant expectations and shared therapeutic processes may also lead to comparisons with other treatments. Another limitation is individual differences. Bernecker et al. (2017) identified a small number of consistent features which distinguished the more effective alternative therapies from IPT. Therefore, the suitability of treatment should take into account the individual's symptoms, preferences and cultural context. Overall, the effect of IPT is plausible and can be attributed to changes in social support, interpersonal stress, emotional processing and interpersonal skills. The mechanisms, however, are not yet fully understood as causal pathways and research on how IPT works is still developing compared to evidence supporting its effectiveness (Lemmens et al., 2017; Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). == Applying the model: Return to the scenario == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Sam's interpersonal change At the beginning of the chapter, Sam was struggling after moving away from familiar relationships. The transition was followed by loneliness, withdrawal, and increasing conflict. From an IPT perspective, the move could be understood as a '''role transition'''. Therapy could examine both what had been lost and what the new role required. As Sam begins reconnecting with existing friends and developing supportive new relationships, '''social support''' increases. By discussing expectations directly rather than withdrawing after disagreements, '''interpersonal stress''' may decrease. By recognising loneliness, disappointment, and fear of rejection rather than avoiding these emotions, '''emotional processing''' becomes possible. Finally, practising clearer requests for support and more direct conversations may strengthen '''interpersonal skills'''. These changes can reinforce one another. Improved communication may produce more supportive interactions; supportive interactions may reduce loneliness; improved mood may make further social engagement easier. Emotional and interpersonal improvement can therefore develop as a reciprocal process rather than a single one-way cause. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == IPT links emotion with relationship and social contexts where emotions are experienced. It concentrates on issues in current interpersonal relationships that are meaningful, such as loss, conflict, change, and ongoing interpersonal challenges. The four mechanisms suggested (amplifying social support, diminishing interpersonal stress, enabling emotional processing, and enhancing interpersonal skills) account for the possible emotional benefits of relationship changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Meta-analyses have yielded significant evidence for the efficacy of IPT in reducing depressive symptoms and research also points at improvement in interpersonal and social functioning (Bian et al., 2023; Cuijpers et al., 2016). But these results do not confirm that the changes in relationships are the only cause of emotional improvement. There are other processes (such as attachment, therapeutic support) that may play a role in various treatments. The message to take away is that the relationship between feelings and existing relationships is evident; that it is important to find a reliable support system; to communicate interpersonal needs openly and effectively; and to engage in conflict resolution in a constructive manner where it is safe to do so. These can be incorporated into day to day wellbeing and treatment options should continue to be tailored to individual circumstances and evidence. Take-home message: IPT can be used as evidence-based treatment for depression, targeting key interpersonal issues. Better relationships is one possible route to a better emotional wellbeing, however, the research is ongoing to understand what changes bring the benefits and to which individuals.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take home message:''' Emotional wellbeing is closely connected with interpersonal life. IPT helps people address relationship problems linked to emotional distress by strengthening support, reducing interpersonal stress, processing emotions, and developing more effective interpersonal skills. Evidence strongly supports IPT's effectiveness for depression, although research is still determining exactly how much of this improvement is specifically caused by changes in relationships. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal psychotherapy|Interpersonal psychotherapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Attachment theory|Attachment theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social support|Social support]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal relationship|Interpersonal relationship]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotion]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abapolnikova, M., Coyne, A. E., Glushka, L., Liu, C. J., Constantino, M. J., Atkinson, L. R., Bagby, R. M., Ravitz, P., & McBride, C. (2026). Does attachment change serve as a theory-specific mediator of depression reduction in interpersonal psychotherapy versus cognitive behavioral therapy? ''Psychotherapy Research''. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2026.2656698 Bernecker, S. L., Coyne, A. E., Constantino, M. J., & Ravitz, P. (2017). For whom does interpersonal psychotherapy work? A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 56'', 82–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.07.001 Bian, C., Zhao, W.-W., Yan, S.-R., Chen, S.-Y., Cheng, Y., & Zhang, Y.-H. (2023). Effect of interpersonal psychotherapy on social functioning, overall functioning and negative emotions for depression: A meta-analysis. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 320'', 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.119 Cuijpers, P., Donker, T., Weissman, M. M., Ravitz, P., & Cristea, I. A. (2016). Interpersonal psychotherapy for mental health problems: A comprehensive meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 173''(7), 680–687. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15091141 Cuijpers, P., Geraedts, A. S., van Oppen, P., Andersson, G., Markowitz, J. C., & van Straten, A. (2011). Interpersonal psychotherapy for depression: A meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 168''(6), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10101411 Duffy, F., Sharpe, H., & Schwannauer, M. (2019). Review: The effectiveness of interpersonal psychotherapy for adolescents with depression – A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 24''(4), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12342 Lemmens, L. H. J. M., Galindo-Garre, F., Arntz, A., Peeters, F., Hollon, S. D., DeRubeis, R. J., & Huibers, M. J. H. (2017). Exploring mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy for adult depression. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 94'', 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.005 Lipsitz, J. D., & Markowitz, J. C. (2013). Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy (IPT). ''Clinical Psychology Review, 33''(8), 1134–1147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.09.002 Markowitz, J. C., & Weissman, M. M. (2012). Interpersonal psychotherapy: Past, present and future. ''Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19''(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1774 Mufson, L., Dorta, K. P., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Olfson, M., & Weissman, M. M. (2004). A randomized effectiveness trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. ''Archives of General Psychiatry, 61''(6), 577–584. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.6.577 Sockol, L. E. (2018). A systematic review and meta-analysis of interpersonal psychotherapy for perinatal women. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 232'', 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.01.018 Stuart, S., Schultz, J., Palmer Molina, A., & Siber-Sanderowitz, S. (2024). Interpersonal psychotherapy: A review of theory, history, and evidence of efficacy. ''Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 52''(3), 370–407. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2024.52.3.370 Uncu, B., & Doğan, E. (2026). Effects of interpersonal psychotherapy on postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. ''Journal of Psychiatric Research, 198'', 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2026.03.038 van Hees, M. L. J. M., Rotter, T., Ellermann, T., & Evers, S. M. A. A. (2013). The effectiveness of individual interpersonal psychotherapy as a treatment for major depressive disorder in adult outpatients: A systematic review. ''BMC Psychiatry, 13'', Article 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-22}} == External links == * [https://interpersonalpsychotherapy.org/ipt-basics/overview-of-ipt/ Overview of interpersonal psychotherapy] (International Society of Interpersonal Psychotherapy) * [https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MSD-MER-16.4 Group interpersonal therapy for depression] (World Health Organization) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4109031/ Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy] (National Library of Medicine) * Feedback, wording and structure were reviewed, refined and enhanced with the support of ChatGPT (OpenAI) and the integration of theory and research was enhanced. Prompts were to cut and improve parts of my chapter. All the initial draft and research are my own work. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] gs7q9pmybijpfhwt2yyt5mr88qz5fha 2842718 2842716 2026-10-26T21:30:50Z U3280122 3110471 2842718 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion: <br>How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Conversation - RWiC.png|thumb|right|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Supportive conversation can create opportunities to express emotions, clarify interpersonal problems, and strengthen social connection.]] ;Scenario Sam recently moved to a new city to begin university. Although the move was exciting, it also meant leaving close friends and family behind. Over time, Sam began feeling lonely, irritable, and emotionally exhausted. Calls with family became shorter, disagreements with a close friend became more frequent, and Sam started avoiding social activities. When Sam began interpersonal psychotherapy, it did not focus only on the feelings of sadness. Instead, Sam and the therapist explored how the recent life transition had changed important relationships. Sam began identifying feelings of loneliness and disappointment, communicating needs more clearly, reconnecting with supportive people, and developing new friendships. As these relationships became more supportive and less stressful, Sam's mood gradually improved. The interpersonal situation had changed, but so had Sam's emotional experience. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Figure 1. Supportive conversations include emotional expression, interpersonal problem-solving and interpersonal connection. Relations offer relationships feelings of belonging and emotional support, but they can also involve conflict and loss. Emotional upset can interfere with communication, leading to a vicious cycle whereby relationship struggles and emotional issues get reinforced (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012; Stuart et al., 2024). Interpersonal Psychotherapy is a time-limited, structured psychotherapy that targets the present interpersonal context. IPT was originally designed for the treatment of depression, but it has also been shown to be effective in treating other key interpersonal problems and adapting to social role changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). This chapter reviews four potential mechanisms: increase in social support, decrease in interpersonal stress, emotional processing, and interpersonal skills. It also takes into account if research has shown how these changes contribute to emotional wellbeing.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ;Focus questions * What is interpersonal psychotherapy and how does it connect relationships with emotion? * Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? * Through which psychological mechanisms can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? * What does research show about the effectiveness and limitations of IPT? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is interpersonal psychotherapy? == IPT works on the current interpersonal problems and their relationship to emotional symptoms. Therapists and clients agree that during treatment, a major relationship issue that needs to be corrected is present, generally requiring about 12–16 sessions per week for depression (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). IPT has also been modified for various age groups and psychological states (Cuijpers et al., 2016). The interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and social support and life stress research literature are drawn on to support the foundations of IPT. Both Sullivan's interpersonal theory and Bowlby's attachment theory stress the importance of relationships to feelings of distress, and emotional security through relationships that are dependable, respectively. The early attachment experiences are not a primary focus of IPT, however, and attachment change is not exclusive to IPT (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). === The interpersonal perspective === IPT was influenced by interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and research examining the relationship between stressful life events, social support, and mental health (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). Its central assumption is reciprocal: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Interpersonal difficulty → emotional distress → further interpersonal difficulty''' For example, conflict may increase sadness and anxiety. Those emotions may then contribute to withdrawal, irritability, avoidance, or ineffective communication, which can create additional conflict. IPT attempts to interrupt this cycle by improving the interpersonal situation while helping the person understand and communicate emotion more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Sadness, anger and loneliness are all associated with interpersonal challenges, such as loss, conflict or unmet needs for interpersonal connection. IPT assists people identify these emotions and grasp their interpersonal situation (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). A review of 38 studies (4,356 subjects) by Cuijpers et al. (2011) showed that IPT was effective in reducing depression. A second larger meta-analysis of 90 studies with 11,434 participants also found IPT effective, but with relatively few differences from other proven psychotherapies (Cuijpers et al., 2016). These results are not sufficient, however, to conclude that the relationship change is the only process that is effective for improving outcomes, since other therapeutic processes may be effective. === How IPT is structured === IPT generally consists of three stages: initial stage, middle phase, and termination phase. The first phase is the identification of symptoms and primary interpersonal problem. The second phase is the emotional exploration, communication analysis and practical strategies to that problem. During the last stage, progress is assessed and preparations are made for future challenges. Table 1 provides a summary of the relationship of each stage and emotional wellbeing (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Main phases of interpersonal psychotherapy !Phase !Main tasks !Connection with emotional wellbeing |- |'''Initial phase''' |Identify emotional symptoms, complete an interpersonal inventory, explore important relationships, and select a central interpersonal focus. |Helps connect emotional distress with significant current relationships and life events. |- |'''Middle phase''' |Work actively on the selected interpersonal problem using emotional exploration, communication analysis, problem-solving, and role-play. |Provides opportunities to reduce relationship stress, express emotions, and develop more effective interpersonal responses. |- |'''Termination phase''' |Review progress, discuss feelings about ending therapy, consolidate interpersonal skills, and identify strategies for future difficulties. |Strengthens confidence in maintaining supportive relationships and managing future emotional challenges. |} Note. Based on the IPT framework discussed by Markowitz and Weissman (2012) and Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013). == Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? == IPT has traditionally emphasized a few interpersonal problem areas. Choosing a primary problem can make therapy more real and manageable, but it can be hard to establish one primary problem, especially when there are multiple difficulties that may overlap (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). The areas are summarised in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Common IPT interpersonal problem areas !Problem area !What it involves !Example |- |'''Grief and loss''' |Emotional difficulty following the death or significant loss of an important person. |Someone becomes socially isolated and depressed following the death of a partner. |- |'''Role disputes''' |Conflict caused by different expectations between the person and someone important to them. |Two partners repeatedly argue because each expects different levels of emotional support. |- |'''Role transitions''' |Difficulty adapting to a major life change that alters identity, responsibilities, or relationships. |Starting university, becoming a parent, migrating, divorce, retirement, or changing employment. |- |'''Interpersonal sensitivities or deficits''' |Persistent difficulty initiating, maintaining, or feeling secure within relationships. |A person feels disconnected from others and finds it difficult to form supportive friendships. |} The categories are especially important because emotional experiences can be linked to relationship changes and social expectations. Sam's going on to university is a role transition, for instance, in which he is leaving behind those he already knows and has an unknown identity and is facing the difficulty of making relationships. During a role conflict the focus may rather be on articulating expectations, establishing boundaries, or re-negotiating a relationship. IPT does not mean that all relationships need to be maintained, sometimes it is more appropriate to recognise boundaries or end an unhealthy relationship. Practical application of IPT is demonstrated with research on life transitions. In a systematic review, Sockol (2018) noted that the IPT intervention was able to decrease symptoms of perinatal depression and anxiety and enhance some interpersonal functions. In a similar fashion, Uncu and Doğan (2026) analysed 9 RCTs with 1269 participants, and observed that there were decreases in PP depressive symptoms relative to routine care. The results are in line with the IPT goal of role transition, but do not prove that a role transition effort led to improvement, as a comparison with routine care is not possible.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key point:''' IPT does not simply aim to make a person "more social". The goal is to identify the interpersonal situation most closely connected to current emotional distress and help the person respond to it more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? == Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013) outline 4 proposed mechanisms of change in IPT. In their model, the main interpersonal problem can be resolved thus increasing social support and decreasing interpersonal stress, whereas, emotional processing and interpersonal skills facilitate the person to work through the main interpersonal problem. These processes can also feed into each other. The theory is well formed, but improvement in symptoms cannot be used to determine which process produced the improvement. === Enhancing social support === Depression can lead to isolation or a fear of rejection, which can decrease access to supports. Through IPT, people learn to recognize reliable relationships, communicate their needs and enhance relationships (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). The number of contacts is not as significant as the quality of the relationships, as shown in figure 2. Bian et al (2023) identified 11 RCTs and concluded that there was an evidence of social functioning improvement, along with a decrease in depression and anxiety. Improvements in overall functioning were not clear across all adult depression groups, but were clearer in adolescent and perinatal groups. Social functioning, however, is not synonymous with perceived support and better mood can motivate social connection as well. Thus, it is not a causal effect of the increase in support for emotional improvement. Think about it: Can a relationship offer support and be a source of emotional strain?[[File:Main_effect_model.png|right|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 2.''' Social relationships and social support can influence psychological wellbeing.]] === Reducing interpersonal stress === Emotional stress can be a continuous issue when there is conflict, rejection and unclear expectations. IPT assists people to identify these patterns, to express needs and to identify workable solutions. For instance, a friend who has different expectations about communication may minimize misunderstandings by talking about his or her needs. There may also be times when it is not possible to set limits or to end unhealthy relationships, but this can still help to lower stress when it is possible (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Lemmens et al. (2017) reported a greater improvement in interpersonal functioning in IPT compared to CT, but there was less evidence for IPT-specific mechanisms. Thus, lowering interpersonal stress could help with emotional recovery but would not be a process unique to IPT. What about this: When could it be better to set limits than to break up a relationship? === Facilitating emotional processing === IPT assists people to identify, acknowledge and process their feelings in key relationships. Household conflict, for instance, about household responsibilities, may be a sign of disappointment in terms of unequal household support. Understanding emotions can help to determine the message to convey. The sadness can be a sign of loss, and the anger can be a reflection of unmet expectations or boundaries. IPT promotes reflection (rather than reaction) (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). But the mechanism of emotional processing is still a possibility. Research has been conducted to assess depression symptoms but failed to establish that better awareness of the emotions is a prerequisite to recovery. Other therapies might be affected in similar ways, and it can be hard to conclude an IPT-specific effect (Lemmens et al., 2017). Think about it: What do you think might happen if you showed some feeling of disappointment to communicate your emotional needs? === Improving interpersonal skills === [[File:Two-people-talking-logo.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|'''Figure 3.''' IPT uses communication-focused techniques to help people practise more effective ways of interacting.]] Communication analysis and role-play are incorporated in IPT to enhance communication skills, conflict management and practice boundaries. More explicit expression may help decrease relationship stress and help develop confidence (as illustrated in Figure 3). Later decreases in depression were related to better attachment security, as reported by Abapolnikova et al. (2026). But, as with CBT, there were also similar changes. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 3.''' Proposed interpersonal mechanisms of emotional change !Mechanism !What changes? !Possible emotional benefit |- |'''Enhanced social support''' |Supportive relationships become more available or accessible. |Reduced loneliness and greater belonging, reassurance, and coping resources. |- |'''Reduced interpersonal stress''' |Conflict, ambiguity, or unresolved relationship difficulties decrease. |Less repeated exposure to stressful emotional situations. |- |'''Emotional processing''' |Feelings are identified, understood, tolerated, and communicated. |Greater emotional clarity and more adaptive responses to difficult feelings. |- |'''Improved interpersonal skills''' |Communication and relationship-management skills become more effective. |Fewer misunderstandings and greater confidence in managing relationships. |} {{Robelbox|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best represents the central assumption of interpersonal psychotherapy? |type="()"} - Emotional difficulties are caused entirely by irrational thoughts. - The number of friendships a person has determines their emotional wellbeing. + Relationships and emotional symptoms can influence one another, so improving a current interpersonal problem may help reduce emotional distress. - IPT attempts to analyse every childhood relationship. {Which of the following is one of the proposed mechanisms of change in IPT? |type="()"} - Avoiding emotional discussion + Enhancing social support - Eliminating all interpersonal disagreement - Increasing dependence on the therapist {A person becomes distressed after moving to another country and struggling with changes in identity, friendships, and responsibilities. Which IPT problem area is most relevant? |type="()"} - Grief only - Interpersonal dispute + Role transition - Cognitive distortion {Why is communication analysis used in IPT? |type="()"} - To determine who is objectively responsible for an argument + To examine how an interaction occurred and identify more effective ways of communicating - To prevent the person from experiencing strong emotion - To increase the number of social contacts </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == IPT techniques in practice == IPT brings about change by focusing on interpersonal issues identified by techniques specific to the client's primary problem. The interpersonal inventory charts critical relationships, support, expectations, and conflict. Communication analysis focuses on specific communication interaction, with attention to differences between intended and received messages. Role-play gives the opportunity to rehearse alternative conversations in therapy before trying them out in real life. Affect exploration can be used to determine feelings of grief, anger, shame, disappointment or loneliness in a relationship. Decision analysis and interpersonal problem-solving helps the individual consider and compare realistic responses and their consequences. It is possible to combine these techniques: Knowledge of an emotional response can help clarify what communication is needed, and practising a different response can help reduce the stress of the next interaction (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013).'''Interpersonal inventory''' involves mapping important current relationships and considering their quality, expectations, communication patterns, sources of support, and areas of conflict. This helps identify where interpersonal difficulties and emotional symptoms may be connected.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Reflection exercise Imagine that a friend repeatedly cancels plans at the last minute. The person begins feeling rejected but never mentions this and instead gradually withdraws from the friendship. Consider the following: * What emotion might be communicating an unmet interpersonal need? * How could avoiding the conversation increase interpersonal stress? * What could be communicated more directly? * How might the relationship and emotional experience change if the conversation were handled constructively? This example illustrates the reciprocal cycle emphasised by IPT: emotion influences interpersonal behaviour, and interpersonal behaviour can subsequently influence emotion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What does the research show? == Research findings There is good evidence to support IPT, especially for depression. But making it work doesn't always give an explanation for how it works, or whether there is a direct link between change in relationships and emotional wellbeing. There are emotional symptoms and depression.There is depression, and emotional symptoms. Cuijpers et al. (2011) conducted a study of 38 studies with 4356 participants and determined that IPT significantly reduces depressive symptoms. A larger meta-analysis of 90 studies with 11,434 subjects found its effectiveness in acute depression (Cuijpers et al., 2016). Likewise, van Hees et al. (2013) found that IPT was effective for adults suffering from depression. But similar results found with different therapies indicate that there are similar therapeutic processes that can lead to improvement. Social skills and interactions Bian et al. (2023) conducted a review of 11 randomised trials and determined that there were improvements in social functioning, depression and anxiety, though this was not consistent across all broader functioning outcomes. There was evidence for greater interpersonal improvement in IPT than cognitive therapy (Lemmens et al., 2017), and limited evidence for treatment-specific mechanisms. These findings corroborate IPT's interpersonal model, but do not prove that alteration in interpersonal relationships leads to emotional improvement. More recently, Abapolnikova et al. (2026) examined attachment security as a possible mediator of depression improvement in IPT compared with cognitive behavioural therapy. Attachment security improved, and earlier increases were associated with lower later depression. However, the effect was not unique to IPT because similar change occurred in cognitive behavioural therapy. This suggests that relational improvement may sometimes operate as a broader psychotherapy process rather than an exclusively IPT-specific mechanism. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Research caution:''' Evidence that IPT ''works'' is stronger than evidence proving exactly ''how'' it works. Relationship functioning, attachment, social support, and symptoms can improve together, but stronger longitudinal and mediation studies are needed to determine whether interpersonal changes specifically cause later emotional improvement. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Critical evaluation == Despite the fact that there is some evidence for the effectiveness of IPT in the treatment of depression, the majority of research has been conducted in clinical populations and hence has limited generalisability to the day-to-day context of emotional wellbeing. In addition, relationships and emotions are interrelated: positive mood can foster a sense of connection and emotions, and positive relationships can foster positive mood. Multiple observations are required to establish causality, therefore. Participant expectations and shared therapeutic processes may also lead to comparisons with other treatments. Another limitation is individual differences. Bernecker et al. (2017) identified a small number of consistent features which distinguished the more effective alternative therapies from IPT. Therefore, the suitability of treatment should take into account the individual's symptoms, preferences and cultural context. Overall, the effect of IPT is plausible and can be attributed to changes in social support, interpersonal stress, emotional processing and interpersonal skills. The mechanisms, however, are not yet fully understood as causal pathways and research on how IPT works is still developing compared to evidence supporting its effectiveness (Lemmens et al., 2017; Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). == Applying the model: Return to the scenario == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Sam's interpersonal change At the beginning of the chapter, Sam was struggling after moving away from familiar relationships. The transition was followed by loneliness, withdrawal, and increasing conflict. From an IPT perspective, the move could be understood as a '''role transition'''. Therapy could examine both what had been lost and what the new role required. As Sam begins reconnecting with existing friends and developing supportive new relationships, '''social support''' increases. By discussing expectations directly rather than withdrawing after disagreements, '''interpersonal stress''' may decrease. By recognising loneliness, disappointment, and fear of rejection rather than avoiding these emotions, '''emotional processing''' becomes possible. Finally, practising clearer requests for support and more direct conversations may strengthen '''interpersonal skills'''. These changes can reinforce one another. Improved communication may produce more supportive interactions; supportive interactions may reduce loneliness; improved mood may make further social engagement easier. Emotional and interpersonal improvement can therefore develop as a reciprocal process rather than a single one-way cause. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == IPT links emotion with relationship and social contexts where emotions are experienced. It concentrates on issues in current interpersonal relationships that are meaningful, such as loss, conflict, change, and ongoing interpersonal challenges. The four mechanisms suggested (amplifying social support, diminishing interpersonal stress, enabling emotional processing, and enhancing interpersonal skills) account for the possible emotional benefits of relationship changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Meta-analyses have yielded significant evidence for the efficacy of IPT in reducing depressive symptoms and research also points at improvement in interpersonal and social functioning (Bian et al., 2023; Cuijpers et al., 2016). But these results do not confirm that the changes in relationships are the only cause of emotional improvement. There are other processes (such as attachment, therapeutic support) that may play a role in various treatments. The message to take away is that the relationship between feelings and existing relationships is evident; that it is important to find a reliable support system; to communicate interpersonal needs openly and effectively; and to engage in conflict resolution in a constructive manner where it is safe to do so. These can be incorporated into day to day wellbeing and treatment options should continue to be tailored to individual circumstances and evidence. Take-home message: IPT can be used as evidence-based treatment for depression, targeting key interpersonal issues. Better relationships is one possible route to a better emotional wellbeing, however, the research is ongoing to understand what changes bring the benefits and to which individuals.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take home message:''' Emotional wellbeing is closely connected with interpersonal life. IPT helps people address relationship problems linked to emotional distress by strengthening support, reducing interpersonal stress, processing emotions, and developing more effective interpersonal skills. Evidence strongly supports IPT's effectiveness for depression, although research is still determining exactly how much of this improvement is specifically caused by changes in relationships. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal psychotherapy|Interpersonal psychotherapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Attachment theory|Attachment theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social support|Social support]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal relationship|Interpersonal relationship]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotion]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abapolnikova, M., Coyne, A. E., Glushka, L., Liu, C. J., Constantino, M. J., Atkinson, L. R., Bagby, R. M., Ravitz, P., & McBride, C. (2026). Does attachment change serve as a theory-specific mediator of depression reduction in interpersonal psychotherapy versus cognitive behavioral therapy? ''Psychotherapy Research''. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2026.2656698 Bernecker, S. L., Coyne, A. E., Constantino, M. J., & Ravitz, P. (2017). For whom does interpersonal psychotherapy work? A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 56'', 82–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.07.001 Bian, C., Zhao, W.-W., Yan, S.-R., Chen, S.-Y., Cheng, Y., & Zhang, Y.-H. (2023). Effect of interpersonal psychotherapy on social functioning, overall functioning and negative emotions for depression: A meta-analysis. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 320'', 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.119 Cuijpers, P., Donker, T., Weissman, M. M., Ravitz, P., & Cristea, I. A. (2016). Interpersonal psychotherapy for mental health problems: A comprehensive meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 173''(7), 680–687. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15091141 Cuijpers, P., Geraedts, A. S., van Oppen, P., Andersson, G., Markowitz, J. C., & van Straten, A. (2011). Interpersonal psychotherapy for depression: A meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 168''(6), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10101411 Duffy, F., Sharpe, H., & Schwannauer, M. (2019). Review: The effectiveness of interpersonal psychotherapy for adolescents with depression – A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 24''(4), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12342 Lemmens, L. H. J. M., Galindo-Garre, F., Arntz, A., Peeters, F., Hollon, S. D., DeRubeis, R. J., & Huibers, M. J. H. (2017). Exploring mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy for adult depression. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 94'', 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.005 Lipsitz, J. D., & Markowitz, J. C. (2013). Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy (IPT). ''Clinical Psychology Review, 33''(8), 1134–1147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.09.002 Markowitz, J. C., & Weissman, M. M. (2012). Interpersonal psychotherapy: Past, present and future. ''Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19''(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1774 Mufson, L., Dorta, K. P., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Olfson, M., & Weissman, M. M. (2004). A randomized effectiveness trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. ''Archives of General Psychiatry, 61''(6), 577–584. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.6.577 Sockol, L. E. (2018). A systematic review and meta-analysis of interpersonal psychotherapy for perinatal women. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 232'', 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.01.018 Stuart, S., Schultz, J., Palmer Molina, A., & Siber-Sanderowitz, S. (2024). Interpersonal psychotherapy: A review of theory, history, and evidence of efficacy. ''Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 52''(3), 370–407. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2024.52.3.370 Uncu, B., & Doğan, E. (2026). Effects of interpersonal psychotherapy on postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. ''Journal of Psychiatric Research, 198'', 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2026.03.038 van Hees, M. L. J. M., Rotter, T., Ellermann, T., & Evers, S. M. A. A. (2013). The effectiveness of individual interpersonal psychotherapy as a treatment for major depressive disorder in adult outpatients: A systematic review. ''BMC Psychiatry, 13'', Article 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-22}} == External links == * [https://interpersonalpsychotherapy.org/ipt-basics/overview-of-ipt/ Overview of interpersonal psychotherapy] (International Society of Interpersonal Psychotherapy) * [https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MSD-MER-16.4 Group interpersonal therapy for depression] (World Health Organization) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4109031/ Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy] (National Library of Medicine) * Feedback, wording and structure were reviewed, refined and enhanced with the support of ChatGPT (OpenAI) and the integration of theory and research was enhanced. Prompts were to cut and improve parts of my chapter. All the initial draft and research are my own work. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] tsxk997kb41qtct7fubm31st1sybydx 2842719 2842718 2026-10-26T21:33:41Z U3280122 3110471 2842719 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Interpersonal psychotherapy and emotion: <br>How does interpersonal psychotherapy improve emotional wellbeing through changes in relationships?}} == Overview == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} [[File:Conversation - RWiC.png|thumb|right|250px|'''Figure 1.''' Supportive conversation can create opportunities to express emotions, clarify interpersonal problems, and strengthen social connection.]] ;Scenario Sam recently moved to a new city to begin university. Although the move was exciting, it also meant leaving close friends and family behind. Over time, Sam began feeling lonely, irritable, and emotionally exhausted. Calls with family became shorter, disagreements with a close friend became more frequent, and Sam started avoiding social activities. When Sam began interpersonal psychotherapy, it did not focus only on the feelings of sadness. Instead, Sam and the therapist explored how the recent life transition had changed important relationships. Sam began identifying feelings of loneliness and disappointment, communicating needs more clearly, reconnecting with supportive people, and developing new friendships. As these relationships became more supportive and less stressful, Sam's mood gradually improved. The interpersonal situation had changed, but so had Sam's emotional experience. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Figure 1. Supportive conversations include emotional expression, interpersonal problem-solving and interpersonal connection. Although relationships can be a source of comfort, relationships can sometimes lead to conflict. Interpersonal challenges and emotional pain may exacerbate one another. Interpersonal Psychotherapy is a time-limited, structured psychotherapy that targets the present interpersonal context. IPT was originally designed for the treatment of depression, but it has also been shown to be effective in treating other key interpersonal problems and adapting to social role changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). This chapter reviews four potential mechanisms: increase in social support, decrease in interpersonal stress, emotional processing, and interpersonal skills. It also takes into account if research has shown how these changes contribute to emotional wellbeing.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} ;Focus questions * What is interpersonal psychotherapy and how does it connect relationships with emotion? * Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? * Through which psychological mechanisms can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? * What does research show about the effectiveness and limitations of IPT? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is interpersonal psychotherapy? == IPT works on the current interpersonal problems and their relationship to emotional symptoms. Therapists and clients agree that during treatment, a major relationship issue that needs to be corrected is present, generally requiring about 12–16 sessions per week for depression (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). IPT has also been modified for various age groups and psychological states (Cuijpers et al., 2016). The interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and social support and life stress research literature are drawn on to support the foundations of IPT. Both Sullivan's interpersonal theory and Bowlby's attachment theory stress the importance of relationships to feelings of distress, and emotional security through relationships that are dependable, respectively. The early attachment experiences are not a primary focus of IPT, however, and attachment change is not exclusive to IPT (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). === The interpersonal perspective === IPT was influenced by interpersonal theory, attachment theory, and research examining the relationship between stressful life events, social support, and mental health (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013; Stuart et al., 2024). Its central assumption is reciprocal: {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Interpersonal difficulty → emotional distress → further interpersonal difficulty''' For example, conflict may increase sadness and anxiety. Those emotions may then contribute to withdrawal, irritability, avoidance, or ineffective communication, which can create additional conflict. IPT attempts to interrupt this cycle by improving the interpersonal situation while helping the person understand and communicate emotion more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} Sadness, anger and loneliness are all associated with interpersonal challenges, such as loss, conflict or unmet needs for interpersonal connection. IPT assists people identify these emotions and grasp their interpersonal situation (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). A review of 38 studies (4,356 subjects) by Cuijpers et al. (2011) showed that IPT was effective in reducing depression. A second larger meta-analysis of 90 studies with 11,434 participants also found IPT effective, but with relatively few differences from other proven psychotherapies (Cuijpers et al., 2016). These results are not sufficient, however, to conclude that the relationship change is the only process that is effective for improving outcomes, since other therapeutic processes may be effective. === How IPT is structured === IPT generally consists of three stages: initial stage, middle phase, and termination phase. The first phase is the identification of symptoms and primary interpersonal problem. The second phase is the emotional exploration, communication analysis and practical strategies to that problem. During the last stage, progress is assessed and preparations are made for future challenges. Table 1 provides a summary of the relationship of each stage and emotional wellbeing (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 1.''' Main phases of interpersonal psychotherapy !Phase !Main tasks !Connection with emotional wellbeing |- |'''Initial phase''' |Identify emotional symptoms, complete an interpersonal inventory, explore important relationships, and select a central interpersonal focus. |Helps connect emotional distress with significant current relationships and life events. |- |'''Middle phase''' |Work actively on the selected interpersonal problem using emotional exploration, communication analysis, problem-solving, and role-play. |Provides opportunities to reduce relationship stress, express emotions, and develop more effective interpersonal responses. |- |'''Termination phase''' |Review progress, discuss feelings about ending therapy, consolidate interpersonal skills, and identify strategies for future difficulties. |Strengthens confidence in maintaining supportive relationships and managing future emotional challenges. |} Note. Based on the IPT framework discussed by Markowitz and Weissman (2012) and Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013). == Which interpersonal problems does IPT target? == IPT has traditionally emphasized a few interpersonal problem areas. Choosing a primary problem can make therapy more real and manageable, but it can be hard to establish one primary problem, especially when there are multiple difficulties that may overlap (Markowitz & Weissman, 2012). The areas are summarised in Table 2. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 2.''' Common IPT interpersonal problem areas !Problem area !What it involves !Example |- |'''Grief and loss''' |Emotional difficulty following the death or significant loss of an important person. |Someone becomes socially isolated and depressed following the death of a partner. |- |'''Role disputes''' |Conflict caused by different expectations between the person and someone important to them. |Two partners repeatedly argue because each expects different levels of emotional support. |- |'''Role transitions''' |Difficulty adapting to a major life change that alters identity, responsibilities, or relationships. |Starting university, becoming a parent, migrating, divorce, retirement, or changing employment. |- |'''Interpersonal sensitivities or deficits''' |Persistent difficulty initiating, maintaining, or feeling secure within relationships. |A person feels disconnected from others and finds it difficult to form supportive friendships. |} The categories are especially important because emotional experiences can be linked to relationship changes and social expectations. Sam's going on to university is a role transition, for instance, in which he is leaving behind those he already knows and has an unknown identity and is facing the difficulty of making relationships. During a role conflict the focus may rather be on articulating expectations, establishing boundaries, or re-negotiating a relationship. IPT does not mean that all relationships need to be maintained, sometimes it is more appropriate to recognise boundaries or end an unhealthy relationship. Practical application of IPT is demonstrated with research on life transitions. In a systematic review, Sockol (2018) noted that the IPT intervention was able to decrease symptoms of perinatal depression and anxiety and enhance some interpersonal functions. In a similar fashion, Uncu and Doğan (2026) analysed 9 RCTs with 1269 participants, and observed that there were decreases in PP depressive symptoms relative to routine care. The results are in line with the IPT goal of role transition, but do not prove that a role transition effort led to improvement, as a comparison with routine care is not possible.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key point:''' IPT does not simply aim to make a person "more social". The goal is to identify the interpersonal situation most closely connected to current emotional distress and help the person respond to it more effectively. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == How can changes in relationships improve emotional wellbeing? == Lipsitz and Markowitz (2013) outline 4 proposed mechanisms of change in IPT. In their model, the main interpersonal problem can be resolved thus increasing social support and decreasing interpersonal stress, whereas, emotional processing and interpersonal skills facilitate the person to work through the main interpersonal problem. These processes can also feed into each other. The theory is well formed, but improvement in symptoms cannot be used to determine which process produced the improvement. === Enhancing social support === Depression can lead to isolation or a fear of rejection, which can decrease access to supports. Through IPT, people learn to recognize reliable relationships, communicate their needs and enhance relationships (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). The number of contacts is not as significant as the quality of the relationships, as shown in figure 2. Bian et al (2023) identified 11 RCTs and concluded that there was an evidence of social functioning improvement, along with a decrease in depression and anxiety. Improvements in overall functioning were not clear across all adult depression groups, but were clearer in adolescent and perinatal groups. Social functioning, however, is not synonymous with perceived support and better mood can motivate social connection as well. Thus, it is not a causal effect of the increase in support for emotional improvement. Think about it: Can a relationship offer support and be a source of emotional strain?[[File:Main_effect_model.png|right|thumb|300x300px|'''Figure 2.''' Social relationships and social support can influence psychological wellbeing.]] === Reducing interpersonal stress === Emotional stress can be a continuous issue when there is conflict, rejection and unclear expectations. IPT assists people to identify these patterns, to express needs and to identify workable solutions. For instance, a friend who has different expectations about communication may minimize misunderstandings by talking about his or her needs. There may also be times when it is not possible to set limits or to end unhealthy relationships, but this can still help to lower stress when it is possible (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Lemmens et al. (2017) reported a greater improvement in interpersonal functioning in IPT compared to CT, but there was less evidence for IPT-specific mechanisms. Thus, lowering interpersonal stress could help with emotional recovery but would not be a process unique to IPT. What about this: When could it be better to set limits than to break up a relationship? === Facilitating emotional processing === IPT assists people to identify, acknowledge and process their feelings in key relationships. Household conflict, for instance, about household responsibilities, may be a sign of disappointment in terms of unequal household support. Understanding emotions can help to determine the message to convey. The sadness can be a sign of loss, and the anger can be a reflection of unmet expectations or boundaries. IPT promotes reflection (rather than reaction) (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). But the mechanism of emotional processing is still a possibility. Research has been conducted to assess depression symptoms but failed to establish that better awareness of the emotions is a prerequisite to recovery. Other therapies might be affected in similar ways, and it can be hard to conclude an IPT-specific effect (Lemmens et al., 2017). Think about it: What do you think might happen if you showed some feeling of disappointment to communicate your emotional needs? === Improving interpersonal skills === [[File:Two-people-talking-logo.jpg|right|thumb|220x220px|'''Figure 3.''' IPT uses communication-focused techniques to help people practise more effective ways of interacting.]] Communication analysis and role-play are incorporated in IPT to enhance communication skills, conflict management and practice boundaries. More explicit expression may help decrease relationship stress and help develop confidence (as illustrated in Figure 3). Later decreases in depression were related to better attachment security, as reported by Abapolnikova et al. (2026). But, as with CBT, there were also similar changes. {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 3.''' Proposed interpersonal mechanisms of emotional change !Mechanism !What changes? !Possible emotional benefit |- |'''Enhanced social support''' |Supportive relationships become more available or accessible. |Reduced loneliness and greater belonging, reassurance, and coping resources. |- |'''Reduced interpersonal stress''' |Conflict, ambiguity, or unresolved relationship difficulties decrease. |Less repeated exposure to stressful emotional situations. |- |'''Emotional processing''' |Feelings are identified, understood, tolerated, and communicated. |Greater emotional clarity and more adaptive responses to difficult feelings. |- |'''Improved interpersonal skills''' |Communication and relationship-management skills become more effective. |Fewer misunderstandings and greater confidence in managing relationships. |} {{Robelbox|theme=11|title=Quiz}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display="simple"> {Which statement best represents the central assumption of interpersonal psychotherapy? |type="()"} - Emotional difficulties are caused entirely by irrational thoughts. - The number of friendships a person has determines their emotional wellbeing. + Relationships and emotional symptoms can influence one another, so improving a current interpersonal problem may help reduce emotional distress. - IPT attempts to analyse every childhood relationship. {Which of the following is one of the proposed mechanisms of change in IPT? |type="()"} - Avoiding emotional discussion + Enhancing social support - Eliminating all interpersonal disagreement - Increasing dependence on the therapist {A person becomes distressed after moving to another country and struggling with changes in identity, friendships, and responsibilities. Which IPT problem area is most relevant? |type="()"} - Grief only - Interpersonal dispute + Role transition - Cognitive distortion {Why is communication analysis used in IPT? |type="()"} - To determine who is objectively responsible for an argument + To examine how an interaction occurred and identify more effective ways of communicating - To prevent the person from experiencing strong emotion - To increase the number of social contacts </quiz> </div> {{Robelbox-close}} == IPT techniques in practice == IPT brings about change by focusing on interpersonal issues identified by techniques specific to the client's primary problem. The interpersonal inventory charts critical relationships, support, expectations, and conflict. Communication analysis focuses on specific communication interaction, with attention to differences between intended and received messages. Role-play gives the opportunity to rehearse alternative conversations in therapy before trying them out in real life. Affect exploration can be used to determine feelings of grief, anger, shame, disappointment or loneliness in a relationship. Decision analysis and interpersonal problem-solving helps the individual consider and compare realistic responses and their consequences. It is possible to combine these techniques: Knowledge of an emotional response can help clarify what communication is needed, and practising a different response can help reduce the stress of the next interaction (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013).'''Interpersonal inventory''' involves mapping important current relationships and considering their quality, expectations, communication patterns, sources of support, and areas of conflict. This helps identify where interpersonal difficulties and emotional symptoms may be connected.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Reflection exercise Imagine that a friend repeatedly cancels plans at the last minute. The person begins feeling rejected but never mentions this and instead gradually withdraws from the friendship. Consider the following: * What emotion might be communicating an unmet interpersonal need? * How could avoiding the conversation increase interpersonal stress? * What could be communicated more directly? * How might the relationship and emotional experience change if the conversation were handled constructively? This example illustrates the reciprocal cycle emphasised by IPT: emotion influences interpersonal behaviour, and interpersonal behaviour can subsequently influence emotion. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What does the research show? == Research findings There is good evidence to support IPT, especially for depression. But making it work doesn't always give an explanation for how it works, or whether there is a direct link between change in relationships and emotional wellbeing. There are emotional symptoms and depression.There is depression, and emotional symptoms. Cuijpers et al. (2011) conducted a study of 38 studies with 4356 participants and determined that IPT significantly reduces depressive symptoms. A larger meta-analysis of 90 studies with 11,434 subjects found its effectiveness in acute depression (Cuijpers et al., 2016). Likewise, van Hees et al. (2013) found that IPT was effective for adults suffering from depression. But similar results found with different therapies indicate that there are similar therapeutic processes that can lead to improvement. Social skills and interactions Bian et al. (2023) conducted a review of 11 randomised trials and determined that there were improvements in social functioning, depression and anxiety, though this was not consistent across all broader functioning outcomes. There was evidence for greater interpersonal improvement in IPT than cognitive therapy (Lemmens et al., 2017), and limited evidence for treatment-specific mechanisms. These findings corroborate IPT's interpersonal model, but do not prove that alteration in interpersonal relationships leads to emotional improvement. More recently, Abapolnikova et al. (2026) examined attachment security as a possible mediator of depression improvement in IPT compared with cognitive behavioural therapy. Attachment security improved, and earlier increases were associated with lower later depression. However, the effect was not unique to IPT because similar change occurred in cognitive behavioural therapy. This suggests that relational improvement may sometimes operate as a broader psychotherapy process rather than an exclusively IPT-specific mechanism. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Research caution:''' Evidence that IPT ''works'' is stronger than evidence proving exactly ''how'' it works. Relationship functioning, attachment, social support, and symptoms can improve together, but stronger longitudinal and mediation studies are needed to determine whether interpersonal changes specifically cause later emotional improvement. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Critical evaluation == Despite the fact that there is some evidence for the effectiveness of IPT in the treatment of depression, the majority of research has been conducted in clinical populations and hence has limited generalisability to the day-to-day context of emotional wellbeing. In addition, relationships and emotions are interrelated: positive mood can foster a sense of connection and emotions, and positive relationships can foster positive mood. Multiple observations are required to establish causality, therefore. Participant expectations and shared therapeutic processes may also lead to comparisons with other treatments. Another limitation is individual differences. Bernecker et al. (2017) identified a small number of consistent features which distinguished the more effective alternative therapies from IPT. Therefore, the suitability of treatment should take into account the individual's symptoms, preferences and cultural context. Overall, the effect of IPT is plausible and can be attributed to changes in social support, interpersonal stress, emotional processing and interpersonal skills. The mechanisms, however, are not yet fully understood as causal pathways and research on how IPT works is still developing compared to evidence supporting its effectiveness (Lemmens et al., 2017; Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). == Applying the model: Return to the scenario == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Sam's interpersonal change At the beginning of the chapter, Sam was struggling after moving away from familiar relationships. The transition was followed by loneliness, withdrawal, and increasing conflict. From an IPT perspective, the move could be understood as a '''role transition'''. Therapy could examine both what had been lost and what the new role required. As Sam begins reconnecting with existing friends and developing supportive new relationships, '''social support''' increases. By discussing expectations directly rather than withdrawing after disagreements, '''interpersonal stress''' may decrease. By recognising loneliness, disappointment, and fear of rejection rather than avoiding these emotions, '''emotional processing''' becomes possible. Finally, practising clearer requests for support and more direct conversations may strengthen '''interpersonal skills'''. These changes can reinforce one another. Improved communication may produce more supportive interactions; supportive interactions may reduce loneliness; improved mood may make further social engagement easier. Emotional and interpersonal improvement can therefore develop as a reciprocal process rather than a single one-way cause. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Conclusion == IPT links emotion with relationship and social contexts where emotions are experienced. It concentrates on issues in current interpersonal relationships that are meaningful, such as loss, conflict, change, and ongoing interpersonal challenges. The four mechanisms suggested (amplifying social support, diminishing interpersonal stress, enabling emotional processing, and enhancing interpersonal skills) account for the possible emotional benefits of relationship changes (Lipsitz & Markowitz, 2013). Meta-analyses have yielded significant evidence for the efficacy of IPT in reducing depressive symptoms and research also points at improvement in interpersonal and social functioning (Bian et al., 2023; Cuijpers et al., 2016). But these results do not confirm that the changes in relationships are the only cause of emotional improvement. There are other processes (such as attachment, therapeutic support) that may play a role in various treatments. The message to take away is that the relationship between feelings and existing relationships is evident; that it is important to find a reliable support system; to communicate interpersonal needs openly and effectively; and to engage in conflict resolution in a constructive manner where it is safe to do so. These can be incorporated into day to day wellbeing and treatment options should continue to be tailored to individual circumstances and evidence. Take-home message: IPT can be used as evidence-based treatment for depression, targeting key interpersonal issues. Better relationships is one possible route to a better emotional wellbeing, however, the research is ongoing to understand what changes bring the benefits and to which individuals.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Take home message:''' Emotional wellbeing is closely connected with interpersonal life. IPT helps people address relationship problems linked to emotional distress by strengthening support, reducing interpersonal stress, processing emotions, and developing more effective interpersonal skills. Evidence strongly supports IPT's effectiveness for depression, although research is still determining exactly how much of this improvement is specifically caused by changes in relationships. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == See also == * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal psychotherapy|Interpersonal psychotherapy]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Attachment theory|Attachment theory]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Social support|Social support]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Interpersonal relationship|Interpersonal relationship]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotion]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Social support and emotion|Social support and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2019) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= Abapolnikova, M., Coyne, A. E., Glushka, L., Liu, C. J., Constantino, M. J., Atkinson, L. R., Bagby, R. M., Ravitz, P., & McBride, C. (2026). Does attachment change serve as a theory-specific mediator of depression reduction in interpersonal psychotherapy versus cognitive behavioral therapy? ''Psychotherapy Research''. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2026.2656698 Bernecker, S. L., Coyne, A. E., Constantino, M. J., & Ravitz, P. (2017). For whom does interpersonal psychotherapy work? A systematic review. ''Clinical Psychology Review, 56'', 82–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.07.001 Bian, C., Zhao, W.-W., Yan, S.-R., Chen, S.-Y., Cheng, Y., & Zhang, Y.-H. (2023). Effect of interpersonal psychotherapy on social functioning, overall functioning and negative emotions for depression: A meta-analysis. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 320'', 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.119 Cuijpers, P., Donker, T., Weissman, M. M., Ravitz, P., & Cristea, I. A. (2016). Interpersonal psychotherapy for mental health problems: A comprehensive meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 173''(7), 680–687. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15091141 Cuijpers, P., Geraedts, A. S., van Oppen, P., Andersson, G., Markowitz, J. C., & van Straten, A. (2011). Interpersonal psychotherapy for depression: A meta-analysis. ''American Journal of Psychiatry, 168''(6), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10101411 Duffy, F., Sharpe, H., & Schwannauer, M. (2019). Review: The effectiveness of interpersonal psychotherapy for adolescents with depression – A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 24''(4), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12342 Lemmens, L. H. J. M., Galindo-Garre, F., Arntz, A., Peeters, F., Hollon, S. D., DeRubeis, R. J., & Huibers, M. J. H. (2017). Exploring mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy for adult depression. ''Behaviour Research and Therapy, 94'', 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.005 Lipsitz, J. D., & Markowitz, J. C. (2013). Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy (IPT). ''Clinical Psychology Review, 33''(8), 1134–1147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.09.002 Markowitz, J. C., & Weissman, M. M. (2012). Interpersonal psychotherapy: Past, present and future. ''Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19''(2), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1774 Mufson, L., Dorta, K. P., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Olfson, M., & Weissman, M. M. (2004). A randomized effectiveness trial of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed adolescents. ''Archives of General Psychiatry, 61''(6), 577–584. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.6.577 Sockol, L. E. (2018). A systematic review and meta-analysis of interpersonal psychotherapy for perinatal women. ''Journal of Affective Disorders, 232'', 316–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.01.018 Stuart, S., Schultz, J., Palmer Molina, A., & Siber-Sanderowitz, S. (2024). Interpersonal psychotherapy: A review of theory, history, and evidence of efficacy. ''Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 52''(3), 370–407. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2024.52.3.370 Uncu, B., & Doğan, E. (2026). Effects of interpersonal psychotherapy on postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. ''Journal of Psychiatric Research, 198'', 165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2026.03.038 van Hees, M. L. J. M., Rotter, T., Ellermann, T., & Evers, S. M. A. A. (2013). The effectiveness of individual interpersonal psychotherapy as a treatment for major depressive disorder in adult outpatients: A systematic review. ''BMC Psychiatry, 13'', Article 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-22}} == External links == * [https://interpersonalpsychotherapy.org/ipt-basics/overview-of-ipt/ Overview of interpersonal psychotherapy] (International Society of Interpersonal Psychotherapy) * [https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MSD-MER-16.4 Group interpersonal therapy for depression] (World Health Organization) * [https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4109031/ Mechanisms of change in interpersonal therapy] (National Library of Medicine) * Feedback, wording and structure were reviewed, refined and enhanced with the support of ChatGPT (OpenAI) and the integration of theory and research was enhanced. Prompts were to cut and improve parts of my chapter. All the initial draft and research are my own work. [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Relationships]] abp5e40yi7e4mum3f1q30n0ultybde9 1 331985 2842752 2837659 2026-10-27T02:15:16Z Jtneill 10242 Book chapter feedback 2842752 wikitext text/x-wiki == Feedback, Suggestions and References == Hi! I noticed that the chapter is a little bit behind on development so I thought I would provide some suggestions to you as I am also doing an article relating to volunteering. Specifically [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2026/Volunteer wellbeing|Volunteer Wellbeing]] You have a good basis, and some good suggestions from other peers, particularly in your example section. given that there is some overlap between our topics I have some suggested references (you can also review my page if you want to look at some other options) # Wu and Li (2018) — Helping others helps? A self-determination theory approach on work climate and wellbeing among volunteers. Their survey links autonomous and controlled motivation with different patterns of emotional exhaustion and life satisfaction. This could support your theoretical discussion. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9642-z # Magrone et al. (2024) — A new look at job demands, resources, and volunteers’ intentions to leave: The role of work–home interference and burnout. This could help develop the retention section, particularly how competing commitments, cynicism and organisational support relate to intentions to leave. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-024-00679-y # Sundram et al. (2018) — Motivations, expectations and experiences in being a mental health helplines volunteer. You already cite this, and it looks especially relevant to developing both recruitment and retention. It also needs adding to your reference list. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15102123 Specific references for your article # Willems, R., Drossaert, C., Vuijk, P., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2020). Impact of crisis line volunteering on mental wellbeing and the associated factors: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(5), Article 1641. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051641 # Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R. D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A. A., Haugen, J., & Miene, P. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1516–1530. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1516 Ideas for article development # Build on Jane's scenario - you could use this throughout your article to provide an example for your theoretical discussion. practical examples could help you to apply theory and break up big text chunks # Consider the use of Self-determination theory - it applies well to volunteers and why people volunteer. you could compare it to other theories you are considering as well. # Include mentions of the volunteering environment - the environment that counsellor volunteers face is unique to many other volunteering positions. this could help to explain why someone who remains committed to helping people could leave an organisation # focus in on studies directly relevant to your topic. # A “See also” link between our chapters could also help readers explore the connection between motivation and wellbeing. Good luck. reach out to me at U3216851@uni.canberra.edu.au if you want to discuss or need any other resources. Thanks --[[User:U3216851|U3216851]] ([[User talk:U3216851|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216851|contribs]]) 03:43, 10 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 1-level --> # Basic, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure (i.e., use subheadings) <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Excellent alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and heading structure |3= <!-- Overview--> <!-- Scenario --> # Make the scenario concrete and down-to-earth, using a realistic real-world example of the target psychological phenomenon rather than an abstract description. # Move diagrams into the main body text; use an image in the opening scenario which more directly illustrates the practical situation <!-- Description --> # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented <!-- Style --> # Use present, rather than future, tense # Use 3rd person point of view for main body text (except 1st/2nd person point of view can work within feature boxes for scenarios) <!-- Focus questions --> # Focus questions are aligned with sub-title and top-level headings # I've reworded the focus questions to simplify them |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Basic development # Consider describing what volunteer counselling involves # Consider the functionalist perspective of volunteering offered by Clary and Snyder (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking|Tutorial 5]]) # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Theory and research --> # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # A figure(s) is presented, captioned, and cited |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Good; 5 out of 6 references provided <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## make doi hyperlinks active (i.e., clickable) |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Excellent <!-- External links --> # External links ## Target an international audience; Australians only represent 0.33% of the world population ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Used effectively <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 03:31, 11 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is a reasonably good chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* incorporate a functionalist perspective of motivation based on the work of Clary and Snyder #* greater use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims #* quality of written expression #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics. For example, I embedded a link to "(see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Wounded healer paradigm|wounded healer paradigm]])". #* more descriptive and extensive [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FVolunteer_counsellor_motivation&diff=2842751&oldid=2839457 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Good <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Explains the psychological problem reasonably well # What are the most relevant theoretical perspectives? # Move and integrate the questions into the focus questions section # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are good # I've rewritten the first focus question to make it simpler |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> # Good # 3 main theories are selected, described, and applied (SDT, social identity theory, and altruism) # Altruism could be covered within Clary and Snyder's functionalist approach to motivation (discussed in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Functionalist theory and self-tracking#Functionalist theory|Tutorial 5]], which is a key framework that could strengthen this chapter both in terms of theoretical framework and accompanying research and incorporate other motives such as values # The SDT section appropriately focuses on intrinsic motivation, but there are also extrinsic motivators—what are they (this could alternatively be covered by including the functionalist approach)? # The chapter could be improved by more distinctly focusing on volunteer counselling motivations rather than volunteer motivations more generally # Builds somewhat on other [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Reasonably good depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Reasonably good use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Reasonably good use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Reasonably good review of relevant research # Basic use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # The chapter could be considerably strengthened by: ## including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) to support claims ## providing more specific information about volunteer counsellor motivation research <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Basic [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Basic integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # Too many claims are made without sufficient citation # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Very good summary and conclusion # The start is the Conclusion is repetitive of the Overview # Shorten and focus this section # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are well summarised <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are addressed <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Add practical, take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The overall quality of written expression is good ## The main areas to target for improvement: ### Claims need citations ### Describe research studies in more detail to support claims ### Readability can be improved by simplifying written expression <!-- Written expression – Sentences --> ## Some sentences could be explained more clearly (e.g., see the {{explain}} and {{rewrite}} tags); consider using [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity] for targetted feedback to help improve the quality of written expression <!-- Written expression – Language --> ## Use [https://www.grammarly.com/blog/first-second-and-third-person/ 3rd person perspective] (e.g., "it") instead of 1st (e.g., "we") or 2nd person (e.g., "you") in the main text. 1st or 2nd person can work well for case studies or feature boxes. ## Avoid phrases such as “as previously mentioned” or “as noted above,” as these add little value and can disrupt flow. If referencing another part of the chapter is necessary, use [[w:Help#Section linking|section linking]]. <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar ## The grammar for some sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style <!-- Written expression – APA style - Quotes --> ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well captioned <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # In many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use very good APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Reasonably good use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Good use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Reasonably good use of figure(s) # No use of table(s) # Very good use of feature box(es) # Very good use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Basic use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Insufficient use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Add more links <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Insufficient use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~4 logged, useful, mostly moderate contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 02:15, 27 October 2026 (UTC) h0syvy5kcw1jo892c2xe0cdr5ek8u2l 1 332032 2842779 2833106 2026-10-27T05:32:57Z Jtneill 10242 Book chapter feedback 2842779 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Headings --> <!-- 1-level --> # Basic, [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|1-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure (i.e., use subheadings) # Remove duplicate headings <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Develop closer alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings |3= <!-- Overview--> # Basic <!-- Scenario --> # Promising scenario; could benefit from further development e.g., the scenario is somewhat abstract; how can it illustrate the core problematic more clearly? # Consider revising the scenario to make it more relatable to a wider international audience; university/college students represent only around 3% of the world's population # Add an image to the scenario to help attract reader interest <!-- Description --> # A basic description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # Introduce topic using plain English; most citations can be moved into subsequent setions # What are the most relevant psychological theories? # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Focus questions --> <!-- Alignment and quality --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Insufficient development # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is typical of AI-generated material with minimal human oversight. See [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]] for guidance about ethical and professional practice. <!-- Theory and research --> # Strive for an integrated balance of the best psychological theory and research about this topic, with practical examples. # Select the best theories about this topic # Select the best research about this topic <!-- Citations --> # Insufficient use of citations <!-- GenAI ---> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underdeveloped # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # A figure is presented and captioned # The relevance of the figure to the topic is unclear <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Basic <!-- Systematic reviews --> # At least one relevant systematic review and/or meta-analysis has been identified <!-- Citations --> # All references need in-text citation # Only include references which have been accessed and read <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also # Links lack sufficient relevance to topic; select the most relevant links <!-- External links --> # External links ## To be developed (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Basic <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided # Note that you are able to negotiate an alternative assessment format if you do not wish to use Wikiversity; the earlier this is done, the better <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # None summarised on user page with direct link(s) to evidence (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]). Looking ahead to the book chapter, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|social contributions]]. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:08, 14 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is a basic chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Use more specific [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in each edit #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] has not been appropriately acknowledged in [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary]] with links to the conversation sources despite previous feedback about this issue. Unacknowledged use of GenAI-generated content raises concerns about compliance with academic integrity principles and assessment requirements and [[Wikiversity:Artificial intelligence|Wikiversity's artificial intelligence policy]]. <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FEffort_regulation_and_cost-benefit_decision-making&diff=2842778&oldid=2841190 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Basic <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # Consider using an example that a wider audience can relate to (less than 5% of the world population are university students) <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Include a relevant image <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Explains the psychological problem or phenomenon in a basic/general way # Convert bullet-points into sentences and paragraphs <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are reasonably good # The focus questions could be improved by: ## being more specific to the topic (i.e., the sub-title) ## matching the top-level headings more closely ## avoid overlapping ## splitting double-barrelled questions into separate questions |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic # Reduce general theoretical background (e.g., definitions). Instead, summarise and link to related resources (i.e., other book chapters and/or Wikipedia articles). Increase emphasis on [[wikt:substantive|substantive]] aspects of theory that relate directly to the specific topic (i.e., the sub-title question). <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Doesn't build on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Basic use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Basic review of relevant research # Basic use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # More detail about key studies would be ideal # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Insufficient integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # The chapter could be strengthened through deeper integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by including more embedded links |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Reasonably good summary and conclusion # Is this section based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]? If so, this was not acknowledged in the [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summary]]. # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are summarised in a basic way <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Clear take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is basic ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings ## Integrate review of research throughout, rather than relying on a dedicated section <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar ## The grammar for many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Well captioned <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # In many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use very good/ APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Insufficient use of figure(s) # Basic use of table(s) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples # As discussed in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]], images should be uploaded to [[c:Wikimedia Commons|Wikimedia Commons]] <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Reasonably good use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # Many quiz questions have grammatical errors <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Basic use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## I remove several generic links ## Use alphabetical order <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Insufficient [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # No logged contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 05:32, 27 October 2026 (UTC) l042l17ipmsthas0k8g56t453n6kszq 1 332056 2842801 2838920 2026-10-27T08:33:55Z Jtneill 10242 Book chapter feedback 2842801 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Generative AI Statment== Generative Artificial Intelligence tools were used in the development of this book chapter. Claude was used to develop a structural plan for completing the assessment. I uploaded a copy and paste of the assessment instructions along with the GenAI guidelines to ensure it would not provide me with any actual information and it would follow those clear guidelines. I asked, ''"Based on my assessment instructions, give me a structure of where to start and how to work through it section by section without actually including any writing of the assessment; I've also included the GenAI guidelines".'' The structure provided was useful, providing me with what I should complete day by day and section by section; however, I ended up not really using the structure it gave me as it did not take into consideration other assessments, work and personal commitments. I also uploaded a source (Schtulz, 1997) to Claude for a second opinion on if the source was relevant to the study, as a lot of the infomation was sourced on monkeys rather than humans. I consulted and sourced this article myself without the assistance of any generative AI platforms, and believed it was a great source; however, I was unsure if it was relevant as it was primarily based on animals. It assured me the article was relevant as long as I stated that the study was conducted on animals and that may be a limitation to the research. The Grammarly tool was also used for grammar, sentance structure and spell checking in the final steps of the assessment. Google Gemini was used to generate ''Figure One''. I, as the author, declare that I have not used GenAI for any unrestricted uses in the development, writing or editing of this assessment. <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title correctly worded; grammatical error in sub-title (fixed) <!-- 2-level --> # Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Good <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # The scenario is promising, but adapt it to make it more relatable to a wider international audience; university students represent only around 3% of the world's population # I increased the image size to make it easier to interpret <!-- Description --> # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # What are the most relevant psychological theories? # Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections. # This section suggests 4 questions; consolidate and integrate these questions into the focus question section. Ensure alignment between the sub-title, the focus questions, and the top-level headings. <!-- Focus questions --> <!-- Alignment and quality --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings <!-- Other --> # Use open- rather then close-ended focus questions # Use single- rather than double-barrelled focus questions # Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section <!-- Scope --> # The scope is about right, but it may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count; in that case, be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title. For example, the sections about sex, gambling, and drug use could instead be presented as feature boxes as practical examples. <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow <!-- Theory and research --> # Promising balance of theory and research # Consider using [https://support.studiosity.com/en/articles/489263-writing-feedback-how-it-works Studiosity Writing Feedback+] via UCLearn or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft. <!-- GenAI ---> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a reasonably clear description that is connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. [bold] ... (fixed) <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view (fixed) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Use alphabetical order <!-- External links --> # External links ## Basic ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Excellent <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Link(s) provided to professional profile(s) <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. }} <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is a basic chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* focus on explaining the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is acknowledged (I moved the acknowledgement to the talk page). #* The unit's genAI guidelines were not followed: #** No publicly available link to the AI conversations were provided #** Edit summaries were not used to indicate when genAI content was added <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPleasure_anticipation_and_dopamine&diff=2842800&oldid=2839558 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Reasonably good <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Insufficient explanation of the psychological problem or phenomenon # Convert the explanation of the problem from bullet-points into sentences and paragraphs <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant) |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Basic depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Very good use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Basic review of relevant research # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # The chapter uses a formulaic approach to critical thinking about research studies, strongly indicative of overreliance on genAI # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research # One way to deal with the limitations of a single study is to drawn on meta-analyses and systematic reviews about the topic. |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Basic, formulaic integration of theory and research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are summarised in a basic way <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Add practical, take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is basic, with several aspects below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## Use sentencer casing (fixed) ## Remove citations from headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar ## The grammar for many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors). <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well captioned <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use basic [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use very good APA style: ### More copy editing is needed to fix formatting inconsistencies |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Very good use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Good use of figure(s) # Reasonably good use of table(s) # Excellent use of feature box(es) # Reasonably gooduse of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Reasonably good use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end #<!-- Learning features – See also --> # Insufficient use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Insufficient use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~2 logged, useful, mostly moderate contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~2 logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:33, 27 October 2026 (UTC) == Recommendations for finalisation == Hey! I have reviewed your article for basic spelling and grammar, hope this helps with the last push! I think you have a great basis to go off and just need to do a few more things to have a really polished chapter. a few things I would recommend actioning in this final section before the assignment is due tomorrow. # Spelling and grammatical errors - I would do a major proof read as I am sure that I have not picked up all of the spelling errors in my pass. # there are a few sections where I would reword sentences as they are either long or do not flow naturally # update your reference list, or include more references to meet the minimum for the assignment (I would also add some more details in the see more link sections) Overall your chapter provides an informative overview of pleasure anticipation and dopamine, supported by relevant research and practical examples. However, I noticed a number of spelling and grammatical errors throughout that affect readability. I would recommend a thorough proofread, particularly focusing on sentence structure and clarity. Some paragraphs could also be more concise to improve the flow of information. Additionally, it may be worth reviewing the references to ensure all in-text citations are included in the reference list. Overall, the chapter is engaging and provides a useful explanation of the topic. Good luck! --[[User:U3216851|U3216851]] ([[User talk:U3216851|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216851|contribs]]) 10:01, 11 October 2026 (UTC) cy7wv8vas2tp3qc5jjas10r35abz8b4 2842802 2842801 2026-10-27T08:36:50Z Jtneill 10242 2842802 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Generative AI Statment== Generative Artificial Intelligence tools were used in the development of this book chapter. Claude was used to develop a structural plan for completing the assessment. I uploaded a copy and paste of the assessment instructions along with the GenAI guidelines to ensure it would not provide me with any actual information and it would follow those clear guidelines. I asked, ''"Based on my assessment instructions, give me a structure of where to start and how to work through it section by section without actually including any writing of the assessment; I've also included the GenAI guidelines".'' The structure provided was useful, providing me with what I should complete day by day and section by section; however, I ended up not really using the structure it gave me as it did not take into consideration other assessments, work and personal commitments. I also uploaded a source (Schtulz, 1997) to Claude for a second opinion on if the source was relevant to the study, as a lot of the infomation was sourced on monkeys rather than humans. I consulted and sourced this article myself without the assistance of any generative AI platforms, and believed it was a great source; however, I was unsure if it was relevant as it was primarily based on animals. It assured me the article was relevant as long as I stated that the study was conducted on animals and that may be a limitation to the research. The Grammarly tool was also used for grammar, sentance structure and spell checking in the final steps of the assessment. Google Gemini was used to generate ''Figure One''. I, as the author, declare that I have not used GenAI for any unrestricted uses in the development, writing or editing of this assessment. <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title correctly worded; grammatical error in sub-title (fixed) <!-- 2-level --> # Excellent – Well developed [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]]. Meaningful headings clearly relate directly to the core topic. <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Insufficient alignment between sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings <!-- GenAI ---> # Are the headings based on [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. |3= <!-- Overview--> # Good <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # The scenario is promising, but adapt it to make it more relatable to a wider international audience; university students represent only around 3% of the world's population # I increased the image size to make it easier to interpret <!-- Description --> # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # What are the most relevant psychological theories? # Simplify/abbreviate the description of the problem/topic. Move detail into subsequent sections. # This section suggests 4 questions; consolidate and integrate these questions into the focus question section. Ensure alignment between the sub-title, the focus questions, and the top-level headings. <!-- Focus questions --> <!-- Alignment and quality --> # Develop closer alignment between the sub-title, focus questions, and top-level headings <!-- Other --> # Use open- rather then close-ended focus questions # Use single- rather than double-barrelled focus questions # Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) # Present focus questions in a feature box at the end of this section |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent – key points are well developed for each section <!-- Scope --> # The scope is about right, but it may be that all planned aspects cannot be reasonably covered within the book chapter word count; in that case, be selective and concentrate on key aspects that address the question in the sub-title. For example, the sections about sex, gambling, and drug use could instead be presented as feature boxes as practical examples. <!-- Writing style --> # The writing style is clear and easy to follow <!-- Theory and research --> # Promising balance of theory and research # Consider using [https://support.studiosity.com/en/articles/489263-writing-feedback-how-it-works Studiosity Writing Feedback+] via UCLearn or a similar writing-support service (e.g., Grammarly) to improve the quality of written expression and check for grammatical and spelling errors in the book chapter draft. <!-- GenAI ---> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a reasonably clear description that is connected with the main text # Figure caption(s) should include '''Figure X'''. [bold] ... (fixed) <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) <!-- Size --> # Consider increasing image size(s) (especially if they have text) to make them easier to view (fixed) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # Add in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for first mention of key terms to [[w:|Wikipedia]] and/or [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]] (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Promising use of quiz question(s) # Place each quiz question in the most relevant section # Focus the quiz question(s) on the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent <!-- Systematic reviews --> # What are the most relevant systematic reviews/meta-analyses about this topic? |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## One of two link types provided ### Also link to relevant [[w:|Wikipedia]] pages ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Use alphabetical order <!-- External links --> # External links ## Basic ## Link to the most relevant external resources about this topic |9= <!-- User page --> # Excellent <!-- Description about self --> # Excellent description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Link(s) provided to professional profile(s) <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # One out of three types of contributions made with direct link(s) to evidence. The other types of contribution are making: #* direct improvements to other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] #* comments on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]s of other [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters (past or current)]] # To add direct links to evidence of Wikiversity edits or comments: view the page history, select the version of the page before and after your contributions, click "compare selected revisions", and paste the comparison URL on your user page. For more info, see [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Making and summarising social contributions|Making and summarising social contributions]]. This was demonstrated in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Social contributions|Tutorial 2]]. }} == Recommendations for finalisation == Hey! I have reviewed your article for basic spelling and grammar, hope this helps with the last push! I think you have a great basis to go off and just need to do a few more things to have a really polished chapter. a few things I would recommend actioning in this final section before the assignment is due tomorrow. # Spelling and grammatical errors - I would do a major proof read as I am sure that I have not picked up all of the spelling errors in my pass. # there are a few sections where I would reword sentences as they are either long or do not flow naturally # update your reference list, or include more references to meet the minimum for the assignment (I would also add some more details in the see more link sections) Overall your chapter provides an informative overview of pleasure anticipation and dopamine, supported by relevant research and practical examples. However, I noticed a number of spelling and grammatical errors throughout that affect readability. I would recommend a thorough proofread, particularly focusing on sentence structure and clarity. Some paragraphs could also be more concise to improve the flow of information. Additionally, it may be worth reviewing the references to ensure all in-text citations are included in the reference list. Overall, the chapter is engaging and provides a useful explanation of the topic. Good luck! --[[User:U3216851|U3216851]] ([[User talk:U3216851|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216851|contribs]]) 10:01, 11 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is a basic chapter # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* focus on explaining the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics #* overuse of unacknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested in preparing this chapter <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Excellent use of [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to clearly communicate the changes made in most or all of the main edits <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is acknowledged (I moved the acknowledgement to the talk page). #* The unit's genAI guidelines were not followed: #** No publicly available link to the AI conversations were provided #** Edit summaries were not used to indicate when genAI content was added <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims # Only cite sources that you consult <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Under the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]], so there is room to expand <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FPleasure_anticipation_and_dopamine&diff=2842800&oldid=2839558 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Reasonably good <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Engaging scenario or case study <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Insufficient explanation of the psychological problem or phenomenon # Convert the explanation of the problem from bullet-points into sentences and paragraphs <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are excellent (clear and relevant) |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Basic—a basic range of relevant theories are selected, described, and explained; there is considerable room for improvement <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Builds effectively on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Basic depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Very good use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological theory about the topic. <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Basic review of relevant research # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # The chapter uses a formulaic approach to critical thinking about research studies, strongly indicative of overreliance on genAI # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research # One way to deal with the limitations of a single study is to drawn on meta-analyses and systematic reviews about the topic. |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Basic, formulaic integration of theory and research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are summarised in a basic way <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Add practical, take-home message(s) |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is basic, with several aspects below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter is well structured, with major sections using sub-sections ## Use sentencer casing (fixed) ## Remove citations from headings <!-- Written expression – Grammar --> # Grammar ## The grammar for many sentences could be improved (e.g., see {{g}} tags); consider using a grammar checking tool, [https://www.studiosity.com/students/ Studiosity], and/or peer feedback ## Use past tense when describing research studies, although implications of findings could be in the present tense <!-- Written expression – Copy editing --> # Copy editing ## Further [[w:Copy editing|copy editing]] is needed to improve written expression and bring the chapter closer to a professional standard (e.g., correcting punctuation, spelling, grammar, and typographical errors). <!-- Written expression – APA style --> # APA style ## Use [[w:Serial comma|serial comma]]s[https://www.buzzfeed.com/adamdavis/the-oxford-comma-is-extremely-important-and-everyone-should][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBx8ooDupXY] ## Use double (not single) quotation marks "to introduce a word or phrase used ... as slang, or as an invented or coined expression" ([https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style 7th ed.], 2020, p. 159) ## Use [https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/capitalization/diseases-disorders-therapies sentence casing (not capitals) for disorders, therapies, theories, etc.] <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well captioned <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – Tables --> ## Tables ### Add an APA style caption to each table ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Tables|see example]]) <!-- Written expression – Tables - Citations --> ### Refer to each Table at least once within the main text (e.g., see Table 1) <!-- Written expression – Citations --> # Citations use basic [https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition APA Style (7th ed.)] # In many places, better use could be made of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) ## If there are three or more authors, cite the first author followed by et al., then year. For example, either: ### in-text, Smith et al. (2020), or ### in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] (Smith et al., 2020) ## Do not include author first name or initials ## Move embedded links to non-peer reviewed sources into the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section; only cite peer-reviewed sources ## Use ampersand (&) inside [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] and "and" outside parentheses <!-- Written expression – References --> ## References use very good APA style: ### More copy editing is needed to fix formatting inconsistencies |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Excellent/Very good/Good/Reasonably good/Basic/Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Very good use of embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding more interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text even more interactive. See [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Nutrition and anxiety|example]]. <!-- Learning features – Wikiversity embedded links --> # Add embedded in-text links to related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Good use of figure(s) # Reasonably good use of table(s) # Excellent use of feature box(es) # Reasonably gooduse of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # Reasonably good use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) # The quiz questions could be more effective as learning prompts by being embedded as single questions within each corresponding section rather than as a set of questions at the end #<!-- Learning features – See also --> # Insufficient use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Also include links to related Wikipedia articles ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Insufficient use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use the format shown in the [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#External links|template]] ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Include sources in [[w:Bracket#Parentheses|parentheses]] after the link ## Target an international audience ## Add more links ## Link to the top 3-6 external resources about this topic |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~2 logged, useful, mostly moderate contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] # ~2 logged contributions without [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]], so unable to easily verify and assess. See [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]] for guidance about how to get direct links to evidence. # Thanks for the image uploads; these could be added to the list of contributions }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:33, 27 October 2026 (UTC) 693o4g7f5t504z4ezow3fjsp6skuahs 1 332064 2842769 2841372 2026-10-27T04:04:09Z Jtneill 10242 Book chapter feedback 2842769 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- Official topic development feedback --> {{METF/2026 |1= <!-- Title --> # Title and subtitle are correctly worded and use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] |2= <!-- Heading structure --> <!-- 2-level --> # Promising [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project/Structure|2-level heading structure]] – could benefit from further development (expand) # There may be conceptual overlap between some sections <!-- Alignment with focus questions --> # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and heading structure, but aim for closer alignment |3= <!-- Overview--> # Good <!-- GenAI ---> # Does this section include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, it needs to be acknowledged as such in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Scenario --> # A scenario or case study is presented in a feature box with an image at the start of this section # I moved an image into the feature box to help attract reader interest <!-- Description --> # A promising description of the problem/topic is planned or presented # What are the most relevant psychological theories? <!-- Focus questions --> <!-- Alignment and quality --> # Reasonably good alignment between focus questions and top-level headings, but consider closer alignment # Avoid double-barrelled questions # There may be conceptual overlap between some questions; consider consolidating |4= <!-- Key points--> <!-- Overall --> # Promising development # Focus on providing an integrative review of the most relevant theories and research on the topic # Provide more detailed edit summaries <!-- Citations --> # Basic use of citations <!-- GenAI ---> # Do these key points include [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI content]]? If so, this needs to be acknowledged in the edit summaries, otherwise it violates academic integrity. <!-- Conclusion --> # Conclusion is underway # What are the practical, take-home messages? (address the focus questions) |5= <!-- Figure --> # Relevant figure(s) are presented and captioned <!-- Caption --> # Figure caption(s) provide(s) a somewhat clear description that is connected with the main text, but could be improved <!-- Cite --> # Cite each figure at least once in the main text using APA style (e.g., see Figure 1) |6= <!-- Learning feature --> <!-- Interwiki links ---> # One in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki link]] for first mention of key term to [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book chapters]]. Also embed links to [[w:|Wikipedia]]. <!-- Scenarios/examples/case studies --> # Consider incorporating additional scenarios, examples, or case studies to illustrate key concepts. These could build on the Overview scenario or introduce new real-world situations in the main body of the chapter to demonstrate how the concepts apply in practice. <!-- Quiz --> # Consider including quiz question(s) about the take-home messages <!-- Tables --> # Also consider using [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|table(s)]] to summarise key information |7= <!-- References --> <!-- Overall --> # Excellent <!-- Systematic reviews --> # Well done on identifying relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses <!-- APA style --> # Check and correct [https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/reference-guide.pdf APA referencing style]: ## [[Help:Wikitext quick reference|italicisation]] |8= <!-- Resources --> <!-- See also --> # See also ## Very good ## Use bullet-points (see [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]]) ## Use alphabetical order <!-- External links --> # External links ## Very good ## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence casing|sentence casing]] ## Use alphabetical order <!-- User page --> # Used effectively <!-- Description about self --> # Description about self provided <!-- Links to profile(s) --> # Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks. <!-- Link to book chapter --> # A link to the book chapter is provided |10= <!-- Social contribution --> # Excellent – at least three different types of contributions with direct link(s) to evidence }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:16, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == Suggestion about chapter == Hi, You made really good progress for your book chapter. I found Wallas’ Four-Stage Model of the Creative Process theory related to creativity, which I thought you can include in your book chapter. Please find reference below for the theory: Sadler-Smith, E. (2015). Wallas’ Four-Stage Model of the Creative Process: More Than Meets the Eye? Creativity Research Journal, 27(4), 342–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2015.1087277 All the best. --[[User:P U3270518|P U3270518]] ([[User talk:P U3270518|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/P U3270518|contribs]]) 09:38, 16 September 2026 (UTC) == Reccomendations: Overview and headings == Hello, I really like this topic and I think you've encapculated the core components of it very well in your book chapter so far. As I am a super creative person, I love this topic. I have two main points of feedback, feel free to take pieces or ignore entirely. I am obviously a student (same as you) and am writing this feedback based on my own understanding of what the assessment requires. Hope this helps. :) For the overview, you brought up two distinct components of your topic (creativity and then effort) which is good but you may have gone on a little bit too long. I believe if you were to shorten your overview to just the scenario, you could get your point accross more succinctly. See my example of your scenario trimmed: "''You have been staring at a blank page for hours, trying to come up with an original idea for a creative project. Just when you decide to take a break, an idea suddenly comes to you. You feel excited and inspired, and you immediately start working. At first, everything seems to flow naturally and you feel confident about what you are creating. As you continue, however, the excitement begins to fade. The idea is harder to develop than you expected, and finishing the project requires concentration, persistence, and several changes along the way.'' Where did that initial creative spark go and how and why does one persevere despite it?" Then I would proceed to add your explanation beneath the scenario. I did a little rewording to help clarify your key points. "''This experience shows how inspiration can provide a starting point for creativity but also that creativity does not depend on inspiration alone, particularly in its execution. Inspiration can help people recognise new possibilities and motivate them to turn those possibilities into action (Oleynick et al., 2014) while developing the initial idea can require continual effort, revision, problem-solving, and persistence. This raises an interesting question: Does inspiration drive us to put effort into creative work, or can the effort we put into creating also lead to new inspiration?"'' I did remove one of your sources as I found it detracted from the actual concepts you were discussing in your scenario. I'm sure it'd be very easy to reuse it in the body of your chapter so don't stress. My next major piece of advice actual involves your heading and chapter structure. This is not to say I believe all the work you have done is void, but I believe reorganising and clarifying creative features will really strengthen your chapter (aforementioned, I'm very passionate about this topic lol) Here's my suggestion on a potential structure shift. (H = heading, SH = subheading) H1 Creativity SH1 Creativity and humanity. Here is where I would outline what creativity actually is. What mechanisms define it? Why do we do it? (socially, culturally, etc) This can be really broad and involve pretty much anything you want but I believe starting with a strong explanation of this key component will really strengthen your chapter overall. Again, it may seem obvious, but the concept itself is very difficult to pin down in one classification. SH2 Creativity and inspiration. This is where I would discuss what it means to be creatively inspired. I would link this back to your original paragraph in your first heading+ this point you made after your scenario. "'''''Creative inspiration can give people new ideas and motivate them to start creating.''' It can also help people see new possibilities and feel more interested in developing an idea. Inspiration can connect the discovery of an idea with the motivation to pursue it. This is reflected in the distinction between being “inspired by” something and being “inspired to” act on it (Oleynick et al., 2014).''" You may use that piece as this headings finisher perhaps. H2 Effort SH1 Effort. What is it and why is it important? Again, rinse and repeat above. What is effort? Why is it hard? Why do we feel inclined to do it more in certain situations than others? I would recoommend linking in motiviational theories (Perhaps something to do with goals?) for effort or tie it into other models discussed in class when your explain it. I would try to focus more on the motivational explanations here rather than direct application to creativity, for fear of sounding repetitive throughout the chapter. SH2 How effort applies to creativity. Applying the above explanation to creativity. I would definitly tie in some motiviational theories here, particularly to do with success and goals. H3 Insipration - the middle ground between creativity and effort (or some such title, you write what you like). You probably don't need subheadings for this (really depends on your word count so far I guess) but this is where I would discuss the interchangeable socioeconomics of inspiration on creativity/effort/persistence (which is a component you've mentioned a few times in your book chapter so far. When I say socioeconomics, I don't mean the impact of one on the other (I would save that for my final heading/conclusion) but rather the manifestation of them. A theoretical case study could be a good way to do this. Say there are three people, one with objectively high amounts of inspiration, one with objectively higher amounts of creativity, and one with objectively higher amounts of effort. Posing questions to your readers such as "in a task of putting together a lego set, which person do you think would complete the task first?" Would give them a chance to apply the knowledge they've learnt recently. You can then give the answers to each question by explaining the practical application of each component and how that would shape their behavior. I.e. "As mentioned in the efforts heading, person #3 would theoritically be more inclined to complete the lego set faster as the process involves less creativity or inspiration and more effort." Explain, seperate, apply, question, answer. Obviously this is just one option of how you could do this. You may choose to not to and that's also fine. (I would recommend not linking the three components until H4 UNLESS you have enough words/not enough content in H3. Then you may want to make H4 a SH in H3. Again, this is totally up to you, it's just how i would focus on it.) H4 Creativity, inspiration, effort. Here is where I would tie in the three realms youve discussed and then loop it all back into 1. how people can generate more creativity, 2. how they can increase insipration, 3. how they can practice dicipline to increase effort application. Here I would really focus on the application of these constructs into practical senses. Maybe tie it into your first scenario. I.e. how the person applied motiviational psychology to increase their inclination to putting in effort which in turn improved their capacty to be creative as they did not believe themselves to be as limited in terms of skills as they has originally. You have 90% of your information already down pat, I just think it would benefit reorganisation to further clarify the flow of how your model works and tie it in a bit better to real world application. Good job and good luck [[User:Monuc9|Monuc9]] ([[User talk:Monuc9|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Monuc9|contribs]]) 03:07, 9 October 2026 (UTC) ==General feedback== This looks like an interesting topic and I think the overall structure works well. one area that might be worth developing further is the effort -> inspiration side of the relationship. currently there is quite a lot explaining how inspiration can motivate effort, but less on how persistence and continued creative work could lead to new ideas. part of my research question is about goal persistence which is why this probably jumped out to me. A couple of sources that might be useful are: The dual pathway to creativity model: creative ideation as function of flexibility and persistence: https://doi.org/10.1080/10463281003765323 chapter five - the creation and curation of all things worthy: inspiration as vital force in persons and cultures: 10.1016/bs.adms.2020.01.002 - jack4234 <!-- Official book chapter feedback --> {{MEBF/2026 |1= <!-- Overall comments... --> # This is an insufficient chapter # I don't think there was much inspiration or creative effort behind the drafting of this chapter; I suspect that the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment#Assessment items|recommended 75 hours]] were not invested # The main area(s) for potential improvement: #* use the best psychological theory about the topic #* more detailed review of the best psychological research about the topic #* quality of written expression; overuse of insufficiently acknowledged [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI]] (watch out for [[w:AI slop|AI slop]])—express more in your own words #* integrate more strongly with other chapters by using embedded links to related topics <!-- Overall - Edit summaries --> #* Insufficient use [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Edit summary|edit summaries]] to describe the changes made in each edit <!-- Overall - GenAI --> #* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|GenAI use]] is not appropriately acknowledged: #** Links to chat are not accessible #** No description of the changes made using genAI is provided in edit summaries <!-- Overall – Citations --> # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations to support claims <!-- Overall – Word count --> # Over the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Wordcount|maximum word count]]. Content beyond 4,000 words has been ignored for marking purposes. <!-- Overall – Copyedits --> # For additional feedback, see the following comments and [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2026%2FCreative_inspiration_and_effort&diff=2842768&oldid=2839542 these copyedits] |2= <!-- Overview – Comments... --> # Basic <!-- Overview – Scenario --> <!-- Overview – Scenario - Description --> # Reasonably engaging scenario or case study # The scenario reads like unacknowledged genAI content # Abbreviate the scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Figure --> # Figure 1 is relevant to the scenario <!-- Overview – Scenario - Feature box --> # The scenario uses an appropriate feature box <!-- Overview – Explains problem --> # Use sentences and paragraphs # Description of problem is too long/overly complicated/generic genAI—explain the psychological problem or phenomenon in a simple way. Move detail into subsequent sections. # Clarity of written expression can be improved <!-- Overview – Focus questions --> # The focus questions are reasonably good # The focus questions could be improved by: ## there are probably too many overlapping questions # Are the focus questions based on genAI? |3= <!-- Theory comments... --> <!-- Theory – Breadth --> # Insufficient use of relevant psychological theory about this topic <!-- Theory – Builds on --> # Build more strongly on [[w:|Wikipedia]] articles and/or/but not related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] by embedding interwiki links for key terms <!-- Theory – Depth --> # Insufficient depth is provided about key theory(ies) <!-- Theory – Tables/Figures/Lists --> # Insufficient use of tables, figures, and/or lists to clearly convey key theoretical information <!-- Theory – Citations --> # Insufficient use of academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags) # If you didn't consult an original source, don't cite it <!-- Theory – Examples --> # Basic use of examples to illustrate theoretical concepts # Use more examples to illustrate theoretical concepts |4= <!-- Research comments... --> <!-- Research – Key findings --> # Insufficient review of relevant research # Insufficient use of relevant systematic reviews and/or meta-analyses # Provide more detail about the methodology and findings of key studies # In many places, the chapter could be strengthened by including more academic, peer-reviewed citations (e.g., see the {{f}} tags). This would help to demonstrate a deeper understanding of relevant psychological science about the topic. <!-- Research – Critical thinking --> # Insufficient [[w:Critical thinking|critical thinking]] about relevant research is evident # [[w:Critical thinking|Critical thinking]] about research could be further evidenced by: ## describing the methodology (e.g., sample, measures) in important studies ## considering the strength of relationships ## acknowledging limitations ## pointing out specific critiques/counterarguments ## suggesting ''specific'' directions for future research |5= <!-- Integration comments... --> # Basic integration between the most relevant theory(ies) and the best research # The chapter places more emphasis on theory than on research; strive for an integrated balance # Rather than describing individual studies separately, synthesise findings across related studies to identify common themes, patterns, and differences in the evidence # Insufficient integration with related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|chapters]] |6= <!-- Conclusion comments... --> # Insufficient as a cohesive summary drawn from human reading of the best psychological theory and research about the topic # Reads like generic [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Using generative AI|genAI output]]; write more compellingly in your own words # Highlight the importance of the problem or phenomenon of interest <!-- Conclusion – Key points --> # Key points are summarised in a basic way <!-- Conclusion – Focus questions --> # Address the focus questions <!-- Conclusion – Take-home messages --> # Add practical, take-home message(s) <!-- Conclusion – Word count --> # Only partially counted for marking purposes due to the chapter being over the maximum word count |7= <!-- Written expression – Style comments... --> <!-- Written expression – Written expression --> # Written expression ## The quality of written expression is below professional standard. [https://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/study-skills UC Study Skills] assistance is recommended to help improve writing skills. ### GenAI is over-used; write more in your own words, based on your own knowledge based on reading the primary sources ### This chapter "spins its wheels" by repeating the same ideas in different ways ## Bullet points are overused. Use full sentences and paragraphs. <!-- Written expression – Layout --> # Layout ## The chapter structure is underdeveloped; expand by using subheadings <!-- Written expression – Figures --> ## Figures ### Very well captioned <!-- Written expression – Figures - Citations --> ### Refer to each Figure at least once within the main text (e.g., "(see Figure 1)") <!-- Written expression – References --> ## The Reference is too brief ## References use very good APA style: ### Check and correct use of italicisation <!-- Feedback responsiveness ---> ## No evidence of responsiveness to feedback on talk page |8= <!-- Learning features comments... --> # Insufficient use of learning features <!-- Learning features – Wikipedia embedded links --> # Add more embedded in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] to Wikipedia articles. Adding interwiki links for the first mention of key words and technical concepts would make the text more interactive. 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Embedding in-text links to related book chapters helps to integrate this chapter into the broader book project. <!-- Learning features – Figures, tables, feature boxes, scenarios --> # Insufficient use of figure(s) # No use of table(s) # No use of feature boxes other than the opening scenario # Basic use of scenarios, case studies, or examples <!-- Learning features – Quizzes --> # No use of quiz(zes) and/or reflection question(s) <!-- Learning features – See also --> # Basic use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#See also|See also]] section ## Use bullet points per [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 2]] ## Use alphabetical order <!-- Learning features – External links --> # Basic use of the [[{{PAGENAME}}#External links|External links]] section ## Use [https://www.masterclass.com/articles/sentence-case-explained sentence casing] ## Use alphabetical order |9= <!-- Social contribution comments... --> # ~4 logged, useful, mostly moderate contributions with [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#How to add direct links to contributions|direct links to evidence]] }} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 04:04, 27 October 2026 (UTC) oqfkwbp7ug8eggksefj74715us5mbvd 2 332067 2842721 2833306 2026-10-26T21:46:05Z U3280122 3110471 2842721 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi my name is Natalia. I am studying this unit motivation and emotion at the University Of Canberra. This was my social contribution: [[User talk:U3280122#c-U3280122-20261026214500-Feedback]] 1srqvc3slnzqu3s9g0kcv9iy9cd7f0l 2842728 2842721 2026-10-26T21:58:45Z U3280122 3110471 2842728 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi my name is Natalia. I am studying this unit motivation and emotion at the University Of Canberra. This was my social contribution: [[User talk:U3280122#c-U3280122-20261026214500-Feedback for need to love and be loved]] and [[User talk:U3280122#c-U3280122-20261026215400-= feedback for Cognitive hardiness and stress resilience]] 7dlruwn1shjojgdc7brqhtpk289xgvz 0 332412 2842739 2842603 2026-10-26T23:18:28Z Scogdill 1331941 2842739 wikitext text/x-wiki =Event= International championship boxing match between British Jem Smith and Australian Frank Slavin on 23 December 1889 in Bruges, Belgium. ==Overview== On 23 December 1889 a championship boxing match in Bruges ended with cheating on the British side: British Jim Smith was losing, so his supporters entered the ring, took advantage of Smith's holding Australian Frank Slavin and beat him up, using fists, sticks, "knuckle-dusters," "life preservers" and boots. The referee called it a draw to prevent Slavin from being killed and then fled. The ''Cork Constitution'' called it "the Smith-Slavin piece of brutality."<ref>"Mr. Abington." ''Cork Constitution'' 14 January 1890, Tuesday: 7 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive''https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001648%2F18900114&page=7&article=099&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same title and p.</ref> A knuckle-duster was "A metal instrument made to cover the knuckles,"<ref>“Knuckle-duster, ''N.''”  ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP,  December 2024, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/6130372797.</ref> like brass knuckles, and a life preserver was "A stick or truncheon weighted at one end" with lead.<ref>“Life-preserver, ''N.''”  ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford UP,  September 2026, https://doi.org/10.1093/OED/1055046410.</ref> One meeting of the boxing-oriented London Pelican Club was held almost immediately. Then a series of meetings following an investigation occurred in the first week of January (the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Pelican Club Meeting Smith-Slavin match|Pelican Club meetings]] referred to below). Slavin followed this fight with a challenge for American John L. Sullivan, saying he would fight in America or Australia, but not in a private venue in England. Many, many newspapers covered this fight and the reaction to it in the boxing community. Copy-and-paste journalism and the lack of copyright laws means that many of the stories are all or in part identical to others, so no attempt has been made to offer complete coverage. ==Logistics== * 23 December 1889, 8:00 a.m. * Stakes: £1,000 ==Related Events== * [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Pelican Club Meeting Smith-Slavin match|Pelican Club Meetings about the Smith-Slavin match]] * the "[[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]]" ==Who Was Present== # [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Kim Montagu, Viscount Mandeville]] # Jem Smith, British boxer # Frank Slavin, Australian boxer # Lord Rosslyn # Sir M. Sandys # Mr. G. Abington Baird, Smith's manager? and horseman (see description in Anthology) ==Entertainment== ==Anthology== === Dundee ''Evening Telegraph'' === This Wednesday, 25 December 1889 article describes Slavin's reception in London after the fight. Viscount Mandeville was there, suggesting that he was a Slavin supporter:<blockquote>There was (says a sporting correspondent) great excitement in London yesterday over the fight of Monday, and all classes of the community expressed their abhorrence of the proceedings adopted by the Smith party. It was known early that Slavin would journey up from his quarters at Margate about mid-day, and by two o'clock there was a large gathering in and about the Holborn Viaduct Station. By three o'clock the crowd had increased enormously. The train arrived behind time. As soon as Slavin and Mr Taylor were recognised, a loud cheer was raised. So great was the crush that it was only with the greatest difficulty that the Australians could make their way to the street. The reception accorded the champion, although very gratifying, was somewhat rough, Slavin and his party being forced across the road before they could take refuge in a hansom. Among those present were John Lewis, Slavin's manager; [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], E. Bayley, and other well-known sportsmen. From the station Slavin went, in answer to an urgent request, to the Stock Exchange, where another enthusiastic reception waited him. A move was then made to the office of the ''Sportsman'' in Fleet Street. Among those who were present to offer their sympathy and congratulations to Slavin on what all considered to be a victory were [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Lord Mandeville]], Ike White, E. Bayley, George Knight, W. Riley, C. Mitchell, J. Goldberg, J. Kilby, F. Symes, F. Hinde, and a score of well-known boxers. Shouts for Slavin were kept up outside, and the crowd could not be silenced until Slavin went to the window. He bowed his acknowledgments, and after much difficulty obtained a hearing. He thanked the multitude for his great reception, at which three cheers wore raised for him, and a corresponding number of groans for Smith. Later Slavin dined at the Albert Club where a Testimonial Committee was formed. At seven o'clock Slavin departed for Margate. Smith remained in Bruges until one o'clock on Monday, when, in company with Baldock and Harper he left for London ''via'' Calais. They arrived in London at eleven o'clock, Smith going home in company with a friend. Smith has a wound over the right eye, and his face is much swollen.<ref>"London Gives the Colonist a Great Reception." ''Dundee Evening Telegraph'' 25 December 1889, Wednesday: 3 [of 4], Col. 6b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000453%2F18891225&page=3&article=052&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Print title: ''TheEvening Telegraph'', n.p.</ref></blockquote> === ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' === The Sunday, 29 December 1899, of ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' published a detailed account of the fight.<blockquote>The fight between Slavin and Smith took place on Monday morning upon private property in the outskirts of Bruges. Various spots, both at home and abroad, were from time to time named as the possible battle-field, but finally it became known to a certain select few that an English gentleman, Mr. Atkinson-Grimshaw, residing near Bruges, had placed his grounds at the disposal of the combatants. The host is a well-known breeder of fowls; and he certainly did not expect the quality of fighting cock which responded to his invitation. The ground was encircled by large trees, which secured the utmost privacy. About forty persons assembled at the ring-side, including Viscount Royston, Viscount Mandeville, Mr. Abington, Mr. Harris, Mr. W. Riley, Mr. P. Kotchie, Mr. Ike White, the Hon. M. Sandys, Mr E. Bayley, Mr. C. Parsons, Mr. J. Kilby, Mr. C. Morton, and other well-known "sports." Smith was dressed first, and had to wait a few minutes for Slavin. The Englishman appeared in white flannel drawers, white socks, and lace-up boots; while the Australian wore black drawers, blue socks, and lace-up boots. Harper and Baldock were seconds, Howes bottle holder, and Mr. Fleming umpire for Smith; Cosnett and Bob Kirby, Mr. Taylor, and Mr. W. Riley acting in similar capacities for Slavin. Mr. Joe Vesey officiated as referee and Mr. Calder as time-keeper. The men were in the ring at 8.25, and ten minutes later the fight began. After the first two rounds everything went in favour of Slavin, who in the third round knocked Smith clean off his legs with a terrific right-hander. He repeated this operation four or five times subsequently and surprised many of the spectators by the determined way in which he fought. In the thirteenth round he doubled Smith up with a fearful blow under the left ribs, and the Englishman's friends, seeing that Smith was almost beaten, raised a cry of "Police!" Smith was hurried from the ring; but Slavin and his friends refused to budge, and, after "Time" had been called, they claimed the fight. The referee, who appeared afraid to give a just decision, was surrounded by partisans of Smith, who had meanwhile come back, and eventually ordered the fight to proceed. Prior to this Slavin had been repeatedly kicked on the legs and hit on the body and head with sticks and knuckle-dusters. These gross and cowardly outrages were committed in Smith's corner, where all the fighting took place from start to finish. The next round, the fourteenth, was the last. Slavin fought in a most determined fashion, and when he was punishing Smith heavily, the latter caught the Australian round the waist and held him on to the ropes, whilst the ruffians standing around beat and kicked him in a most cowardly fashion. Amid cries of foul, the pair fell to the ground, and, on the men taking their corners, the referee said he would act no longer, as it was perfectly clear Slavin was not to have fair play. This created immense excitement, during which the referee declared the light a draw, and, crossing to Slavin, said, "I do not want to stay here to see you killed." Afterwards the roughs tried to get at Slavin, who, however, managed to hide in a barn. Later on he went with a few of his friends to Bruges, where he caught the train for Ostend, and came over to Dover, thence proceeding to Margate. Smith and his friends were left behind at Bruges. Round 1. — Slavin stood over Smith with a longer reach. Both sparred cantiously at the opening, Slavin at length leading off and landing heavily on Smith's chest, jumping back out of danger. Sparring again Slavin landed full on Smith's mouth. Heavy in-fighting followed, the men closing and falling together. When Slavin rose it was seen that he was bleeding from the mouth. Time, 1min. 30sec. Round 2. — Slavin fought Smith right into his own corner. There was a disgraceful scrimmage there among Smith's friends, Slavin being badly used. Both men fell together. Time, 15sec. Smith's party shouted out that their man had been spiked by Slavin's boots. The referee, thus appealed to, declared that the men had spiked each other. Round 3. — Smith showed to better advantage in this round, getting home both right and left twice in quick succession on the Australian's body. Sharp close in-fighting followed, Smith going down before a terrific right-hander. (First knock-down blow to Slavin.) Round 4. — Both men were blowing when they came up for this round. The fighting was again fast and furious, Smith at length cross-buttocking Slavin. The Englishman, however, did not fall on him. Round 5. — A light round, Smith going down before a light blow. Time, 11sec. Round 6. — Slavin came up very determined, and forced the fighting at a great pace. He drove Smith all over the ring, landing with his right a heavy blow over the right eye. Smith went down bleeding freely from a gash on the forehead. Round 7. — Smith came up stronger and did some of the forcing work, beating Slavin for a moment on to the ropes. While in this position one of the crowd of roughs deliberately kicked the Australian, who, however, took no notice of the cowardly attack. Both the combatants got away from the ropes and fought to the middle of the ring, where Smith slipped, and both were taken to their corners. Round 8. — Slavin did the opening work in this round, driving Smith round the ring and finally into his corner, where, as usual, his friends were ready to protect him. Smith came out again, when Slavin landed heavily with right and left, and Smith sought the ground. Round — 9 There were heavy exchanges from the outset, Slavin giving his man no rest, and driving him back into his corner. While there one of the mob struck Slavin on the head a violent blow. Time, 1min. Round 10. — This was a far more sportsmanlike round. Smith stood up well in the centre of the ring, and fought it out without the assistance of his friends. There was hard fighting from first to last of a close order, both getting home some terrific body blows. Both fell together. Round 11. — Smith looked tired and led off feebly while Slavin returned with right and left on the head, cutting open the Englishman's cheek on the left side. Smith landed his left again, Smith countering heavily. Smith then rushed upon the Australian, who met him with a severe blow on the mouth, and then sent him down with a terrific right-hander. Round 12. — The disturbances at the ring had now become so unbearable that the referee cautioned the seconds to keep to their corners, and not to interfere with the principals during the progress of the round. The round was of the cautious order, Smith finally being sent to grass again from a heavy right-hand blow on the jaw. Time, 1min. 30sec. Round 13. — Slavin again did all the leading, fighting the Englishman round the ring, and forcing him into his corner. There were some heavy exehanges, Smith's friends again assisting their man by hitting freely at Slavin. Round 14 and last. — Just a second before "Time" was called, Slavin, remarking on the treatment he had received, said, "Are you Englishmen, boys?" This was received with derisive shouts from Smith's party, and then, in an instant, a cry of "Police" was raised. The whole of the Smith party instantly decamped, hurrying their man along with them. Slavin, however, declined to stir, and his friends shouted that it was only a ruse to stop the fight. After a time the Smith  party returned, and Slavin then said to Baldock, the most prominent of Jem Smith's seconds, "Why don't you give me fair play?" Slavin's seconds claimed the fight, but the referee ordered them to fight on. The tactics of the Englishman's supporters were now very evident, but Slavin, who was only anxious to have the fight out to an end, advanced into the  centre of the ring, and again beat the Englishman back into his own corner. A scrimmage ensued, both men landing heavily, and the mob in Smith's corner then closed upon Slavin, who was again kicked and struck. The Australian, however, paid no attention to anyone except Smith, and he finished up the round by throwing him heavily. The referee then said, "I shall refuse to act any longer. This man" — pointing  to Slavin — "can't have fair play. I declare it a draw." Smith seemed well at the finish, and Slavin was certainly full of fight and disgusted at having been robbed of victory by the cowardly attacks of roughs. The Australian had fought in the fairest and most plucky manner throughout, forcing the Englishman back into his corner in nearly every round, and keeping him there. Here the fight came to an end, the referee exclaiming, "I shall refuse to act any longer. I shall declare it a draw." There was considerable surprise among Slavin and his supporters, and the Australian said, "I came 16,000 miles to win, and why don't you give a man a chance?" After some little delay the company dispersed. The time at the end of the fight was eight minutes to nine. Mr. Cecil Raleigh, hon. secretary of the Pelican Club, 21, Denman-street W., writes as follows:— "As an impression prevails that the Smith and Slavin fight was arranged under the patronage of this club, I should esteem it a favour if you would allow me to state emphatically that the Pelican Club gave no countenance to the affair in any way whatever, and had nothing to do with it." Directly the news became known in London the greatest indignation prevailed in all the clubs at the dastardly way in which Slavin had been treated. Subsequently some forty or fifty gentlemen proceeded to the Pelican to demand the instant and public repudiation on the part of the committee with any official cognizance of the arrangements for the fight, and also for the summary punishment of those who had dragged prize fighting down to the lowest depth of degradation and blackguardism. In accordance with these demands, and in full sympathy with them, those members present, conjointly with the proprietor, immediately sent out telegrams summoning an extraordinary meeting of the committee. That Slavin has now a right to the title (empty though it be) of "champion" is clearly supported by the 24th rule of the Prize Ring, which runs as follows:— "Any pugilist voluntarily quitting the ring previous to the deliberate judgment of the referee being obtained shall be deemed to have lost the fight." It seemed a pity that Mr. Vesey should not have had sufficient support to enforce what was uadoubtedly the judgment of all impartial spectators of round thirteen. Arrival of Slavin at Margate. Slavin arrived at Margate at half-past seven on Monday evening, and met with a flattering reception. During his training in the town he had become a general favourite with those who took an interest in the event. Sympathy was almost wholly on his side, and during the day news was anxiously awaited. At the station he was met by a four-in-hand and the town band, and proceeded to the Elephant Hotel, the band playing, "See the conquering hero comes." Along the Parade, on which was assembled a large crowd of people, he was loudly cheered. At the Elephant Hotel, there was a large crowd of people, and the reception was most enthusiastic. Slavin briefly addressed the gathering, thanking them for the reception he had received. His intention, he said, when [Col. 4c–5a] he left England was to win the championship or lose it fairly, and he was sorry that the fight had ended in such a fiasco. Inside the hotel the scene was very exciting, and Slavin received the hearty congratulations of his friends at the slight punishment he had received. He then left for the Nayland Rock Hotel, his quarters, and on the road was loudly cheered. Upon arriving at the hotel, Slavin retired, accompanied by his second, Joss Cosnett, after which the correspondent of the Press Association was introduced to him. The first question put was, "Well, Slavin, how have you fared?" "Very badly," responded the Australian. "As far as the roughs were concerned, I never witnessed anything more disgraceful in all my experience. My treatment at their hands has been most cruel, and nothing I could say would sufficiently emphasize what I mean. I am very pleased indeed at  the reception I received on my arrival at Margate. Nothing could have been more enthusiastic. You see what punishment I have received. It is not from Smith so much as it is from the outsiders." — Joss Cosnett: Smith did not bit him any more than I am hitting you. The conduct of the roughs round the ring was shameful. Slavin: The treatment I have received from them was most unmanly. I am sure the roughs never meant it to be fought out. They intended to have a draw if they found their man losing. Several of Smith's backers, including two well-known noblemen, were disgusted, and threw his colours away and put mine on, as a protest, I suppose, against the treatment I had received. To speak the truth, I would not like to see a dog treated as I was. All I am anxious for now is to meet Sullivan for the championship of the world for £500 to £1,000, or anyone else. I am willing and ready to meet and fight anybody for the championship before I go back to Australia. The Pelican Club and the Fight. A meeting was held at the Pelican Club at one o'clock on Tuesday afternoon. At the conclusion the hon. secretary, Mr. Cecil Raleigh, furnished the following report:— "In view of the reports of what had occurred at the Smith and Slavin fight a special meeting of the committee of the Pelican Club was instantly convened by telegraph for this afternoon. There was a large attendance of the committee, among those present being the Marquis of Queensbury, Mr. John Corlett, and other well-known sportsmen. It was unanimously determined to address a letter of sympathy to Frank Slavin, expressing the appreciation of the committee of the courage he exhibited, in face of the most  blackguardly conduct which ever disgraced the ring side. The committee added that they fully recognised that he had indisputably established his claim to the championship of England, and they further informed him of their intention to present to him a belt and purse in recognition of his pluck. The committee then determined that Mr. John Fleming, late manager to Jem Smith, who had hitherto acted as master of the ceremonies at the Pelican Club, should be suspended from his office until such time as he should afford an explanation of his connection with the Smith and Slavin fight, which explanation would be laid before a general meeting of the members of the club on Tuesday, January 6th. The indignation of the members of the club knows no bounds, and every effort will be made to discover who were the real instigators of the disgraceful business." It is most likely that the belt and purse will be presented to Slavin on January 14th, when the club move into their new premises. The following letter has been addressed by the pugilist, F. P. Slavin, to the Pelican Club:— "In reply to your very kind and encouraging letter, accept my warmest thanks for the high compliment you are about to pay me in presenting me with a belt, called the Champion of England belt. You may rely it will be my duty, as it has been all through my career, to do my best to win any contest I may enter into in a fair and manly manner. — Again thanking you, I am, sir, yours truly, "F. P. SLAVIN. "Nayland Rock Hotel, Margate." Mr. Fleming's Statement. Mr. Fleming states that the fight was arranged before the boxing match with Jackson. He went over to Belgium and selected the ground. As regards the rough element present, he did not know one of the men. No doubt they were engaged by some friends of Smith. The only persons who went across with them were four or five gentlemen. All connection between Smith and him had ceased, as he felt that he could not act in any way for Smith after what had occurred. Every fight that he had previously had the management of had always been brought off without the intrusion of any of the rough element at the ring side. He took no part in the proceedings, being merely there as a spectator, and he had not seen Smith since the fight. He did not think that he should have any difficulty in proving that he had no connection with the disgraceful proceedings at the ring side. The Preliminary Arrangements. The preliminaries of the match will, perhaps, be interesting. When, in 1885, Jem Smith, who had made a name among English heavy-weight boxers, met and defeated Jack Davis, of Birmingham, there was a sign of a revival of pugilism in this country. This was increased when Smith fought Alf Greenfield, and, although the battle ended in a draw, it was not long before the "lost art" was freely discussed, and there was every appearance of the revival of the prize-ring. Smith, as will be well remembered, fought a memorable battle with Jake Kilrain, who came from America to wrest the championship honour from the Englishman. John L. Sullivan, the Boston Boy, soon followed, and, although he failed to beat Charles Mitchell, his claim to the title of champion of the world was made good last July, when be met and defeated Kilrain. Then came new stars in the firmament of boxers, but glove-fighting had almost extinguished the "old style." Prominent among the late arrivals were Peter Jackson, a coloured man, and Frank P. Slavin, both hailing from Australia. Their records were of the highest calibre, Slavin having been successful in all the nineteen contests in which he had engaged, either with gloves or with bare hands, while Jackson's was but little less noticeable. The latter, however, carried all before him in America, and then sought fresh fields in England. Only a few weeks ago he vanquished Jem Smith in a couple of rounds. Slavin arrived in London a week prior to Jackson, and, after a lengthy wait, he was accommodated with a match. No one but W. Goode cared to meet him with the gloves, and Goode was easily disposed of. After signing articles to fight Jem Smith under prize ring rules, both men went into training, Smith at Newmarket, under the care of Jem Howes, and Slavin at Margate, with Fred Symes as mentor. The most difficult part of the arrangements had yet to be settled, and it was not without great trouble that a battle ground could be selected which afforded facilities for the accommodation of a party of sportsmen to witness the contest. At length a point was pitched upon near the Belgian capital, easy of access and fairly safe from interference. Another difficulty now arose over the appointment of a referee, and no less than five good men were named, all of whom were in turn objected to by Smith. The possibility of this having been foreseen it had been stated in the articles that the two parties failing to agree, the stakeholder, Mr. C. W. Blacklock, should appoint that official. This he did with satisfaction to both parties, naming Mr. J. Vesey, a well-known sporting man, to act. The stakes had then been increased to £500 a side. There is a great difference in the physique of the two men. Slavin stands 6ft. 1in., and scales in condition thirteen stone, is a very muscular athlete, and particularly quick on his legs; while Smith is of the sturdy order, and is only 5ft. 8¹/₂in. high. His weight when fit is 12st. 10lbs., and although his muscles are very massively developed, giving proof of great strength, he has not the quick hitting power of the Australian. Performances of the Men. Frank P. Slavin, the champion of Australia, was born on January 27, 1863, at Maitland, N.S.W. He stands 6ft. 1in. in his stockings, and in condition scales 13st. 5lb. or 13st. 6lb. Shavin served his time or apprenticeship to a coachbuilder and blacksmith, and first came out as a pedestrian. After winning several competitions as an amateur, Slavin's first fight was with knuckles against M. Power for £50 a-side, and he won after seven rounds, lasting thirteen minutes. He then beat Jem Burke with two-ounce gloves for £200 a-side and the championship of Queensland, winning in three rounds. This was in December, 1885, and in 1886 he went to Sydney and entered into an engagement with Larry Foley. Here Slavin met Taylor, a pupil of Jackson's, for a purse with small gloves, and stopped him in two rounds. He was then matched with a big follow named Bligh for £10 a-side, and beat him in one round. After a rest of two months articles were signed for him and Mike Dooley to box for £100 a-side, and Slavin won in nine rounds. He next met Mike Costello, an American, a good man, and after a big battle in Sydney, lasting two hours and a half, a draw was the result. Another match was made for £400, and £50 a-side was posted, but Costello forfeited this. Afterwards Slavin's backers matched him for £25 a-side to stop Costello in six rounds, but the latter is very clever and tricky, and lasted the time. Subsequently Slavin journeyed to Sydney, and finding Mike there, challenged him again. The result of this was a match for £100 a-side with skin gloves, which Slavin won in twenty minutes. Slavin at this time had any amount of backing, and issued a challenge to fight Peter Jackson for £250 a-side and the championship. Jackson's party wanted a match with gloves for a purse. They could not, however, come to terms. In January last year the Australian made a trip to New Zealand. The first man put up was Smith, who was backed to stand four rounds, but he had had enough at the end of the first. In Dunedin Slavin beat a big fellow in four minutes, and journeyed a long distance to fight Laing, the champion. The pair were matched for  £200 a-side, and fought with two-ounce gloves at Wanganui, Laing failing to come up at the end of the fifth round. After this Slavin returned to Melbourne, and met Jack Burke, but after Slavin had had all the best of it, the contest was declared a draw. Mike Dooley was now in Sydney, and issued a challenge to him. This led to a match for £200 with small gloves, which ended in Mike being knocked out in 2min. 40sec. Slavin returned to Melbourne, and fought Burke, Slavin undertaking to stop him in six rounds; £200 a-side was put up and the two fought with six-ounce gloves, and agreed to divide the gate, and Burke was beaten in the middle of the third round. Previous to this Billy Farnan, the conqueror of Jackson, and Slavin, fought for £200, with the result that the latter added another winning bracket to his name, Farnan failing to answer to the call of time in the third round. He then received forfeit from Woolf Bendoff. An easy victory over Bill Buck in two rounds followed. He then came to England, and his late victory in his glove fight with the plucky young Englishman, W. Goode, must still be fresh in the memory of our readers. Jem Smith was born in Whitecross-street on January 21, 1863. He stands 5ft. 8¹/₂in. high, and weighs in condition 12st. 10lb. Round the chest he measures 43¹/₂in.; waist, 36¹/₂in.; hips, 41in.; thigh, 24¹/₂in.; calf, 16³/₄in.; biceps, 15¹/₂in. For some years he was employed in one of the metropolitan timber yards, but developing a taste for boxing after one or two rough-and-tumbles with his fellow-workmen, he was taken in hand by Jack Knifton ("eighty-one tonner") and later by Mr. F. Grimm, of the Central Club. His first success was in a competition at the Griffin, Shoreditch. Later on he beat Snowey, of Holloway, and was then matched to box Harry Arnold with gloves for a £10 purse. The affair was looked upon as a good thing [Col. 5c–6a] for Smith, but it took him nearly an hour to polish off this last opponent, though he had slightly the best of the encounter from start to finish. Smith's next engagement was with Woolf Bendoff to box to a finish with gloves for £25 a-side, which came off at an East-end club. In this contest Smith injured his right arm, but, nevertheless, proved successful at the end of twelve  rounds. Smith also won Tom Symonds's All-comers' Competition on February 26, 1885, at Bill Richardson's, defeating Sugar Goodson, Jack Wannop (the wrestler), and Tom Longer. Smith's next battle was with Jack Davis, for £100 a side and the championship, on the turf, and came off on the borders of Surrey and Sussex on Wednesday, December 17. In all six rounds were fought, occupying 7min. 56sec., Davis being knocked out of time with a swinging right-hander. He subsequently met Alf Greenfield, of Birmingham, for £300, at Maisons-Laffite, near Paris, on Tuesday, February 16, 1886. Thirteen rounds were fought, mostly in Smith's favour, and the men fell, whereupon a cry of foul was raised by Greenfield's party, and a crowd of roughs broke into the ring, stopping the fight. The referee (Jem Mace), at the request of the principal backers of the men, agreed to decide the battle a draw. Soon after Smith was matched to fight Knifton, the "eighty-one-tonner" as he is called. This proved a fiasco. The memorable struggle between Smith and Kilrain, brought off on an island in the Seine, came next, darkness putting an end to the affair, which also resulted in a draw, after the men had faced each other for 106 rounds, on December 19th, 1887. This brings us to his ten-round glove contest with Jack Wannop, Smith laying £250 to £200, and winning easily. After which, as all the pugilistic world knows, Smith was easily defeated by the coloured champion, Peter Jackson, in a glove fight at the Pelican Club, the last named winning on a foul by Smith, who was at the same time well beaten.<ref>"The Great Prize Fight. £1,000 in Stakes. Brutal Scenes in the Ring." ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' 29 December 1889, Sunday: 1 [of 8], Col. 4a–6a [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000101%2F18891229&page=1&article=006&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref> </blockquote> === The ''People'' === On Sunday, 29 December 1899, the ''People''<blockquote>Disgraceful Scenes. Expressions of indignation. The prize fight between Jem Smith, who poses as the fistic "champion of England," and Frank Slavin, the Australian champion, took place early on Monday, and resulted in perhaps the most disgraceful scene ever witnessed in connection with the history of the prize ring. Various spots, both at home and abroad, were from time to time named as the possible battle-field, but finally it became known to a certain select few that an English gentleman, Mr. Atkinson-Grimshaw, residing near Bruges, Belgium, had placed his grounds at the disposal of the combatants. In London it soon became known that the principal supporters of the Englishman had caused a number of Birmingham ruffians to be hired for the purpose of making a "strong corner." The betting changed directly to short odds on the Australian, and also evens, while  offers of 30 to 20 that "Smith did not lose" proclaimed that some ugly and disreputable manœuvres would be attempted. The ring was pitched on a splendid piece of turf — the lawn tennis ground, in fact — and about forty persons assembled, including Viscount Royston, [[Social Victorians/People/Mandeville|Viscount Mandeville]], Mr. Abington, Mr. Harris, Mr. W. Riley, Mr. F. Kotchie, Mr. Ike White, the Hon. M. Sandys, Mr. E. Bayley, Mr. C. Parsons, Mr. J. Kilby, Mr. C. Morton, and other well-known "sports." Smith was dressed first, and and [sic] had to wait a few minutes for Slavin. The Englishman appeared in white flannel drawers, white socks, and lace-up boots, while the Australian wore black drawers, blue socks, and lace-up boots. Harper and Baldock were seconds, Howes bottle-holder, and Mr. Fleming umpire for Smith; Cosnett and Bob Kirby, Mr. Taylor, and Mr. W. Riley acting in similar capacities for Slavin. Mr. Joe Vezey officiated as referee and Mr. Calder as timekeeper. The Fight. The men were in the ring at 8.25, and ten minutes later the fight began. After the first two rounds everything went in favour of Slavin, who in the third round knocked Smith clean off his legs with a terrific right-hander. He repeated this operation four or five times subsequently, and surprised many of the spectators by the determined way in which he fought. Smith looked very serious on coming up for the fourth round. At this time a suspicious movement was noticeable among the brigade of Birmingham ruffians, and one of them came round to the colonial's corner with no good intentions. Had it not been that Mick Taylor and Frank Hinde kept zealous guard over all the water provided for the use of the combatants, there is no knowing what fiendish trick might not have been perpetrated. Getting to close quarters, Slavin delivered heavily right and left on Smith's body, the latter being very slow in responding to this vigorous attack. He had, however, other assistants, for a vile ruffian from over the ropes deliberately struck Slavin a blow on the head. A shout was at once raised, but when charged with it the rascal denied that he had done anything. A scuffle ensued between the men, and to escape from the difficulty Smith cross-buttocked his opponent, who fell. In the fifth and sixth rounds Slavin again brought Smith to the ground, and made a nasty gash on his forehead. All this time the most horrible language proceeded from Smith's corner. In the seventh round a desperate rally took place, during which Smith fought Slavin on to the ropes, and there held him. Here was a grand opportunity for the miscreants, who did not fail to make use of it. One of them kicked Slavin repeatedly, and others beat him about the head, knuckle-dusters and life preservers being used. Slavin during the progress of the eighth round further received a couple of smart blows from a stick which a cowardly ruffian carried. Taking not the smallest notice of these interruptions Slavin pursued his legitimate opponent, both Smith's seconds following him about and jeering in his face. The referee entered the ring, and cautioned the seconds to move away. This had very little effect, and in the midst of half-arm fighting of a very severe kind, Smith was one more brought to the ground. In the ninth round the Australian again ventured into Smith's corner, and the fighting brought him close to the ropes. The  Birmingham mob here set about Slavin with great brutality, kicking him and punching him on all parts of the body. Getting away from the ropes Slavin let go the right, and, reaching Smith's mouth, caused the blood to spring forth profusely, bringing the Englishman to grass. The tenth and eleventh rounds were not quite so exciting, but in the twelfth Slavin drove his right with terrific force on to Smith's chin, knocking him clean off his legs. In the thirteenth round the Australian doubled Smith up with a fearful blow under the left ribs, and the Englishman's friends, seeing that Smith was almost beaten, raised a cry of " Police!" Smith was hurried from the ring, but Slavin and his friends refused to budge, and after "Time" had been called they claimed the fight. The referee, who appeared afraid to give a just decision, was surrounded by partisans of Smith, who had meanwhile come back, and eventually ordered the fight to proceed. The next round, the fourteenth, was the last. Slavin fought in a most determined fashion, and when he was punishing Smith heavily, the latter caught the Australian round the waist and held him on to the ropes, whilst the ruffians standing round beat and kicked him in a most cowardly fashion. Amid cries of "Foul," the pair fell to the ground, and, on the men taking their corners, the referee said he would act no longer, as it was perfectly clear Slavin was not to have fair play. This created immense excitement, during which the referee declared the fight a draw, and, crossing to Slavin, said, "I do not want to stay here to see you killed." Afterwards the roughs tried to get at Slavin, who, however, managed to hide in a barn. Later on he went with a few of his friends to Bruges, where he caught the train for Ostend, and came over to Dover, thence proceeding to  Margate. Slavin's Opinion of his Treatment. The following conversation took place during an interview with Slavin, a few hours after the fight:— Did you expect any trouble at the ring  side? — Slavin: Yes, I was prepared for that, as I was constantly receiving letters of a threatening nature, and though these things as a rule are of no account, I had reason to believe there was some truth this time. Besides, I had not forgotten the affair at Astley's Theatre. — Do you feel any effects of the fighting? — Slavin: The fighting? I feel nothing of what I got from any one in the ring; it's what those beauties gave me outside. The only time Smith hit me in anything like form was on the jaw. — Why did you persist in going to his corner? — Slavin: I wanted to get the affair over and enjoy my Christmas dinner, and I knew if the fighting was left to Smith I should want it served in the ring. — Of course you heard a mob was got together for Smith? — Slavin: Yes, I knew all about that, but I relied on British fair play, and expected the referee to do his duty. Directly I got in the ring I saw what the game was, and knew my only chance was to knock Smith out. — What do you think of Smith? — Well, I think so much of him that I'll bet him £200 I stop him in six rounds, but we must have no more private shows. I've had enough of that business. — l suppose you have a poor opinion of English fair play? — Slavin: I have been treated like a prince generally, but I can see the fighting men are easily led astray, and I expected trouble directly Smith objected to a referee. If we served an Englishman in the same manner in Australia we should get drummed out of the town, and rightly too. — What are your plans for the future? Well, I shall stay in England some time and challenge Sullivan, and you might as well cable it over to America for me. — With the gloves? — No. I want to fight him with the knuckles. I think I should get fair play out there. Indignation in London. Directly the news became known in London the greatest indignation prevailed in all the West-end, [Col. 4c–5a] clubs at the dastardly way in which Slavin had been treated. Subsequently some forty or fifty gentlemen proceeded to the Pelican to demand the instant and public repudiation on the part of the committee with any official cognisance of the arrangements for the fight, and also for the summary punishment of those who had dragged dowr [sic] a manly pastime to the lowest depth of degradation and blackguardism. In accordance with these demands, and in full sympathy with them, those members present, conjointly with the proprietor, immediately sent out telegrams summoning an extraordinary meeting of the cornmittee. The Pelican Club Meeting. At the special meeting of the committee of the Pelican Club it was unanimously determined to address a letter of sympathy to Slavin, expressing the appreciation of the committee of "the courage he exhibited in face of the most blackguardly conduct which ever disgraced the ring side.["] The committee added that they fully recognised that he had indisputably established his claim to the championship of England, and they further informed him of their intention to present to him a belt and purse in recognition of his pluck[.] The committee determined that Mr. John Fleming, late manager to Jem Smith, who had hitherto acted as manager of the ceremonies at the Pelican Club, should be suspended from his office until such time as he should afford an explanation of his connection with the Smith and Slavin fight, which explanation would be laid before a general meeting of the members of the Pelican Club on Tuesday, January 7th. It is most likely that the belt and purse will be presented to Slavin on January 14th, when the club will move into their new premises. While Salvin was at the Stock Exchange on Tuesday, a subscription in his interest was started, and £110 was quickly subscribed. Slavin Challenges J. L. Sullivan. Frank Slavin, the champion of Australia, is prepared to meet John L. Sullivan, under London prize ring rules, for £500 or £1,000 a side and the championship of the world. Slavin has lodged a sum of £100, and will contest the title with Sullivan in either America or Australia in six months from signing articles. We have cabled this challenge to Mr. R. K. Fox, of New York, and the money lodged with him or the editor of the ''Sportsman'' will lead to a match.<ref>"The Smith-Slavin Fight." ''The People'' 29 December 1889, Sunday: 16 [of 16], Col. 4a–5a [of 5]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000729%2F18891229&page=16&article=150&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === The ''Sportsman'' === On Monday, 30 December 1889, the ''Sportsman'' printed a list of people and organizations that had contributed to the "testimonial" fund for Slavin as well as some letters to the editor about the Slavin-Smith match:<blockquote> A committee meeting of the above was held on Saturday afternoon, Mr W. J. Innes in the chair.  There were also present Mr W. Riley, Mr Fred H. [Gala?], Mr C. Parsons, Mr A. Butler, Mr M. J. Harrow (Margate), Mr Ike White, Mr E. C. Irish, and Mr G. T. Dunning (hon. sec. and treasurer). The chairman read a letter from Mr John Lees, regretting his inability to attend owing to illness, whilst the remaining committeeman, Mr E. W. Bayly, was absent in Paris. The appointment of the hon. sec. and treasurer was confirmed by the committee, and after some discussion it was decided to close the subscription-list on Monday, January 20, and to present the proceeds to Slavin at the Cambridge Music Hall, Bishopsgate-street, on a day to be named. Other business of minor importance was transacted, and after the next committee meeting had been fixed for Wednesday, January 15, the meeting closed with a vote of thanks to the chairman. Additional subscriptions to the fund, which now reaches 300''l''., will be found appended [names set as unordered list to save space, £ ''s.'' ''d.''] * Lord Mandeville 2 2 0 * Lord Royston 2 2 0 * Lord James Douglas 2 2 0 * Hon. Michael Sandys 2 2 0 * Fred Kotchie 2 2 0 * Mr Ike White 2 2 0 * Mr W. Riley 2 2 0 * Mr C. Parsons 2 2 0 * Mr J. Kilby 2 2 0 * Mr Frank Hinde 2 2 0 * Proprietors of The Sportsman 2 2 0 * Mr. J. Purdey 2 2 0 * Mr. E. W. Bayly 2 2 0 * Messrs H. A. Domby and Son 2 2 0 * "Caption Coe" 2 2 0 * Mr C. W. Bulpett 2 2 0 * Mr P. W. Carr 2 2 0 * Mr W. Morley Pegge 2 2 0 * W. D. S. 2 2 0 * J. E. S. 2 2 0 * Mr W. H. Grenfel 2 2 0 * Mr Quartermaine East 2 2 0 * Mr H. H. Hungerford 2 2 0 * Mr Noel Fenwick 2 2 0 * Sir John Leslie, Bart. 2 2 0 * Mr T. Brinkman 2 0 0 * Mr Calder 1 1 0 * Mr H. W. Hill 1 1 0 * Mr John Young 1 1 0 * Mr D. A. Neilson 1 1 0 * Mr W. Neilson 1 1 0 * Mr Julius Simon 1 1 0 * Mr J. Edge 1 1 0 * Mr H. Marshall 1 1 0 * Mr F. Aynsley 1 1 0 * Col. Hon. Wellesley 1 1 0 * Mr Charles Hawtrey 1 1 0 * Mr W. F. Ashton 1 1 0 * Mr Barratt 1 1 0 * Old Durham Ox 1 0 0 * Sir John Willoughby 1 0 0 * A friend, per C. H. A. 0 10 6 * Mr Ben Giles 0 10 6 * Mr Tom Vale 0 10 6 * [E.?] W. 0 10 6 * Officer 0 10 0 * Per Mr Ike White, Exchange Club: ** S. W. 2 2 0 ** Mr G. B. Knight 1 1 0 ** Mr A. Powles 1 1 0 ** Mr S. Blandford 1 1 0 ** T. F. W. C. 1 1 0 ** Mr Leo Harward 1 1 0 ** Mr J. Harward 1 1 0 ** Mr H. Harward 1 1 0 ** Mr [Monteagle?] [Moutcagie??] 1 1 0 ** Mr C. Orate 0 10 6 ** W. G. P. 0 10 6 ** H. R. T 0 10 6 ** Mr Josiah Smith 0 10 6 ** W. H. R. 0 10 6 ** Mr R. Wilson 0 5 0 * Per Mr M. J. Harlow, Margate: ** Mr A. H. [Cosi? Coni?] 2 2 0 ** Mr J. Thurston 1 1 0 ** Mr J. A. Fagg 1 1 0 ** Mr F. [Miles?] 1 1 0 ** Mr Adolphe [Drineqbeir?] 1 1 0 ** Mr Ernest [Drineqbier?] 1 1 0 ** Mr Lacy Brown 1 1 0 ** Mr Algy Brown 1 1 0 ** Mr M. J. Harlow 1 1 0 ** An Admirer 1 1 0 ** Mr J. W. Robinson 1 1 0 ** Mr W. Searles 1 1 0 ** Mr J. Smith 1 1 0 ** Mr J. Hume 1 1 0 ** Mr J. Painter 1 1 0 ** A Scotchman 1 1 0 ** Mr J. Mundell 0 10 6 ** Mr Bob Redman 0 10 6 ** Mr G. A. Body 0 10 6 ** Mr J. Phipps 0 10 6 ** Mr J. Doughty 0 10 6 ** Old Fisherman 0 10 6 ** Mr Joe Knott 0 10 6 * Per Mr B. J. Angle ** Some mebers of the Stock Exchange 125 0 0 ** Hr Henry J. Turner 2 2 0 * Per Mr W. J. Innes: ** Mr Sidney Fry 2 2 0 ** Mr W. J. I. 2 2 0 ** Mr W. Schlesinger 2 2 0 ** Mr Joseph Thompson 2 2 0 ** Mr Barney Thompson 2 2 0 ** Mr L. Meyers 2 2 0 ** Mr W. Shoe 2 2 0 ** Mr George Cooper 2 2 0 ** Mr J. T. Crossley 2 2 0 ** Mr Andy Anderson 2 2 0 ** Mr G. M. T. 2 2 0 ** Mr F. R. 2 2 0 ** Mr W. Bertram 1 1 0 ** Mr J. W. Hammon 1 1 0 ** Mr Alec Harris 1 1 0 ** Mr John Isaacs 1 1 0 ** Mr Edward [Dance? Dasce?] 1 1 0 ** Mr George Blanchett 1 1 0 ** Mr F. [Leleu? Lolou?] 1 1 0 ** Mr W. J. R. 1 1 0 ** Mr H. C. 1 1 0 ** Mr A. A. M. 1 1 0 ** Mr D. W. Fowler 0 10 6 * Per Mr F. H. Gale: ** Mr R. Moore 2 2 0 ** Mr A. H. Goode 2 2 0 ** Mr [B.? E.? R.?] J. G. Goode 2 2 0 ** Mr F. H. Gale 2 2 0 ** Mr H. Ulph 1 1 0 ** Mr J. Hooper 1 1 0 ** Mr C. Kittall 1 1 0 ** Mr C. Moore 1 1 0 * Per Mr W. Riley: ** Mr Brand (Wiltshire) 2 2 0 ** Mr Charles Godfrey 2 2 0 ** Mrs Lane (Britannia) 2 2 0 ** Mr Sam Adams 2 2 0 ** B. and M. 0 7 6 * Per Mr A. Cockburn: ** Mr Richardson 2 2 0 ** Mr A. Cox 1 1 0 ** Mr Hy. Brackenbury 1 1 0 To the Editor of T<small>HE</small> S<small>PORTSMAN</small>. Sir,— From the evidence of your eye-witness reporter there seems to me the clearest possible case against Smith, Harper, and Baldock — that Smith held Slavin on the ropes while the roughs kicked and "knuckle-dustered" him, that Harper put his knee on Slavin when down, and that Baldock did likewise, and that throughout they advised Smith to stand like a coward under the protection of the savages till the instinct which filled Slavin's manly bosom prompted the honest outburst to Smith, "Come and have a round." The duty for sportsmen to fulfil with the assistance of their representative journal, is, firstly, to see that Slavin is elected Champion and that he is handsomely recompensed, and that these so-called "seconds" should be properly punished and our splendid timber-yard Champion put in his proper place. The names of those who hired the roughs should also be published. I have spoken to at least fifty patrons of boxing shows, and one and all have made the most positive and determined objection to supporting any entertainment where the three men named above are concerned directly or indirectly. They, by their own stupidity and cupidity, have put the last nail in their own coffin, I hope. With regard to the referee, this individual is decidedly unsatisfactory. He allowed Smith to bolt when the cry of "Police" was raised without disqualifying him in any way, and then put an end to the business by declaring it a draw. Now, if the said referee is not a determined or courageous man, then he acted to the best of his judgment, for he was afraid of personal violence, having literally to escape to London; but on his arrival here, I and numberless others naturally expected some explanation or a reversal of his decision. The whole sporting community are on the tiptoe of excitement, and Mr Vesey in the coolest  possible manner washes his hands of the affair, declining absolutely to expose any opinion. This is rather rough on the public considering that be consented to act as referee of his own free will, and he is no chicken in such matters. He does not tell us whether he is aware that he has the power to reverse a decision given under fear; nor does he say whether he still considers the decision made on the spot a happy one. How was it that no steps were taken to protect the referee? There is no legitimate courage in the Brummagem rough. He is an imposter. With assistance of our excellent so-called Champion, and about another ten, armed with knuckle-dusters, he will doubtless attack Slavin, and if a torrent of filthy, cowardly abuse could kill he would beat Slavin single-handed. One of these gallant gentry actually returned to Birmingham without going to Bruges, being positively afraid to chance crossing the tiny stretch of sea. An American reader will bear me out that had our unsatisfactory referee been under the protection of one single genuine Nebraska "tough," as they are called out there, he would, without uttering one word of bad language, have cleared out the lot had they attempted violence to his charge. But it would never have come to that, for the sight of a real, genuine armed rough, with determined set features, would have struck terror into the hearts of the pluckless Brum shoddy bully, with the proverbial dull, stupid, animal-like pudding face. As an Englishman I [Col. 1c–2a] positively feel guilty among my American friends when they ask me what about my vaunted British fairplay, and I quite fail to see or understand how "seconds" — no matter, for argument's sake, how dishonest they may be can such fools as to kill the goose which lays their golden eggs. Prize-fighting and boxing are their bread-and-butter, and some of those who accepted the assistance of the roughs in the recent important international fight must have surely prognosticated that trouble and disgrace would follow, and they of all men should have been the last to wantonly risk breaking up one of our favourite English sports. In conclusion, contrast the courage of the two men. Slavin practically fought about six men, not knowing the moment that one well-directed blow from a "duster" might have cost him his life or lost him the fight. Think of his manly appeals to the cowards for a few minutes' fairplay. I only wish they each had to have four rounds singly with him! — Yours, &c., A Lover of Boxing. To the Editor of T<small>HE</small> S<small>PORTSMAN</small>. Sir, — Previous to the late show of ruffianism I was in sympathy with and respected Smith as the Champion, but I am grieved to say that nothing of late years has so thoroughly disgusted me as the ill-treatment which was meted out to Slavin by those who disgrace not only sport but the very name of man. I sincerely hope that Slavin will still continue to think that one of the dearest wishes of the true sportsman of this country is to see fair play. I enclose my mite in the shape of one guinea, and subscribe myself, yours, &c., Leicester, December 28. J. Barrett. To the Editor of T<small>HE</small> S<small>PORTSMAN</small>. Sir, — Herewith I inclose cheque 1''l''. 1''s''. to the Slavin Fund, and hope that his manly and honourable conduct will be well rewarded. I cannot, however, agree with those who hope "that we have seen the last of prize-fighting," and other sentiments of the kind. It will be an evil day for England when the fighting instinct dies out from among her sons. No, let us rather hope that the Slavin-Smith ''fiasco'' will be the beginning of a new era, and that for the future fights will not be allowed to take place without proper ring-keepers, as in the days of Spring, Langham, and Bendigo, and that the Championship of England will not be long without a native defender.—Yours, &c., J. W. B. C., Junior Carlton Club, December 27. To the Editor of T<small>HE</small> S<small>PORTSMAN</small>. Sir, — l beg to inclose you the sum of one guinea, my subscription to the Slavin Fund. I was indeed sorry to read of the outrageous and murderous treatment Slavin received from Smith's supporters, which support was tacitly sought after by Smith not leaving his corner and meeting his man in the centre of the ring, as any Englishman should have done that presumed to call himself "England's Champion." I feel quite certain that had this outrageous conduct passed away without the strong condemnation it received at all good sporting men's hands in this country, and the hearty and the thoroughly unanimous sympathy expressed for Slavin, the good feeling and perfect bon accord that has existed between the sporting fraternity of the two countries, New and Old England, would soon have ceased to exist. Australians are great stickers to and warm supporters of England and the English, and they will all feel most keenly the slur cast upon "British fair-play and courage." — Yours, a lover of it, Sydney Galvayne. York, December 26. To the Editor of T<small>HE</small> S<small>PORTSMAN</small>. Sir, — Enclosed you will cheque for one guinea as a simple tribute to Slavin, who so squarely held his own, and who should not be looked upon as a stranger in a strange country, but as a cousin Englishman, who deserves support, not only as a true sportsman but also against the fearful ordeal of ruffianism to which he has been subjected. As a lover of fair play believe me, yours faithfully, Birmingham, December 27. Tom B. Sharp. To the Editor of T<small>HE</small> S<small>PORTSMAN</small>. Sir, — Please add 9''l.'' 14''s.'' to the list I have already sent you for Slavin testimonial, and oblige, yours, &c., I. White. Exchange Club, Queen-street, Cheapside, Dec. 28.<ref>"The Ring. The Slavin Testimonial." ''The Sportsman'' 30 December 1889, Monday: 4 [of 4], Col. 1a–2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001055%2F18891230&page=4&article=020&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref> </blockquote> On 9 January 1890 in part of a much larger partisan report with critiques of the investigative committee, its chair and its results as well as other newspapers printing rumors:<blockquote>JOHN L. SULLIVAN ON ENGLISH FAIR PLAY.<p> J<small>OHN</small> L S<small>ULLIVAN</small> has been speaking his mind on the Smith-Slavin fight to some purpose. "I can't see how an English fighter can be beaten," he said. This man Smith is little better than a middle-weight, and I haven't the slightest doubt that Slavin beat him fairly. Some people wonder why I did not go to England to fight Smith. Now you understand why I insisted on meeting him in this country. In England fair play is unknown. The man with the greatest number of 'heelers' always wins or saves himself from defeat. Slavin or Jackson will, in all probability, look for a match with me when they arrive in this country, and | am perfectly willing to meet either or both of them for a proper consideration. I want a big purse, and I am not particular where I fight so long as it is in a club-house. No more law-breaking for  me."<ref>"The Late Fight. Meeting of the Pelican Club. Stormy Proceedings. The Committee Resigns." ''The Sportsman'' 9 January 1890, Thursday: 4 [of 4], Col. 3b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001055%2F18900109&page=4&article=049&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> Also on January 9, the ''Sportsman'' reported on a collection made for Slavin:<blockquote>THE SLAVIN TESTIMONIAL<p> The subscriptions towards the above now amount to over 400''l.'', and it having been decided to close the list on the 20th, the committee will be obliged if those who have promised donations will forward the same to the hon. sec. and treasurer, Mr. G. T. Dunning, T<small>HE</small> S<small>PORTSMAN</small> Office.</blockquote> {| class="wikitable" ! !£ !s. !d. |- |Amount already acknowledged |407 |3 |6 |- |Mr E.Tabernacle |1 |1 |1 |- |H. S. |1 |1 |0 |} <blockquote>The guinea acknowledged per Mr Riley, from C. R., yesterday, should be from C. K.<ref>"The Late Fight. Meeting of the Pelican Club. Stormy Proceedings. The Committee Resigns." ''The Sportsman'' 9 January 1890, Thursday: 4 [of 4], Col. 3b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001055%2F18900109&page=4&article=049&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === The ''Huddersfield Daily Chronicle'' === On 10 January 1890:<blockquote> Mitchell and Lord Mandeville. As an addendum to the important meeting of the Pelican Club committee, on Wednesday, came a gathering of "sports" at the Trocadero, Piccadilly Circus. Lord Mandeville and Mr. Abington., who had been in attendance at Denman-street, were joined by "Pony" Moore, his son-in-law, C. Mitchell, J. Carney (the Birmingham light-weight), J. Baldock, B. Habbijam, C. Bates, &c. The party, who occupied seats in the stalls, naturally discussed things pugilistic, the talk being mostly devoted to the recent international fight between Frank P. Slavin and Jem Smith. " [sic] The Squire's opinions on the matter happened not to coincide with those of Mitchell, and high words were exchanged between the pair. Suddenly the Birmingham boxer jumped up and "went for" Mr. Abington, but did not strike him. Lord Mandeville immediately interposed and asked Mitchell to be quiet, whereupon the latter directed his attention to his lordship, and struck him sharply on the forehead. Carney and Baldock sprang to his lordship's assistance, and Mitchell and "Pony" Moore at once left the building, the whole proceedings not lasting longer than a few seconds. It soon became noised abroad that there was "something up," and a crowd gathered, but the police saw Mitchell and Mr. G. W. Moore safely across the road.<ref>"The Smith-Slavin Fight." ''Huddersfield Daily Chronicle'' 10 January 1890, Friday: 4 [of 4], Col. 6b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0002876%2F18900110&page=4&article=071&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> After the Pelican Club meetings, Slavin comments:<blockquote>On Wednesday at Westminster Aquarium, F.  P. Slavin, the colonial pugilist, who received such bad treatment at the hands of roughs in his recent prize-fight with Jem Smith, the English "champion," made his first public appearance since the fight. Mr. Frank Hinde, in introducing Slavin, said he would give an exhibition with Cosnett of Birmingham, who seconded him in his fight. Slavin was the gamest man that ever  stepped into a ring, he hoped the audience would rive him a good old English welcome. On appearing on the stage Slavin met with a most enthusiastic reception, and the three rounds' sparring with Cosnett was much appreciated. At the conclusion Slavin, in response to loud calls, bowed his acknowledgments.<ref>"Slavin at the Royal Acquarium." ''Liverpool Weekly Courier'' 11 January 1890, Saturday: 3 [of 8], Col. 5a [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0003067%2F18900111&page=3&article=042&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' === ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' quotes J. L. Sullivan on the Smith-Slavin match:<blockquote>Mr. John L. Sullivan has been speaking his mind on the Smith-Slavin fight to some purpose. "I can't see how an English fighter can be beaten," he said. "This man Smith is little better than a middle-weight, and I haven't the slightest doubt that Slavin beat him fairly. Some people wonder why I did not go to England to fight Smith. Now you can understand why I insisted on meeting him in this country. In England fair play is unknown. The man with the greatest number of "heelers" always wins or saves himself from defeat. Slavin or Jackson will in all probability look for a match with me when they arrive in this country, and I am perfectly willing to meet either or both of them for a proper consideration. I went a big purse, and I am not particular where I fight so long as it is in a club-house. No more law-breaking for me."<ref>"The Recent Prize Fight." ''Reynolds's Newspaper'' 12 January 1890, Sunday: 6 [of 8], Col. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0000101%2F18900112&page=6&article=053&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title and p.</ref></blockquote> === The ''Cork Constitution'' === About Mr G Baird (Mr. Abington) from the ''Cork Constitution'':, referring at the end to the [[Social Victorians/Boxing/Fracas at the Trocadero|Fracas at the Trocadero]] or a restaurant:<blockquote>This well-known sportsman (Mr G Baird) who is occupying an unenviable position owing to his conduct at the Smith-Slavin piece of brutality, is the largest owner of race horses in England. He has no less than 100 horses in training, and though he won £10,000 in stakes last year it is computed that he should have won £25,000 additional to even pay his way. Anent that fight which has caused such indignation in the country, a London music hall was last week the scene of a pretty disturbance. Mr Abington and Lord Mandeville occupied a box during the entertainment, and received, amongst others, Charlie Mitchell, the well-known pugilist; an angry discussion ''re'' the fight ensued, and concluded by the peer measuring himself on the floor from one Mitchell’s "lefts."<ref>"Mr. Abington." ''Cork Constitution'' 14 January 1890, Tuesday: 7 [of 8], Col. 5b [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0001648%2F18900114&page=7&article=099&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same title and p.</ref></blockquote> === The ''Colonial Standard and Jamaica Despatch'' === This report from the ''Colonial Standard and Jamaica Despatch'' mentions fighting in the streets (at a corner in Fleet Street) and tosses in an unrelated sentence about an upcoming match between a West Indian and J. L. Sullivan:<blockquote>The disgraceful affair, called by courtesy and [sic] "International Prize Fight," which desecrated the peaceful dignity of the quaint old city of Bruges on Monday morning ought to convince people that there is nothing left to hope for in the Prize Ring. [2c–3a] At eight o'clock in the morning, Jem Smith, self-styled Champion of England, and Frank Slavin, the Australian Champion, with their seconds and parties, met in the grounds of a private gentleman to try conclusions. The "fight" lasted for twenty-five minutes, and was then brought to an abrupt conclusion by the referee declaring it drawn — he would have been killed had he given it to Slavin, who proved to be incomparably the better man. Fourteen rounds were fought in all, during the whole of which time Smith's friends and Smith's seconds worried, and at last assaulted, the Australian, who behaved quite pluckily. It is a disgrace to the name of Englishmen that this brutal scene should go forth to the world. Smith's backers knew well that he had no chance of winning, so they laid their plans to smash Slavin on their own account. It is a wonder that he was not killed — as was reported in Fleet-street at ten o'clock — for Smith's roughs struck and kicked him whenever he came near their corner. Although Lord Mandeville, Lord Rosslyn, Sir M. Sandys, and a few other members of the upper circle, were present at the fight, the bulk of the spectators were the refuse of the gambling rings of London, blackguards and ruffians of the deepest dye. The stakes were £1,000. So great an amount of indignation has been expressed on all sides at the treatment to which the Australian was exposed, that a subscription has been opened up for him. The West Indian, Jackson, is just leaving London for San Francisco, in order to get ready to meet J. L. Sullivan.<ref>"London." ''Colonial Standard and Jamaica Despatch'' 16 January 1890, Thursday: 2 [of 4], Col. 2c–3a [of 6]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.com/image-viewer?issue=BL%2F0004059%2F18900116&page=2&article=019&stringtohighlight=mandeville+viscount. Same print title, n.p.</ref></blockquote> == Notes and Questions == # ==References== {{reflist}} e4ui7kx3pdhs7q33siir2ea4c21gc51 0 332414 2842710 2840641 2026-10-26T21:16:20Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2842710 wikitext text/x-wiki :''This discusses a 2026-09-25 discussion of the "Media & Democracy" show<ref name=M&D><!--Media & Democracy-->{{cite Q|Q127839818}}</ref> syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica radio]] network<ref><!--Pacifica Radio Network-->{{cite Q|Q2045587}}</ref> and related issues by Spencer Graves,<ref name=Graves><!--Spencer Graves-->{{cite Q|Q56452480}}</ref> Ursula Ruedenberg,<ref name=Ruedenberg><!--Ursula Ruedenberg-->{{cite Q|Q70230619}}</ref> MarkAlain Déry,<ref name=Dery><!--MarkAlain Déry-->{{cite Q|Q141673893}}</ref> and others.'' :''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]<ref name=NPOV>The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs.</ref> and treating others with respect.''<ref name=AGF>[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] was different: Contributors there were asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|"Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything."]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.</ref> [[File:Media & Democracy syndicated for Pacifica.webm|thumb|2026-09-25 discussion of "Media & Democracy" and related issues at the Grassroots Radio Conference]] [[File:Media & Democracy syndicated for Pacifica.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpts from 2026-09-25 discussion of "Media & Democracy" syndicated for Pacifica and related issues]] [[File:Discussion of Media & Democracy.pdf|thumb|Slides used in discussing "Media & Democracy"<ref name=M&D/> at the 2026 Grassroots Radio Conference]] Spencer Graves<ref name=Graves/> discusses the [[w:Fortnight|fortnightly]] "Media & Democracy" show<ref name=M&D><!--Media & Democracy-->{{cite Q|Q127839818}}</ref> syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica radio]] network<ref><!--Pacifica Radio Network-->{{cite Q|Q2045587}}</ref> and related issues with Ursula Ruedenberg,<ref name=Ruedenberg/> MarkAlain Déry,<ref name=Dery/> and others at the 2026 [[w:Grassroots Radio Coalition#History|Grassroots Radio Conference]] (GRC). Ruedenberg is the Pacifica Affiliate Network Manager. Dr. MarkAlain Déry is an [[w:Osteopathic medicine in the United States|osteopath]], who founded [[w:WHIV-LP|WHIV]] in [[w:New Oreans|New Orleans]] and hosted the 2024 GRC. ==Highlights== :''These excerpts from the interview are rushed, lightly edited for readability, and may not be in final form. The ultimate authority on what was said is the accompanying video.'' Graves began by claiming that, {{quote| The most important questions for our day, I believe, are the following: * Why is democracy declining? * Why is fascism rising? * Why are political polarization and violence increasing? This "Media & Democracy" series is focused on asking experts on these issues why they think this is happening, and what they recommend that we all should do to protect ourselves and rebuild civil society and democracy. You do not need Audioport<ref><!--Audioport-->{{cite Q|Q141674090}}</ref> to get "Media & Democracy", because it's available on Wikiversity under [[:Category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. ...}} ===Finance companies freeze accounts they don't like === Graves continued, {{quote| I recently interviewed [[Rainey Reitman on how finance companies punish speech|Rainey Reitman]],<ref><!--Rainey Reitman-->{{cite Q|Q28778243}}</ref> who is author of a book on ''Transaction Denied: Big Finance's Power to Punish Speech''.<ref>Reitman (2026).</ref> It turns out that [[w:Bank of America|Bank of America]], [[w:PayPal|PayPal]], [[w:Chase Bank|Chase]], [[w:Visa Inc.|Visa]], [[w:Mastercard|Mastercard]] can decide they don't like you and freeze your account. It's for real. If that happens to your bank account, you may not be able to pay your bills, you may not be able to get paid. I don't know if they accept auto deposits. They might, but you won't be able to get the money.<ref>Under certain circumstances, you may still be able to get social security and similar funds from a frozen account. See "[[Rainey Reitman on how finance companies punish speech]]".</ref> And they will not tell you why. If you scream loud enough and tell enough people, they might relent.}} Paul Bame<ref name=Bame>Bame is a volunteer broadcast engineer with the [[w:Prometheus Radio Project|Prometheus Radio Project]]. [[Underserved serve themselves with low-power FM|He was interviewed 2026-02-12 for "Media & Democracy".]]</ref> said, "A resource for that is the [[w:Better Business Bureau|Better Business Bureau]]. I found that when [[w:Intuit|Intuit]] was holding [[w:Prometheus Radio Project|Prometheus funds]] and wouldn't tell us why, it wasn't for any nefarious reason. I filed a report with the Better Business Bureau, and I got a call from the VP the next day." Graves replied, "Terrific. That's very important. That's something that Rainey Reitman did not mention. I should send her that." ===FCC's toothless threats === Graves continued, {{quote| Let's talk about [[w:Project 2025|Project 2025]]. The chair of our current [[w:Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] wrote in that document that [[w:NPR|NPR]], [[w:PBS|PBS]], [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]], and other leftist broadcasters, like basically everybody in this room, I guess, would be shorn of the presumption that they act in the public interest. Clearly they do not. And therefore they are no longer qualified as non-commercial educational stations. They'd prefer to take us off the air, but at least they wouldn't allow us to continue in the low end of the FM band. Last year's grassroots radio conference: [[w:Anna M. Gomez|Anna Gomez]] was a keynote speaker. ...}} Ruedenberg added, "One of the biggest takeaways that I got from what she said was that in her experience, the Trump administration was more interested in convincing people to cooperate or to stop doing what they're doing, in a sense. So the focus was more on mentally threatening people, because the administration understood that it was much more difficult for them to win a lot of cases in court. It's basically impossible, because a lot of what they're doing is illegal. So their focus was really on influencing your minds. I thought that was a very interesting comment on her part." Graves replied, {{quote| Absolutely. Thank you. I skipped that. I should have mentioned it, and I didn't. When it's big business involved, which I think is most of them, they're really thinly veiled requests for bribes. They can be shaken down, because they want approval of mergers and acquisitions beyond reason that threaten democracy. So she seemed to feel it was just mostly intimidation. The alternative of that is [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|SLAPP, Strategic Litigation Against Public Participation]].}} Bame<ref name=Bame/> interjected, "[[w:Self-censorship|Self-censorship]] is the word I haven't heard yet." Graves agreed. === What the left can learn from Fox === Graves continued, {{quote| [[What the Left can learn from Fox|I interviewed Reece Peck.]]<ref name=Peck><!--Reece Peck-->{{cite Q|Q131374387}}</ref> He's a communication professor. He's written a paper on, "Usurping the usable past, how Fox News remembered the Great Depression during the Great Recession".<ref>Peck (2016).</ref> During the [[w:Great Recession|2007-2009, international financial meltdown]], Fox featured experts claiming that the [[w:New Deal|New Deal]] made the [[w:Great Depression|Great Depression]] ''worse'', not better. They succeeded in preventing Congress from protecting the fraud victims. But the money that was basically destroyed in the international financial meltdown had to be put back into the economy. :''So over 5,000 leading industry figures got million-dollar bonuses at taxpayer expense.''<ref>Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, ch. 3).</ref> That last line is not from Reese Pack. That's from [[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]] and [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]], who shared the [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|2024 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]]. There's a chapter in my book, the second substantive chapter, [[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|talks about the fact that, indeed, Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) did dramatically reduce unemployment]]. He spent the money to put people back to work. He taxed the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since. And during World War II, he implemented wage and price controls through the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]] that prevented price gouging by major companies. And instead of inflation that we'd gotten in previous major wars, we got massive economic growth, averaging 6% per year before World War II, and 10% during World War II -- 8% per year for the 12 years of Franklin Roosevelt, while the average growth for basically all the other presidents was between nothing and 2% or 3%. It was shocking for any country at the technology frontier. In addition, he empowered organized labor that continued to reduce inequality, until [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]]. [[w:Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] took office in 1981 and started rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|robber baron]]s. ... Prior to FDR, the top 1% had 45% of net personal wealth in the nation, and the bottom 90% had 22%. FDR brought the two together. The power of organized labor continued to reduce inequality until, as I said, Reaganomics has been restoring the robber barons.<ref>See especially [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7]] in [[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]].</ref>}} ===How to expose media lies and have fun doing it=== Graves continued, {{quote| In early August, I did a couple of workshops on "[[How to expose media lies and have fun doing it]]". Primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media or differences in interpretation that the different parties find credible.<ref>See [[Media Literacy and You#Key claims|Key claims]] in the book-in-progress, ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', on Wikiversity.</ref> If we think about that, it encourages us to push ourselves to accept others where they are and have friendly, supportive conversations, sharing our concerns, including with humans with whom we may vehemently disagree, inviting pleasant conversations about "I know you believe that. I know that's the media you find credible. Can we talk about differences in interpretations or what the different media say?}} Bame said, {{quote| There's a nonprofit called [[w:Braver Angels|Braver Angels]]. They have chapters throughout the country. Their mission and success is getting people from opposite sides of the table to have these conversations. They produce also podcasts, so there's audio available. ... They understand the psychology of how to do this.}} Ruedenberg commented, {{quote| When I was doing a morning show, one of my favorite things was to talk to people that I really disagreed with. I always said it's better than taking drugs, because it just takes your brain to places you've never been before when you really listen to people you disagree with. They have reasons for what they're doing and how they're thinking about things that just don't occur to me. I really got to enjoy that. The main technique that I used was just [[w:Active listening|active listening]]. I found that if I would employ active listening with them, it would encourage them to continue to explain themselves and to elaborate more on how they thought. And eventually, they would get to the core of what was driving them. I felt that that was the biggest service that I could offer my audience, to help them see where this was coming from. Usually it was coming from a place that was, in my opinion, kind of horrible. But it's human. It was their reality. I guess you kind of just have to trust your audience to hear that. ... I didn't feel that I had to necessarily expose somebody by arguing with them on the air. Just showing their motivation was enough. There were 3 examples I remember that stand out. One was that we went to a Christian bookstore just to find out what they were about. It was very sweet. They were talking about how community members come in and have coffee. As we were talking, I noticed that there was this sign on the wall with two rifles crossing. So I said to her, "What does that sign mean?" And she said, "Oh, we're a gun store." Apparently this is a thing that I didn't know about, but they weren't unique in this. A lot of Bible stores, religious bookstores are also gun shops.<ref>Yamane (2016).</ref> And they were training people to use automatic rifles there. I asked, "Don't you think there's a little bit of a contradiction selling those books and guns at the same thing?" She said something that was so funny. She said, "Well, Jesus didn't have anything against guns." The religious right and gun owners had a common reason, which is fear. The whole thing underneath the religious right thing is just fear. ... A young man was shot by the police in our town. ... When they shot him, he wasn't a danger. When there's a shooting involving the police, the state has to send an investigator to investigate what happened and make a ruling on whether there was something afoul or not. And he didn't even investigate the case. He just said everything's fine. So we asked the county attorney why that happened. He said, because there was no serious problem. When he said that, I realized what he was really saying was that no policeman was hurt in the incident. It really gave us an insight into how the state thought about shootings with the police. The third case I just remember was this really weird. He was an organizer in Iowa with an organization that supports political candidates. They were the group that funded the change in Iowa on abortion rights, which started the whole cascade that ended up in the Supreme Court overturning ''[[w:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization|Roe versus Wade]]''. And he said that he thought that abortion increased rape. ... I just found that when I would interview people that I thought were kind of nuts, if I listened to them enough, eventually they would share the core of what they were really thinking. It's not the part of being an American that we like, but the truth is that our ability to bridge gaps is what makes us American. ...}} Déry asked, {{quote| Do you mind if I offer the opposite perspective? ... At WHIV we did the exact opposite. Our perspective was to not have those so-called opposing voices on air, because those opposing voices, one, are steeped in paranoia, fear and anti-science. And what we try to do at WHIV, and all of our DJs are instructed that if you have an hour show, it takes sometimes 45 minutes to get to the core of what you want to get to, because you're unraveling an onion, layer by layer. And when you get to the core of something, you don't really have the time to move the conversation forward. And so one of the things at WHIV, our kind of North Star was that guns are inherently a public health hazard. We're not going to accept any other conversation. ...}} ===More on FDR=== Returning to Franklin Roosevelt, Graves said, {{quote| The things that FDR did: In the 1930s the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers. So he got the political support needed to do what he did. We can do again something like what Roosevelt did. We only need the political will, and that's why we need better media. ...}} ===Local news nonprofits expose political corruption; major media do not=== Graves continued, {{quote| [[How news impacts democracy per USD Communications Professor Nik Usher|Nick Usher, who is a communication professor at University of San Diego]], did a paper, research. They counted all the federal prosecutions for political corruption in each of the [[w:United States federal judicial district|94 U.S. federal court districts]] between 2003 and 2019. During that time the number of journalists employed in the U.S. fell by a factor of 3. They found no statistically significant impact on federal prosecutions for political corruption. But each local member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] one year was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption the following year.<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022).</ref> You and I benefit, we all benefit, from the news reports that we'd never heard of, published by organizations that we'd never heard of, as long as they actually inspired these additional prosecutions for political corruption.}} ===Local multimedia centers with firewalls preventing elite interference in the content=== Graves continued, {{quote| This gets back to [[w:Victor Pickard (professor)|Victor Pickard]], who is a communication professor in the [[w:Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania|Annenberg School at the University of Pennsylvania]]. He recommends [[Information is a public good per communications prof Pickard|local multimedia centers with management that prohibits elite interference in the content]].<ref>Pickard (2023).</ref> Last year's GRC was in the [[w:Spokane Public Library|Spokane Library]]; their local community radio station, who hosted last year's GRC,<ref><!--2025 Grassroots Radio Conference-->{{cite Q|Q137380320}}</ref> was there. Under the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792 newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny when first-class postage was between 6 and 25 cents. It was 0.2 percent of GDP. Local municipalities can raise that kind of money by matching what they spend on accounting, advertising, and public relations with citizens-directed subsidies for local news nonprofits, like Victor Pickard and Robert McChesney talked about. This is summarized in my book on ''[[Media Literacy and You]]''. Religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to the time of [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. During King James, pamphlets and newspapers started competing with the church to help commoners understand their role in society. This led to the English Civil War, during which the English chopped the head off of King Charles I, the son of King James. And the English economy started growing.<ref>[[Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs]].</ref> The US had just a little over half the GDP per capita then, but it has grown faster. Except that everything is slowing down in recent years. We overtook the UK around 1890 based on diverse ownership of the media and immigrants.<ref>The role of pamphlets and newspapers in economic growth in England is documented in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023). Aghion et al. (2022, p. 266) say, "[T]he period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants". For this they cite Arkolakis et al. (2020), who document how so many immigrants were so much more entrepreneurial than native born that they made an outsized contribution to the economic growth of that period, and subsequent anti-immigrant policies were, they claim, counterproductive.</ref> We are a nation of immigrants.}} === Entrepreneurs of hate promoted by hyperconsolidated media=== Graves continued, {{quote| The major media don't make money by disseminating that information. They make money by building up entrepreneurs of hate. That's a term I got from [[w:Joel Mokyr|Joel Mokyr]],<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 60) says, 'political entrepreneurs, or “entrepreneurs of hate,” convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit' the said entrepreneurs of hate.</ref> who was one of the three guys who shared [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|last year's Nobel Memorial Memorial Prize in Economics]]. Since World War II increasing consolidation of ownership of the media is slowing growth. Wall Street is celebrating, but inflation is up, and I think that inequality is likely going to be increasing. I'd be surprised if the economy doesn't stagnate. Fraudulent, defamatory attacks on immigrants: The research says that immigrants are on average more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native-born.<ref>The Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]" say that some studies report more crime by immigrants while others report less than by native born. It also lists many reasons why the studies reporting more crime by immigrants. Two of several reasons are (1) laws that make it harder for immigrants to get jobs and (2) counting humans arrested for drugs in transit as "immigrants",when they are not.</ref> Once again we can fix this with local multimedia centers.}} Someone in the audience said, {{quote| I manage [[w:WRFG|WRFG]]. We're a community radio station in [[w:Atlanta|Atlanta]]. We also are very much aware, as all of you are, but we chose not to change programming in any way -- in fact to put fuel on it. We are very vocal. We took this opportunity to have more film screenings for political education, cuisine clubs for younger people who were being politicized but weren't interested in the radio yet. Healing circles for people who wanted to come into a sort of metaphysical space in their relationship to that. More people were calling our station and threatening us. They said that they would go and call every funder. We list our major funders on our website, and they did. They called every funder multiple times. When it was [[w:Charlie Kirk|Charlie Kirk]] or [[w:Palestine|Palestine]] or whatever, we did not stop or tone down. We found that our funders didn't care.}} Graves continued, "Anna Gomez said that because they did away with the [[w:fairness doctrine|fairness doctrine]], because they have not replaced it with something else, they cannot censor you on your content, because they don't have the legal authority to do so. ..." === Foundation for Information Rights and Expression === Graves continued, "I interviewed [[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], who's the Chief Counsel for the [[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]. They're doing [[w:First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] kind of stuff. If you have a First Amendment question, you ought to contact them." === Sanctuary for Independent Media concerned with rising techno-fascism=== Another member of the audience said, {{quote| With my partner Steve Pierce,<ref><!--Steve Pierce-->{{cite Q|Q141678363}}</ref> we created the Sanctuary for Independent Media,<ref><!--Sanctuary for Independent Media-->{{cite Q|Q141678377}}</ref> a non-profit community arts and culture media space, power to the people for resistance. And you noted, the resistance is the community media. ... In the news every day, we are at the end of an empire. Techno-fascism is rising in ways that we do not understand.}} === What is America? === Ursula said, "I've been out of the country for 3 months now, so it's given me some time to think about being an American. ... Do you understand what America is? It's like a whole bunch of people who don't know each other." Graves agreed, "[[w:United States|Over 300 million]]." Ursula continued, {{quote| The other thing that hits me when I'm out of the country is the incredible belief people have in who we are as Americans, despite what our country's doing right now. People still fundamentally think we are the gold standard of democracy. ... The thing that we do in community radio and in other kinds of culture building is this conversation, ... which is this superpower, almost, that Americans have to reach across differences and find each other. That conversation of bridging those gaps really is a superpower that we as Americans do. And I guess what I'm getting around to is that that's what we do in community radio.}} Déry added, {{quote| We go to Scotland every once in a while. ... The last time we were in Scotland was last year. I talk to anybody who will talk to me. I think I counted about 120 different conversations I had in the month that we were in Scotland. Bartenders, baristas, people on the street, waiting for a bus, whatever. ... As soon as I opened my mouth, I identified myself as an American. They said to me, "You live in an authoritarian government, and Palestine is a genocide."}} ===Threats from for-profit social media === Graves also said, {{quote| I also interviewed Renée DiResta on how for-profit social media and influencers make money spreading lies destroying democracy. She defeated anti-vaxxers and got invited to found the Stanford Internet Observatory then documented the “Stop the Steal” movement, which started in 2016. When Trump lost in 2020, many came when he called to attack the Capitol January 6, 2021. Many influencers filed SLAPP suits hoping to bankrupt her. She had legal bills of $7 million.<ref>[[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation#Anti-SLAPP laws at state level|Some states have anti-SLAPP laws]]; others do not. The [[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]] supports the [[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression#JAWBONE Act|JAWBONE Act]] to deal with this at the federal level.</ref>}} ==Discussion == :''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]<ref name=NPOV/> and treating others with respect.<ref name=AGF/>]'' == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!--Daron Acemoğlu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2022) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Sun Kyoung Lee, and Michael Peters (2020) European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Graz Schumpeter Lectures; Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Reece Peck (2016) "Usurping the usable past: How Fox News remembered the Great Depression during the Great Recession", Journalism-->{{cite Q|Q135527962}} * <!--Victor Pickard (2023) Another Media System is Possible: Ripping Open the Overton Window, from Platforms to Public Broadcasting, Janost-->{{cite Q|Q131398460}} * <!--Rainey Reitman (2026-04-07) Transaction Denied: Big Finance's Power to Punish Speech-->{{cite Q|Q141526890}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--David Yamane (2016-09) Awash in a Sea of Faith and Firearms: Rediscovering the Connection Between Religion and Gun Ownership in America-->{{cite Q|Q58235551}} [[Category:Media]] [[Category:News]] [[Category:Democracy]] [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Political economy]] [[Category:Freedom of speech]] [[Category:Finance]] [[Category:Economics and Personal Finance]] [[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]] <!--list of categories https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Category_Review [[Wikiversity:Category Review]]--> 69okklvsrxngl7oy260uy1wdmg4tz45 2842712 2842710 2026-10-26T21:19:59Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wdsmth 2842712 wikitext text/x-wiki :''This discusses a 2026-09-25 discussion of the "Media & Democracy" show<ref name=M&D><!--Media & Democracy-->{{cite Q|Q127839818}}</ref> syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica radio]] network<ref><!--Pacifica Radio Network-->{{cite Q|Q2045587}}</ref> and related issues by Spencer Graves,<ref name=Graves><!--Spencer Graves-->{{cite Q|Q56452480}}</ref> Ursula Ruedenberg,<ref name=Ruedenberg><!--Ursula Ruedenberg-->{{cite Q|Q70230619}}</ref> MarkAlain Déry,<ref name=Dery><!--MarkAlain Déry-->{{cite Q|Q141673893}}</ref> and others.'' :''It is posted here to invite others to contribute other perspectives, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] while [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]<ref name=NPOV>The rules of writing from a neutral point of view citing credible sources may not be enforced on other parts of Wikiversity. However, they can facilitate dialog between people with dramatically different beliefs.</ref> and treating others with respect.''<ref name=AGF>[[Wikiversity:Assume good faith|Wikiversity asks contributors to assume good faith]], similar to Wikipedia. The rule in [[w:Wikinews|Wikinews]] was different: Contributors there were asked to [[Wikinews:Never assume|"Don't assume things; be skeptical about everything."]] That's wise. However, we should still treat others with respect while being skeptical.</ref> [[File:Media & Democracy syndicated for Pacifica.webm|thumb|2026-09-25 discussion of "Media & Democracy" and related issues at the Grassroots Radio Conference]] [[File:Media & Democracy syndicated for Pacifica.ogg|thumb|29:00 mm:ss excerpts from 2026-09-25 discussion of "Media & Democracy" syndicated for Pacifica and related issues]] [[File:Discussion of Media & Democracy.pdf|thumb|Slides used in discussing "Media & Democracy"<ref name=M&D/> at the 2026 Grassroots Radio Conference]] Spencer Graves<ref name=Graves/> discusses the [[w:Fortnight|fortnightly]] "Media & Democracy" show<ref name=M&D><!--Media & Democracy-->{{cite Q|Q127839818}}</ref> syndicated for the [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica radio]] network<ref><!--Pacifica Radio Network-->{{cite Q|Q2045587}}</ref> and related issues with Ursula Ruedenberg,<ref name=Ruedenberg/> Dr. MarkAlain Déry,<ref name=Dery/> and others at the 2026 [[w:Grassroots Radio Coalition#History|Grassroots Radio Conference]] (GRC). Ruedenberg is the Pacifica Affiliate Network Manager. Déry is an [[w:Osteopathic medicine in the United States|osteopath]], who founded [[w:WHIV-LP|WHIV]] in [[w:New Oreans|New Orleans]] and hosted the 2024 GRC. ==Highlights== :''These excerpts from the interview are rushed, lightly edited for readability, and may not be in final form. The ultimate authority on what was said is the accompanying video.'' Graves began by claiming that, {{quote| The most important questions for our day, I believe, are the following: * Why is democracy declining? * Why is fascism rising? * Why are political polarization and violence increasing? This "Media & Democracy" series is focused on asking experts on these issues why they think this is happening, and what they recommend that we all should do to protect ourselves and rebuild civil society and democracy. You do not need Audioport<ref><!--Audioport-->{{cite Q|Q141674090}}</ref> to get "Media & Democracy", because it's available on Wikiversity under [[:Category:Media reform to improve democracy]]. ...}} ===Finance companies freeze accounts they don't like === Graves continued, {{quote| I recently interviewed [[Rainey Reitman on how finance companies punish speech|Rainey Reitman]],<ref><!--Rainey Reitman-->{{cite Q|Q28778243}}</ref> who is author of a book on ''Transaction Denied: Big Finance's Power to Punish Speech''.<ref>Reitman (2026).</ref> It turns out that [[w:Bank of America|Bank of America]], [[w:PayPal|PayPal]], [[w:Chase Bank|Chase]], [[w:Visa Inc.|Visa]], [[w:Mastercard|Mastercard]] can decide they don't like you and freeze your account. It's for real. If that happens to your bank account, you may not be able to pay your bills, you may not be able to get paid. I don't know if they accept auto deposits. They might, but you won't be able to get the money.<ref>Under certain circumstances, you may still be able to get social security and similar funds from a frozen account. See "[[Rainey Reitman on how finance companies punish speech]]".</ref> And they will not tell you why. If you scream loud enough and tell enough people, they might relent.}} Paul Bame<ref name=Bame>Bame is a volunteer broadcast engineer with the [[w:Prometheus Radio Project|Prometheus Radio Project]]. [[Underserved serve themselves with low-power FM|He was interviewed 2026-02-12 for "Media & Democracy".]]</ref> said, "A resource for that is the [[w:Better Business Bureau|Better Business Bureau]]. I found that when [[w:Intuit|Intuit]] was holding [[w:Prometheus Radio Project|Prometheus funds]] and wouldn't tell us why, it wasn't for any nefarious reason. I filed a report with the Better Business Bureau, and I got a call from the VP the next day." Graves replied, "Terrific. That's very important. That's something that Rainey Reitman did not mention. I should send her that." ===FCC's toothless threats === Graves continued, {{quote| Let's talk about [[w:Project 2025|Project 2025]]. The chair of our current [[w:Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] wrote in that document that [[w:NPR|NPR]], [[w:PBS|PBS]], [[w:Pacifica Foundation|Pacifica Radio]], and other leftist broadcasters, like basically everybody in this room, I guess, would be shorn of the presumption that they act in the public interest. Clearly they do not. And therefore they are no longer qualified as non-commercial educational stations. They'd prefer to take us off the air, but at least they wouldn't allow us to continue in the low end of the FM band. Last year's grassroots radio conference: [[w:Anna M. Gomez|Anna Gomez]] was a keynote speaker. ...}} Ruedenberg added, "One of the biggest takeaways that I got from what she said was that in her experience, the Trump administration was more interested in convincing people to cooperate or to stop doing what they're doing, in a sense. So the focus was more on mentally threatening people, because the administration understood that it was much more difficult for them to win a lot of cases in court. It's basically impossible, because a lot of what they're doing is illegal. So their focus was really on influencing your minds. I thought that was a very interesting comment on her part." Graves replied, {{quote| Absolutely. Thank you. I skipped that. I should have mentioned it, and I didn't. When it's big business involved, which I think is most of them, they're really thinly veiled requests for bribes. They can be shaken down, because they want approval of mergers and acquisitions beyond reason that threaten democracy. So she seemed to feel it was just mostly intimidation. The alternative of that is [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|SLAPP, Strategic Litigation Against Public Participation]].}} Bame<ref name=Bame/> interjected, "[[w:Self-censorship|Self-censorship]] is the word I haven't heard yet." Graves agreed. === What the left can learn from Fox === Graves continued, {{quote| [[What the Left can learn from Fox|I interviewed Reece Peck.]]<ref name=Peck><!--Reece Peck-->{{cite Q|Q131374387}}</ref> He's a communication professor. He's written a paper on, "Usurping the usable past, how Fox News remembered the Great Depression during the Great Recession".<ref>Peck (2016).</ref> During the [[w:Great Recession|2007-2009, international financial meltdown]], Fox featured experts claiming that the [[w:New Deal|New Deal]] made the [[w:Great Depression|Great Depression]] ''worse'', not better. They succeeded in preventing Congress from protecting the fraud victims. But the money that was basically destroyed in the international financial meltdown had to be put back into the economy. :''So over 5,000 leading industry figures got million-dollar bonuses at taxpayer expense.''<ref>Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, ch. 3).</ref> That last line is not from Reese Pack. That's from [[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]] and [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]], who shared the [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|2024 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]]. There's a chapter in my book, the second substantive chapter, [[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|talks about the fact that, indeed, Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) did dramatically reduce unemployment]]. He spent the money to put people back to work. He taxed the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since. And during World War II, he implemented wage and price controls through the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]] that prevented price gouging by major companies. And instead of inflation that we'd gotten in previous major wars, we got massive economic growth, averaging 6% per year before World War II, and 10% during World War II -- 8% per year for the 12 years of Franklin Roosevelt, while the average growth for basically all the other presidents was between nothing and 2% or 3%. It was shocking for any country at the technology frontier. In addition, he empowered organized labor that continued to reduce inequality, until [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]]. [[w:Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] took office in 1981 and started rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|robber baron]]s. ... Prior to FDR, the top 1% had 45% of net personal wealth in the nation, and the bottom 90% had 22%. FDR brought the two together. The power of organized labor continued to reduce inequality until, as I said, Reaganomics has been restoring the robber barons.<ref>See especially [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7]] in [[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]].</ref>}} ===How to expose media lies and have fun doing it=== Graves continued, {{quote| In early August, I did a couple of workshops on "[[How to expose media lies and have fun doing it]]". Primary drivers of every major conflict include differences between the media or differences in interpretation that the different parties find credible.<ref>See [[Media Literacy and You#Key claims|Key claims]] in the book-in-progress, ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', on Wikiversity.</ref> If we think about that, it encourages us to push ourselves to accept others where they are and have friendly, supportive conversations, sharing our concerns, including with humans with whom we may vehemently disagree, inviting pleasant conversations about "I know you believe that. I know that's the media you find credible. Can we talk about differences in interpretations or what the different media say?}} Bame said, {{quote| There's a nonprofit called [[w:Braver Angels|Braver Angels]]. They have chapters throughout the country. Their mission and success is getting people from opposite sides of the table to have these conversations. They produce also podcasts, so there's audio available. ... They understand the psychology of how to do this.}} Ruedenberg commented, {{quote| When I was doing a morning show, one of my favorite things was to talk to people that I really disagreed with. I always said it's better than taking drugs, because it just takes your brain to places you've never been before when you really listen to people you disagree with. They have reasons for what they're doing and how they're thinking about things that just don't occur to me. I really got to enjoy that. The main technique that I used was just [[w:Active listening|active listening]]. I found that if I would employ active listening with them, it would encourage them to continue to explain themselves and to elaborate more on how they thought. And eventually, they would get to the core of what was driving them. I felt that that was the biggest service that I could offer my audience, to help them see where this was coming from. Usually it was coming from a place that was, in my opinion, kind of horrible. But it's human. It was their reality. I guess you kind of just have to trust your audience to hear that. ... I didn't feel that I had to necessarily expose somebody by arguing with them on the air. Just showing their motivation was enough. There were 3 examples I remember that stand out. One was that we went to a Christian bookstore just to find out what they were about. It was very sweet. They were talking about how community members come in and have coffee. As we were talking, I noticed that there was this sign on the wall with two rifles crossing. So I said to her, "What does that sign mean?" And she said, "Oh, we're a gun store." Apparently this is a thing that I didn't know about, but they weren't unique in this. A lot of Bible stores, religious bookstores are also gun shops.<ref>Yamane (2016).</ref> And they were training people to use automatic rifles there. I asked, "Don't you think there's a little bit of a contradiction selling those books and guns at the same thing?" She said something that was so funny. She said, "Well, Jesus didn't have anything against guns." The religious right and gun owners had a common reason, which is fear. The whole thing underneath the religious right thing is just fear. ... A young man was shot by the police in our town. ... When they shot him, he wasn't a danger. When there's a shooting involving the police, the state has to send an investigator to investigate what happened and make a ruling on whether there was something afoul or not. And he didn't even investigate the case. He just said everything's fine. So we asked the county attorney why that happened. He said, because there was no serious problem. When he said that, I realized what he was really saying was that no policeman was hurt in the incident. It really gave us an insight into how the state thought about shootings with the police. The third case I just remember was this really weird. He was an organizer in Iowa with an organization that supports political candidates. They were the group that funded the change in Iowa on abortion rights, which started the whole cascade that ended up in the Supreme Court overturning ''[[w:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization|Roe versus Wade]]''. And he said that he thought that abortion increased rape. ... I just found that when I would interview people that I thought were kind of nuts, if I listened to them enough, eventually they would share the core of what they were really thinking. It's not the part of being an American that we like, but the truth is that our ability to bridge gaps is what makes us American. ...}} Déry asked, {{quote| Do you mind if I offer the opposite perspective? ... At WHIV we did the exact opposite. Our perspective was to not have those so-called opposing voices on air, because those opposing voices, one, are steeped in paranoia, fear and anti-science. And what we try to do at WHIV, and all of our DJs are instructed that if you have an hour show, it takes sometimes 45 minutes to get to the core of what you want to get to, because you're unraveling an onion, layer by layer. And when you get to the core of something, you don't really have the time to move the conversation forward. And so one of the things at WHIV, our kind of North Star was that guns are inherently a public health hazard. We're not going to accept any other conversation. ...}} ===More on FDR=== Returning to Franklin Roosevelt, Graves said, {{quote| The things that FDR did: In the 1930s the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers. So he got the political support needed to do what he did. We can do again something like what Roosevelt did. We only need the political will, and that's why we need better media. ...}} ===Local news nonprofits expose political corruption; major media do not=== Graves continued, {{quote| [[How news impacts democracy per USD Communications Professor Nik Usher|Nick Usher, who is a communication professor at University of San Diego]], did a paper, research. They counted all the federal prosecutions for political corruption in each of the [[w:United States federal judicial district|94 U.S. federal court districts]] between 2003 and 2019. During that time the number of journalists employed in the U.S. fell by a factor of 3. They found no statistically significant impact on federal prosecutions for political corruption. But each local member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] one year was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption the following year.<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022).</ref> You and I benefit, we all benefit, from the news reports that we'd never heard of, published by organizations that we'd never heard of, as long as they actually inspired these additional prosecutions for political corruption.}} ===Local multimedia centers with firewalls preventing elite interference in the content=== Graves continued, {{quote| This gets back to [[w:Victor Pickard (professor)|Victor Pickard]], who is a communication professor in the [[w:Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania|Annenberg School at the University of Pennsylvania]]. He recommends [[Information is a public good per communications prof Pickard|local multimedia centers with management that prohibits elite interference in the content]].<ref>Pickard (2023).</ref> Last year's GRC was in the [[w:Spokane Public Library|Spokane Library]]; their local community radio station, who hosted last year's GRC,<ref><!--2025 Grassroots Radio Conference-->{{cite Q|Q137380320}}</ref> was there. Under the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792 newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny when first-class postage was between 6 and 25 cents. It was 0.2 percent of GDP. Local municipalities can raise that kind of money by matching what they spend on accounting, advertising, and public relations with citizens-directed subsidies for local news nonprofits, like Victor Pickard and Robert McChesney talked about. This is summarized in my book on ''[[Media Literacy and You]]''. Religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to the time of [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. During King James, pamphlets and newspapers started competing with the church to help commoners understand their role in society. This led to the English Civil War, during which the English chopped the head off of King Charles I, the son of King James. And the English economy started growing.<ref>[[Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs]].</ref> The US had just a little over half the GDP per capita then, but it has grown faster. Except that everything is slowing down in recent years. We overtook the UK around 1890 based on diverse ownership of the media and immigrants.<ref>The role of pamphlets and newspapers in economic growth in England is documented in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023). Aghion et al. (2022, p. 266) say, "[T]he period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants". For this they cite Arkolakis et al. (2020), who document how so many immigrants were so much more entrepreneurial than native born that they made an outsized contribution to the economic growth of that period, and subsequent anti-immigrant policies were, they claim, counterproductive.</ref> We are a nation of immigrants.}} === Entrepreneurs of hate promoted by hyperconsolidated media=== Graves continued, {{quote| The major media don't make money by disseminating that information. They make money by building up entrepreneurs of hate. That's a term I got from [[w:Joel Mokyr|Joel Mokyr]],<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 60) says, 'political entrepreneurs, or “entrepreneurs of hate,” convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit' the said entrepreneurs of hate.</ref> who was one of the three guys who shared [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|last year's Nobel Memorial Memorial Prize in Economics]]. Since World War II increasing consolidation of ownership of the media is slowing growth. Wall Street is celebrating, but inflation is up, and I think that inequality is likely going to be increasing. I'd be surprised if the economy doesn't stagnate. Fraudulent, defamatory attacks on immigrants: The research says that immigrants are on average more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native-born.<ref>The Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]" say that some studies report more crime by immigrants while others report less than by native born. It also lists many reasons why the studies reporting more crime by immigrants. Two of several reasons are (1) laws that make it harder for immigrants to get jobs and (2) counting humans arrested for drugs in transit as "immigrants",when they are not.</ref> Once again we can fix this with local multimedia centers.}} Someone in the audience said, {{quote| I manage [[w:WRFG|WRFG]]. We're a community radio station in [[w:Atlanta|Atlanta]]. We also are very much aware, as all of you are, but we chose not to change programming in any way -- in fact to put fuel on it. We are very vocal. We took this opportunity to have more film screenings for political education, cuisine clubs for younger people who were being politicized but weren't interested in the radio yet. Healing circles for people who wanted to come into a sort of metaphysical space in their relationship to that. More people were calling our station and threatening us. They said that they would go and call every funder. We list our major funders on our website, and they did. They called every funder multiple times. When it was [[w:Charlie Kirk|Charlie Kirk]] or [[w:Palestine|Palestine]] or whatever, we did not stop or tone down. We found that our funders didn't care.}} Graves continued, "Anna Gomez said that because they did away with the [[w:fairness doctrine|fairness doctrine]], because they have not replaced it with something else, they cannot censor you on your content, because they don't have the legal authority to do so. ..." === Foundation for Information Rights and Expression === Graves continued, "I interviewed [[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], who's the Chief Counsel for the [[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]. They're doing [[w:First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] kind of stuff. If you have a First Amendment question, you ought to contact them." === Sanctuary for Independent Media concerned with rising techno-fascism=== Another member of the audience said, {{quote| With my partner Steve Pierce,<ref><!--Steve Pierce-->{{cite Q|Q141678363}}</ref> we created the Sanctuary for Independent Media,<ref><!--Sanctuary for Independent Media-->{{cite Q|Q141678377}}</ref> a non-profit community arts and culture media space, power to the people for resistance. And you noted, the resistance is the community media. ... In the news every day, we are at the end of an empire. Techno-fascism is rising in ways that we do not understand.}} === What is America? === Ursula said, "I've been out of the country for 3 months now, so it's given me some time to think about being an American. ... Do you understand what America is? It's like a whole bunch of people who don't know each other." Graves agreed, "[[w:United States|Over 300 million]]." Ursula continued, {{quote| The other thing that hits me when I'm out of the country is the incredible belief people have in who we are as Americans, despite what our country's doing right now. People still fundamentally think we are the gold standard of democracy. ... The thing that we do in community radio and in other kinds of culture building is this conversation, ... which is this superpower, almost, that Americans have to reach across differences and find each other. That conversation of bridging those gaps really is a superpower that we as Americans do. And I guess what I'm getting around to is that that's what we do in community radio.}} Déry added, {{quote| We go to Scotland every once in a while. ... The last time we were in Scotland was last year. I talk to anybody who will talk to me. I think I counted about 120 different conversations I had in the month that we were in Scotland. Bartenders, baristas, people on the street, waiting for a bus, whatever. ... As soon as I opened my mouth, I identified myself as an American. They said to me, "You live in an authoritarian government, and Palestine is a genocide."}} ===Threats from for-profit social media === Graves also said, {{quote| I also interviewed Renée DiResta on how for-profit social media and influencers make money spreading lies destroying democracy. She defeated anti-vaxxers and got invited to found the Stanford Internet Observatory then documented the “Stop the Steal” movement, which started in 2016. When Trump lost in 2020, many came when he called to attack the Capitol January 6, 2021. Many influencers filed SLAPP suits hoping to bankrupt her. She had legal bills of $7 million.<ref>[[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation#Anti-SLAPP laws at state level|Some states have anti-SLAPP laws]]; others do not. The [[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]] supports the [[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression#JAWBONE Act|JAWBONE Act]] to deal with this at the federal level.</ref>}} ==Discussion == :''[Interested readers are invited to comment here, subject to the Wikimedia rules of [[w:Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|writing from a neutral point of view]] [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|citing credible sources]]<ref name=NPOV/> and treating others with respect.<ref name=AGF/>]'' == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!--Daron Acemoğlu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2022) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Sun Kyoung Lee, and Michael Peters (2020) European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Graz Schumpeter Lectures; Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Reece Peck (2016) "Usurping the usable past: How Fox News remembered the Great Depression during the Great Recession", Journalism-->{{cite Q|Q135527962}} * <!--Victor Pickard (2023) Another Media System is Possible: Ripping Open the Overton Window, from Platforms to Public Broadcasting, Janost-->{{cite Q|Q131398460}} * <!--Rainey Reitman (2026-04-07) Transaction Denied: Big Finance's Power to Punish Speech-->{{cite Q|Q141526890}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--David Yamane (2016-09) Awash in a Sea of Faith and Firearms: Rediscovering the Connection Between Religion and Gun Ownership in America-->{{cite Q|Q58235551}} [[Category:Media]] [[Category:News]] [[Category:Democracy]] [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Political economy]] [[Category:Freedom of speech]] [[Category:Finance]] [[Category:Economics and Personal Finance]] [[Category:Media reform to improve democracy]] <!--list of categories https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Category_Review [[Wikiversity:Category Review]]--> pov10a5qj9j0hh7ni899kgmkq000x7t 0 332549 2842662 2842597 2026-10-26T13:58:43Z DavidMCEddy 218607 clarify the drop 1807-1808 for NLD 2842662 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison Project data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially Holland to 1807 and the Netherlands after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting in 1650 with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore starting in 1870).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913.</ref> The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 is due to the change in reference from [[w:Holland|Holland]] to the Netherlands; at that time Holland was the most prosperous region of the Netherlands.<ref name=vanZ_B>Private email exchange with van Zanden and Bolt, 2026-01-08.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807. The drop in the orange line in Figure 1 between 1807 and 1808 is due to the change of reference from Holland to the Netherlands.<ref name=vanZ_B/> Visual comparison of the orange and red lines in Figure 1 suggests that the GDPpc for Great Britain overtook that of the Netherlands a few decades earlier and and overtook Holland a few decades later. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote| the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref>.}} Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote| the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}} [[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this "the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]". Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.</ref> And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became "possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions", dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade "and converting Venice into a museum", in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155). Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would "protect" them in wars against designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, "A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643".<ref>Washington (2018).</ref> Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).</ref> The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts",<ref>After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as "the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]". After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as "the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]".</ref> according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Common land|common land]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]", accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote| The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}} The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Robert Michels (1911) Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties-->{{cite Q|Q7210216}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) " A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643"-->{{cite Q|Q141822147}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 3fhd5b5al10xcnhki1m2dzkj840vv8p 2842667 2842662 2026-10-26T14:01:29Z DavidMCEddy 218607 chg links 2842667 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison Project data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially [[w:Holland|Holland]] to 1807 and the [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]] after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting in 1650 with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore starting in 1870).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913.</ref> The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 is due to the change in reference from Holland to the Netherlands; at that time Holland was the most prosperous region of the Netherlands.<ref name=vanZ_B>Private email exchange with van Zanden and Bolt, 2026-01-08.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807. The drop in the orange line in Figure 1 between 1807 and 1808 is due to the change of reference from Holland to the Netherlands.<ref name=vanZ_B/> Visual comparison of the orange and red lines in Figure 1 suggests that the GDPpc for Great Britain overtook that of the Netherlands a few decades earlier and and overtook Holland a few decades later. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote| the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref>.}} Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote| the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}} [[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this "the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]". Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.</ref> And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became "possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions", dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade "and converting Venice into a museum", in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155). Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would "protect" them in wars against designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, "A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643".<ref>Washington (2018).</ref> Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).</ref> The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts",<ref>After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as "the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]". After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as "the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]".</ref> according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Common land|common land]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]", accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote| The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}} The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Robert Michels (1911) Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties-->{{cite Q|Q7210216}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) " A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643"-->{{cite Q|Q141822147}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 3oykjvt9h5080imlzd1brb6f7c15oz9 2842668 2842667 2026-10-26T14:03:20Z DavidMCEddy 218607 dup word 2842668 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison Project data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially [[w:Holland|Holland]] to 1807 and the [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]] after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting in 1650 with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore starting in 1870).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913.</ref> The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 is due to the change in reference from Holland to the Netherlands; at that time Holland was the most prosperous region of the Netherlands.<ref name=vanZ_B>Private email exchange with van Zanden and Bolt, 2026-01-08.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807. The drop in the orange line in Figure 1 between 1807 and 1808 is due to the change of reference from Holland to the Netherlands.<ref name=vanZ_B/> Visual comparison of the orange and red lines in Figure 1 suggests that the GDPpc for Great Britain overtook that of the Netherlands a few decades earlier and overtook Holland a few decades later. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote| the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref>.}} Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote| the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}} [[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this "the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]". Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.</ref> And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became "possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions", dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade "and converting Venice into a museum", in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155). Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would "protect" them in wars against designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, "A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643".<ref>Washington (2018).</ref> Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).</ref> The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts",<ref>After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as "the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]". After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as "the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]".</ref> according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Common land|common land]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]", accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote| The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}} The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Robert Michels (1911) Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties-->{{cite Q|Q7210216}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) " A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643"-->{{cite Q|Q141822147}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> s7pb5uf65nqtr71hxrvc8ke0sk2yeb9 2842669 2842668 2026-10-26T14:04:27Z DavidMCEddy 218607 wsmth 2842669 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison Project data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially [[w:Holland|Holland]] to 1807 and the [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]] after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting in 1650 with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore starting in 1870).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913.</ref> The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 is due to the change in reference from Holland to the Netherlands; at that time Holland was the most prosperous region of the Netherlands.<ref name=vanZ_B>Private email exchange with van Zanden and Bolt, 2026-01-08.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807. The drop in the orange line in Figure 1 between 1807 and 1808 is due to the change of reference from Holland to the Netherlands.<ref name=vanZ_B/> Visual comparison of the orange and red lines in Figure 1 suggests that the GDPpc of Great Britain overtook that of the Netherlands a few decades earlier and overtook Holland a few decades later. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == Banerjee and Duflo (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote| the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref>.}} Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote| the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}} [[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this "the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]". Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.</ref> And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became "possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions", dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade "and converting Venice into a museum", in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155). Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would "protect" them in wars against designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, "A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643".<ref>Washington (2018).</ref> Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).</ref> The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts",<ref>After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as "the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]". After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as "the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]".</ref> according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Common land|common land]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]", accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote| The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}} The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Robert Michels (1911) Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties-->{{cite Q|Q7210216}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) " A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643"-->{{cite Q|Q141822147}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> 50ecy8da83zkm1izvv1uft05hy55hmf 2842796 2842669 2026-10-27T07:22:01Z DavidMCEddy 218607 links 2842796 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Research project}} :''This article invites all to contribute references and interpretations to the growth in average annual income, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita at purchasing power parity, as applied to leading countries in the [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]].'' :''This essay is on Wikiversity to encourage a wide discussion of the issues it raises moderated by the Wikimedia rules that invite contributors to [[w:Wikipedia:Be bold|“be bold but not reckless,”]] contributing revisions written from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”'''{{'}} page]] -- and treating others with respect.'' ::''This article uses [[w:ISO 8601|ISO 8601]] dates except for References, which are controlled by standard Wikidata formatting, and direct quotes. In the initial author's experience, [[ISO 8601 and computing differences between dates|ISO 8601 dates seem to make it easier to remember dates and to compute differences between them.]]'' == Abstract == This article first identifies and plots GDP per capita for leading countries in the Maddison Project data then discusses comments by Nobel prize winning economists and others to interpret what appears in said plot. No one really knows how to make economies grow. However, growth at the technology frontier requires creative destruction, and immigrants tend to be more entrepreneurial than native born. Also, creative destruction is facilitated and inequality is limited by diversity of ownership and control of the major media. == Maddison Historical Statistics == [[File:MaddisonDataLeaders1349-2022.svg|thumb|''Figure 1. World leaders in GDP per capita 1349-2022 (NLD = initially [[w:Holland|Holland]] to 1807 and the [[w:Netherlands|Netherlands]] after; GBR = initially England to 1700, Great Britain to 1870, then the UK; USA starting in 1650 with the 13 colonies that became the US; SGP = Singapore starting in 1870).<ref>See Bolt and van Zanden (2024) for the Maddison Data generally, Broadberry et al. (2015) for the data on England 1252–1700 and on Great Britain until 1870, Sugimoto (2011) for Singapore to 2007, van Zanden and van Leeuwen (2012) for the data on Holland 1349–1807, and Smits et al. (2000) for the data on the Netherlands 1808-1913.</ref> The dramatic drop in the orange line between 1807 and 1808 is due to the change in reference from Holland to the Netherlands; at that time Holland was the most prosperous region of the Netherlands.<ref name=vanZ_B>Private email exchange with van Zanden and Bolt, 2026-01-08.</ref>'']] The [[w:Maddison Project|Maddison Historical Statistics Project]] (aka Maddison Project) is widely recognized as the premier data source on historical macroeconomic data. It is named after [[w:Angus Maddison|Angus Maddison]] (1926-2010), who was a pioneer in [[w:National accounts|national accounts]], especially estimating [[w:Gros Domestic Product|gross domestic product]] (GDP) per capita (GDPpc) and population (pop) at various times dating back to the year 1 of the [[w:Common Era|Common Era]] (CE / AD). After Maddison's death, the Maddison Project has continued to update the database to include the best sources available on any country for any historical period since year 1. When accessed 2026-10-10 the version of the data available had been released 2024-09-18 containing data to 2022.<ref>Bolt and van Zanden (2024).</ref> This dataset includes 23,280 observations on at least one of GDPpc and pop for an average of 137 years for 169 countries. Only 18 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. Annual data starts in 1252, and that's only for one country, GBR = England / Great Britain / the United Kingdom. NLD (Holland / the Netherlands) had the highest GDPpc for 97 percent of the years between 1349 and 1807. The drop in the orange line in Figure 1 between 1807 and 1808 is due to the change of reference from Holland to the Netherlands.<ref name=vanZ_B/> Visual comparison of the orange and red lines in Figure 1 suggests that the GDPpc of Great Britain overtook that of the Netherlands a few decades earlier and overtook Holland a few decades later. This analysis focuses on data since 1349, in part because data were available for at most 4 countries for most years prior to that date. (The 3-letter country codes used here are [[w:ISO 3166-1 alpha-3|ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]], used in the Maddison data.) We are interested in technology leaders, so we eliminate the [[w:petrostates|petrostates]] of Qatar (QAT), Kuwait (KWT), and United Arab Emirates (ARE), plus Norway (NOR), which owes a substantial portion of their wealth to democratic management of [[w:North Sea oil|North Sea oil]].<ref>Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017).</ref> With these restrictions 12 countries had the highest GDPpc for at least one year. However, FRA (France), ITA (Italy), SWE (Sweden), BEL (Belgium), NZL (New Zealand) and CHE (Switzerland) led for at most 7 of the 675 years between 1349 and 2022; we eliminate those, because including them would seem to add more clutter than clarity. We also eliminate AUS (Australia), which led for 17 of the 39 years between 1853 and 1891, when it was competing for the leadership with GBR and USA, for the same reason. And we eliminate LUX (Luxembourg), which has a population under a million. This leaves NLD, GBR, USA, and SGP (Singapore), plotted in Figure 1. This plot has some interesting features, which we discuss in the remainder of this research report. == Nobel economists and others == [[w:Abhijit Banerjee|Banerjee]] and [[w:Esther Duflo|Duflo]] (2019, p. 207) said, "despite the best efforts of generations of economists, the deep mechanisms of persistent economic growth remain elusive." That appeared shortly before they shared the 2019 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with [[w:Michael Kremer|Michael Kremer]] for documenting how [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]]s could be used to alleviating poverty in [[w:Development economics|development economics]]. While Banerjee and Duflo insist that no one knows how to make an economy grow, other leading economists recommend partial solutions. For example, [[w:Joel Mokyr|Mokyr]] (2017, p. 53) said, "The willingness of the Netherlands and later Britain and the United States to tolerate Jews and dissenting Christians contributed a great deal to their economies, especially in high-skilled manufacturing and financial services." In other words, immigrants made an outsized contribution to the growth of NLD, GBR, and US, visible in Figure 1. Mokyr's comment appeared over a year before Banerjee and Duflo (2019) and roughy eight years before Mokyr shared the 2025 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics with [[w:Philippe Aghion|Aghion]] and [[w:Peter Howitt (economist)|Howitt]]. Mokyr (2017, p. 255) also said that, "intellectual innovation will eventually end up being increasingly resisted by an incumbent technology; if that resistance is not overcome, technological progress may be extinguished." That resistance, he suggested, drives {{quote| the empirical regularity that no society remains at the cutting edge of technological creativity for very long<ref>Mokyr (2017, p. 260).</ref>.}} Mokyr (2017, p. 260; 1994) calls this "Cardwell's Law" after Cardwell (1972), which describes {{quote| the interaction between technological creativity and political competition ... based on the observation that technological progress encounters resistance from various groups that believe they stand to lose from innovation. These pressure groups will try to manipulate the political system to suppress successful innovation.}} [[w:Robert Michels|Michels]] (1911) called this "the [[w:Iron law of oligarchy|iron law of oligarchy]]". Further documentation of this appears in Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2012). Figure 1 begins with growth in England and Holland between 1349 and 1400, likely due to the fact that the [[w:Black Death|Black Death]] (1346-1353) killed between 30 and 60 percent of the population: Since land was not destroyed, survivors were likely able to produce more agricultural products for the same labor. Also, under the feudal system in place before the Black Death, commoners were not allowed to move without the permission of their employer, the Lord of the land where they worked. Efforts by elites to prevent commoners from moving and obtaining higher wages failed, at least in England.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 99-101) note that surviving commoners in England were able to bargain for higher wages.</ref> And the growth in Holland from 1492 has been has been attributed to [[w:Expulsion of Jews from Spain|Jews expelled from Spain settling]] in Holland and starting new businesses. The iron law of oligarchy provides an explanation for why growth stopped in England around 1400, Holland around 1600, and why growth has been slowing in recent decades in in all the countries plotted in in Figure 1. It can also explain [[w:History of the Roman Empire|the rise and fall of the Roman Empire]], of the [[w:Maya civilization|Maya civilization]], and other societies that became very rich from allowing commoners to become entrepreneurs and then declined after previous winners changed the rules of the political economy to block further [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]]. This includes how [[w:History of the Republic of Venice|Venice]] became "possibly the richest place in the world, with the most advanced set of inclusive economic institutions", dominating trade in the [[w:Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] based on a system that encouraged entrepreneurial commoners to undertake risky trading ventures starting after 810 CE and ending when leaders made wealthy by such ventures changed the rules to end that system starting in 1297, destroying their dominance of Mediterranean trade "and converting Venice into a museum", in the words of Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 152-155). Mokyr (2017, p. 60) also mentioned "entrepreneurs of hate", who convince others to dislike some group in a way that may benefit those "entrepreneurs" and major media organizations, who promote such "entrepreneurs" to please those who control much of the money for the media. For-profit social media have been particularly effective in herding their audiences into echo chambers, reinforcing their preconceptions in ways that increase political polarization and violence and threaten democracy.<ref>See, e.g., DiResta (2026), DiResta and Keinfeld (2025), and the Wikiversity article on "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> When successful this protects current elites from competition that would otherwise drive [[w:creative destruction|creative destruction]], benefitting the public at large while threatening existing elites. For example, most research on immigrants suggest that on average immigrants are more entrepreneurial and no more likely to commit crime than native born,<ref>e.g., Martínez et al. (2017); Muchow and Stanishevska (2026); Ajzenman(2023).</ref> and some studies report that [[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary jurisdiction]]s have on average higher median incomes and less crime.<ref>Martínez et al. (2017); Wong (2017). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Sanctuary city|sanctuary city]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> Where immigrant crime is higher, it typically result from anti-immigrant labor market restrictions or from young less-educated males with irregular status.<ref>Marie and Paolo (2024). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Immigration and crime|Immigration and crime]]", accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> But major media outlets make money from featuring charismatic figures, who attract an audience without offending people who control much of the money for the media. In 2017 President [[w:Immigration policy of the first Trump administration|Trump]]'s Attorney General [[w:Jeff Sessions|Jeff Sessions]] quoted a research study that supposedly showed that sanctuary cities had more crime than cities without sanctuary policies. The authors of that study insisted that Sessions had ''misrepresented'' their work, which concluded "that sanctuary policies have no effect on crime rates, despite narratives to the contrary."<ref>Roll (2017); Gonzalez O’Brien, et al. (2017).</ref> To the extent that these comments provide a balanced summary of the research in this area, it suggests that leaders like Trump and Sessions, to name only two, can be fairly describes as "entrepreneurs of hate". We next discuss competition in media markets before discussing immigrants further. === Diversity of ownership of the major media === Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, esp. ch. 4) describe how religious leaders in hierarchical societies prior to [[w:James VI and I|King James]] of the [[w:King James Version|King James Bible]] convinced commoners to live in poverty while giving increasing shares of what they produced, so religious and secular elites could live in opulence. Prior to King James the major media were religious organizations. In such hierarchical societies some religious leaders were entrepreneurs of hate, exhorting the faithful to fear and hate designated evil others and give increasing shares of what they produce so secular elites would "protect" them in wars against designated evil others. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 461) said, "Empowerment of society at large is difficult to coordinate and maintain without widespread information about whether there are economic and political abuses by those in power. ... Pamphlets and books informing and galvanizing people played an important role during the [[w:Glorious Revolution|Glorious Revolution]] [1688] in England, the French Revolution [1789-1799]" and in the US. ([[w:Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu]], [[w:Simon Johnson (economist)|Johnson]] and [[w:James A. Robinson|Robinson]] shared the 2024 [[w:List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economic Sciences|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]].) But pamplets started challenging established power structures much earlier. The publication of [[w:Martin Luther|Martin Luther]]'s ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'' in Latin 1517-10-31 was quickly condemned by [[w:Pope Leo X|Pope Leo X]] and his hierarchy. [[w:Johann Tetzel|Johann Tetzel]], who had been selling [[w:Indulgence|indulgence]]s, published a pamphlet calling for Luther to be burnt for [[w:heresy|heresy]]. Eight hundred copies were reportedly sent to [[w:Wittenberg|Wittenberg]] to be sold, but students seized and burned them.<ref>Hendrix (2015, p. 64), quoted from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> This led to a pamphlet war. Luther's brief German-language reply was short and easy for commoners to understand<ref>Leppin and Wengert (2015, p. 389), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> and was much more popular than Tetzel's.<ref>Pettegree (2015, p. 145), cited from the Wikipedia article on the ''[[w:Ninety-five Theses|Ninety-five Theses]]'', accessed 2026-10-14.</ref> Less than twenty years later, in 1534, King [[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]] declared himself head of the [[w:Church of England|Church of England]], denying the authority of the Pope. To secure the support of his subjects, he drove a propaganda war that included print literature<ref>Raymond (2006), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Pamphlet war|pamphlet war]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> and theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the king. The latter traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices. Henry was portrayed as the glorious king of England, bravely and heroically defending the true faith against foreign devils, especially the Pope and Catholic priests, monks, etc.<ref>Hibbert et al. (2010, p. 928), cited from the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Henry VIII|Henry VIII]]", accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> Henry died in 1547. Less than a dozen years later, the crown passed to [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]]. Her limited personal wealth and English tradition required her to negotiate with Parliament for tax money. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-111) noted that she was forced to limit the granting of monopolies and allow a class of merchants to compete in international trade. Many English merchants became wealthy, helped by the defeat of the [[w:Spanish Armada|Spanish Armada]] in 1588. When Elizabeth died in 1603, she was replaced by her cousin, King [[w:James VI and I|James VI of Scotland]], who then became also James I of England. He claimed [[w:Divine right of kings|divine right of kings]], threatening this class of merchants. To raise money without asking Parliament, he granted patents and monopolies to those who would pay. Parliament responded by passing the [[w:Statute of Monopolies|Statute of Monopolies]] on 1624-05-29. This statute repealed some past and future patents and monopolies except for novel inventions. But that Statute of Monopolies did not end the conflict. It ultimately went public, described as, "A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643".<ref>Washington (2018).</ref> Some pamphlets supported [[w:Charles I of England|Charles I]], who became King after James died in 1625. Others supported Parliamentarians and [[w:Levellers|Levellers]]. The latter supported radical ideas like [[w:popular sovereignty|popular sovereignty]], extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. In 1642 war broke out between Parliament and Charles I, though many in Parliament sided with Charles -- especially those, who had received monopolies from him.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, esp. pp. 189, 210).</ref> The war was won by the [[w:New Model Army|New Model Army]], which represented many in Parliament plus Levellers. The latter were excluded from the government that followed the [[w:Execution of Charles I of England|beheading of King Charles I]] in 1649.<ref>Foxley (2013, p. 207), cited from the Wikipedia article on [[w:Levellers|Levellers]], accessed 2026-10-15.</ref> However, that new government stopped granting as many monopolies and allowed so many commoners to become entrepreneurs that the GDP per capita began to grow at rates that are key features of Figure 1 for England and the 13 English colonies that became the US over a century later. One explanation for that economic growth was the diversity of independent publishers of pamphlets, books and newspapers. [[w:Robert W. McChesney|McChesney]] and [[w:John Nichols (journalist)|Nichols]] (2010, 2016) suggested that the US [[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]] of 1792<ref>Wikipedia "[[w:Postal Service Act|Postal Service Act]]", accessed 2023-07-11.</ref> made a major contribution to making the US what it is today. Under that act, newspapers were delivered up to 100 miles for a penny, when postage for letters was between 6 and 25 cents depending on distance.<ref>Historian, USPS (2010).</ref> McChesney and Nichols estimated that between 1840 and 1844, the US postal subsidy was a little over 0.2% of GDP.<ref name=McC-N2010>McChesney and Nichols (2010, pp. 310-311, note 88).</ref> During the first half of the nineteenth century the US had more independent newspaper publishers (more independent media organizations) per million population than at any other time or place in human history.<ref>John (1995). See also the interview with him at "[[Media concentration per Columbia History Professor Richard John]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-12.</ref> In 1932 with official unemployment over 20 percent, the conservative argument that blames the poor for their poverty did not sell newspapers, and the US still had sufficient competition in media markets that presidential candidate Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) got a mandate to spend the money to put humans back to work while taxing the ultra-wealthy like they had never been taxed before or since and during World War II to institute wage and price controls under the [[w:Office of Price Administration|Office of Price Administration]]. The latter prevented price gouging by government contractors that had generated inflation and stifled economic growth in previous major wars (World War I, the Civil War, and the War of 1812). Instead, the US averaged 7 percent per year growth for FDR's 12 years.<ref>The "6 percent per year" growth during FDR's 12 years was computed as the average of log(GDPpc) in the Maddison Data. To be precise, that computation produced 0.0597; converting that from a log scale to percent increase gives 0.0615. Using data from [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]] instead of Maddison, we get 0.783 and 0.815, respectively. More documentation of this is available in "[[Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" on Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> One of the most interesting features of Figure 1 is the behavior of the US economy in the administrations of [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]] and FDR: Under Hoover, the economy declined at 9 percent per year for 4 years, a financial disaster that created the public demand for change that gave FDR the mandate to do what he did. Economic growth under two other presidents are numerically comparable to FDR's numbers but for much shorter periods: (1) [[w: Warren G. Harding|Warren G. Harding]] averaged 7 percent annual growth for two years before he died in 1923 during the [[w:Roaring Twenties|Roaring Twenties]]. (2) [[w:Rutherford B Hayes|Rutherford B Hayes]], who took office in 1877 at the end of the [[w:Panic of 1873|Panic of 1873]], oversaw 5.5 percent growth per year for his 4 years as president. Those impressive sounding average growth figures are so short that they are not noticeably different from other minor features visible in Figure 1. FDR also dramatically reduced inequality. For over a century between about 1820 and 1932 the top 1 percent of the US population owned roughly 45 percent of net personal wealth in the US, while the bottom 90 percent owned roughly 22 percent. Shortly after FDR died, the wealth of the top 1 percent and bottom 90 percent were even at roughly 30 percent. FDR also oversaw dramatic growth in the power of organized labor. Their successes continued to reduce inequality to roughly 22 percent for the top 1 percent vs. 37 percent for the bottom 90 percent when Ronald Reagan became president. Since then, [[w:Reaganomics|Reaganomics]] have been rebuilding the [[w:Robber baron (industrialist)|Robber Baron]]s.<ref>This history of inequality is documented in [[:File:Share of US wealth 90p99.svg|Figure 7. Shares of US wealth - bottom 90 and top 1 percent, 1820-2023]] in the Wikiversity article on "[[w:Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future|Media Literacy and You/Fox, the Great Depression, the Great Recession, and our future]]" in Wikiversity, accessed 2026-10-13.</ref> FDR made enemies among the wealthiest and most powerful. In a [[q:Franklin D. Roosevelt#Address at Madison Square Garden (1936)|speech in Maddison Square Garden in 1936]], FDR mentioned, "the old enemies of peace: business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. ... They are unanimous in their hate for me -- and I welcome their hatred." They doubtless could see that they could no longer afford as many personal servants -- maids, butlers, cooks, chauffeurs, etc. -- as they had before FDR. Broadcasting was relatively new when FDR took office. The economics of broadcasting naturally favored a very few networks, whose power concerned FDR. In 1941 his [[w:Federal Communications Commission| Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) adopted the [[w:Mayflower doctrine|Mayflower doctrine]], which prohibited broadcasters from advocacy. When FDR died, people with power were able to get the Mayflower doctrine replaced by the more lenient [[w:Fairness Doctrine|Fairness Doctrine]], which opened the floodgates for entrepreneurs of hate, who drove the [[w:McCarthyism|McCarthy Red Scare]] in the US and many other problems since. Over time this became worse, facilitated by increasing concentration of ownership of the media. That contributed to the end of the Fairness Doctrine starting in 1985. That revocation and especially the more recent rise of for-profit social media have amplified the ability of entrepreneurs of hate to make money both for commercial social media and for themselves by disseminating lies about others, e.g., immigrants.<ref>On how for-profit social media companies promote entrepreneurs of hate, see, e.g., DiResta (2026) and the Wikiversity article on, "[[Managing the good and the evils of social media]]", accessed 2026-10-12. DiResta (2026, p. 1) described the promotion of "influencers" by for-profit social media as essentially unleashed "a war for power, influence, and reality itself—a conflict in which the ends justify any means, and one that has ripped America apart, threatened our very democracy, and consumed my own life for the past decade, leading to death threats, congressional subpoenas, lawsuits, and legal bills running into seven figures." In the interview on Wikiversity, DiResta said her legal bills to that point had exceeded $7 million.</ref> And the rate of economic growth in the US (and the Netherlands and the UK) have been slowing in recent decades, as is visible in Figure 1. Inequality expert [[w:Thomas Piketty|Piketty]] (2022, p. 139) noted, {{quote| In the United States, the national income per inhabitant rose at a rate ... of 2.2% between 1950 to 1990 when the top tax rate reached on average 72%. The top rate was then cut in half, with the announced objective of boosting growth. But in fact, growth fell by half, to 1.1% per annum between 1990 and 2020 ... . Beyond a certain level of inequality, repeatedly increasing differences in income and wealth has clearly had no positive effect on economic dynamism. In sum, all the data at our disposal today suggest that virtually confiscatory tax rates have been an immense historical success. They have made it possible to greatly reduce the divergences of fortunes and incomes, while at the same time improving the situation of the middle and lower classes, developing the welfare state, and stimulating better economic and social performance overall. Historically, it is the battle for equality and education that has made economic development and human progress possible, and not the veneration of property, stability, and inequality.}} Table 1 compares Piketty's growth numbers with computations based on the data from both Maddison and [[w:MeasuringWorth|MeasuringWorth]]: The numbers are close but not exact. {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Table 1. US growth rate 1950 to 1990 to 2020 |- ! ! colspan=3 | US GDP per capita !! colspan=2 | Growth (% / yr) |- ! source || 1950 !! 1990 !! 2020 !! 1950 - 1990 !! 1990 - 2020 |- | Piketty || - || - || - || 2.2% || 1.1% |- | Maddison || $15,240 || $36,982 || $54,379 || 2.24% || 1.29% |- | MeasuringWorth || $16,208 || $40,191 || $61,127 || 2.30% || 1.41% |} Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 105-106) provide a historical analysis supporting Piketty's concern about inequality slowing growth. They note that in 1588, England, Spain and France {{quote| were ruled by relatively absolutist monarchs: [[w:Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I]] in England, [[w:Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] in Spain, and [[w:Henry III of France|Henry III]] in France. All were battling with assemblies of citizens -- such as the [[w:Parliament of England#Tudor era (1485–1603)|Parliament]] in England, the [[w:Cortes Generales#Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)|Cortes]] in Spain, and the [[w:Estates General (France)#Revival in 1560–1614|Estates-General]] in France -- that were demanding more rights and control over the monarchy. ... [T]he English Parliament and the Spanish Cortes had power over taxation, while the Estates-General did not. In Spain this mattered little, because after 1492 the Spanish Crown had a vast American empire and benefited massively from the gold and silver found there. In England ... Elizabeth I was far less financially independent, so she had to beg Parliament for more taxes. In exchange, Parliament demanded concessions, in particular restrictions of the right of Elizabeth to create monopolies. ... In Spain the Cortes lost a similar conflict.}} Consistent with Acemoglu and Johnson (2023) and the discussion above, inequality tends to increase elite control of the media, which it makes it harder for commoners to get a fair hearing of their concerns. === Media conflicts of interest in IP law === Major media have [[w:Conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] in honestly reporting on anything involving [[w:Intellectual property|intellectual property]] (IP) law. An example of Cardwell's law, mentioned above, is the [[w:Copyright Term Extension Act|Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]], also known as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act of 1998. The copyright term on ''[[w:Steamboat Willie|Steamboat Willie]]'', the first [[w:Mickey Mouse|Mickey Mouse]] animated film that Disney distributed, was extended multiple times by the US Congress following extensive lobbying by the film industry led by [[w:The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. ''Steamboat Willie'', which debuted in 1928, finally entered the [[w:Public domain in the United States|US public domain]] on January 1, 2024. Eric Eldred and others filed suit, claiming that allowing any number of retroactive extensions violated the [[w:Copyright Clause|Copyright Clause]] of the US Constitution, which says, {{quote| [the United States Congress shall have power] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.}} In ''[[w:Eldred v. Ashcroft|Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'' (2003), the [[w:Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] disagreed with Eldred and allowed the statute to remain in effect. However, that case drew enough public attention that copyright terms have not (yet) been extended further, and ''Steamboat Willie'' is currently in the pubic domain. [[w:Lawrence Lessig|Lessig]] (2004) ''[[w:Free Culture (book)|Free Culture]]'' describes other examples, where US copyright law seems to ''limit'' rather than "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts". This includes a case where a 2002 freshman, Jesse Jordan, modified a search engine to make it easier for other student to find pictures, research, notes, movie clips, etc., on an [[w:intranet|intranet]] at [[w:Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute|Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (RPI). The [[w:Recording Industry Association of America|Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) sued Jordan and three other students for close to $100 billion for copyright violations -- six times the total profit of the film industry in 2001. Jordan had an uncle, who was an attorney, who explained that the legal bills for fighting that case would be at least $250,000. That would bankrupt his parents; they could not recover that money, even if they won. Jordan had saved $12,000 to cover part of his college expenses. RIAA accepted that and settled the case.<ref>Lessig (2004, p. 42).</ref> This is an example of a [[w:Strategic lawsuit against public participation|strategic lawsuit against public participation]] (SLAPP), which in this case rested on questionable interpretations of copyright law. The major media have conflicts of interest in honestly reporting on anything involving (a) copyright laws, because much of their income is derived from copyright royalties, or (b) anything that might offend their major accounts, including major corporations. And anti-SLAPP laws, which exist in some jurisdictions but not others,<ref>[[w:Robert Corn-Revere|Robert Corn-Revere]], Chief Counsel for the [[w:Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression|Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]], supports anti-SLAPP laws and the "JAWBONE act", to limit the power of the government to threaten questionable actions, like the Trump administration's threats against the ABC network over a Jimmy Kimmel monolog. See the Wikiversity article on "[[Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression]]", accessed 2026-10-16.</ref> limit the ability of major corporations to abuse their power against potential challengers without such deep pockets. Similarly Graves (2023) asked, "Do copyrights and paywalls on refereed academic journals violate the US constitution?" No one expects to make money from copyright royalties for drafts submitted to refereed academic journals. They do it out of a felt need (a) to contribute to the future of humanity or (b) to build their reputation or (c) because promotions at many universities are based partly on publication records. Graves is not alone in his concern about this: Many European countries do not allow reports of research they fund to be published behind paywalls.<ref>Dimi Zagorski is concerned that copyright exceptions for scientific research are different in different European countries, and that's a problem for the Wikimedia Foundation. See the discussion of this in the Wikiversity article on "[[Wikimedia concerns with European copyright rules including AI and scientific research]]". That's the opposite of US law, which grants patents to universities, research institutions, private companies, and individuals for innovations developed under government contracts, per the Bayh-Dole Act of 1980, described by Baker (2016, p. 80).</ref> Regarding patent law, the major media have conflicts of interest in discussing proposed changes affecting major accounts, but they make little use of patent law themselves. This seems to have contributed to the claim that, "[O]ver the last four decades ... stronger patent protection seems to be associated with slower growth" in the US, according to [[w:Dean Baker|Baker]] (2016, pp. 77-78). A potentially similar phenomenon appears in a comparison of 21 different European countries in an analysis that displays "a positive relationship between anticorruption measures in a country and rate of innovation in that country as measured by patents per capita", discussed by Aghion et al. (2021, Figure 15.1b, pp. 292-293).<ref>Usher and Kim-Leffingwell (2022) documented how each member of the [[w:Institute for Nonprofit News|Institute for Nonprofit News]] (INN), relatively small nonprofits independent of major media organizations and not funded by advertising, in a US federal court district was associated with on average 1.4 additional prosecutions for political corruption per year between 2003 and 2019. They found on average 10 federal prosecutions for political corruption for each federal court district per year. Thus, 1.4 additional prosecutions per year per district represents an increase of 14 percent per member of INN.</ref> === Immigrants === We now return to discussing the initiation of economic growth following the beheading of Charles I in 1649 visible in Figure 1. Charles I was replaced by [[w:English Council of State|Lord Protector Cromwell]], who refused to authorize as many monopolies as his predecessors, as mentioned above. He also encouraged Jews and dissenting Christians to settle in England, as mentioned by Mokyr (2017, p. 53), cited above. But Mokyr is not alone in claiming that immigrants contribute to economic growth. Aghion et al. (2021, p. 266) cite Arkolakis et al. (2020) for explaining how the period 1880–1920 is noteworthy for two parallel evolutions. First, the United States caught up with England and France to become the most technologically advanced country in the world as well as the wealthiest in terms of GDP per capita. Second, the United States welcomed large numbers of immigrants, most notably from Europe. The purpose of the cited study was to demonstrate a causal connection between these two phenomena: in other words, to show that European immigration was responsible for the United States’ taking the lead in technology. ... More precisely, if the United States had completely closed its borders to all foreign immigrants in 1880, its per capita GDP would have been 30 percent lower than the level actually attained in 1920". === Industrial Revolution === There seems to be a broad consensus that the [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]] began in England. However, there is less agreement on when it began. Mokyr (2017, p. 3) says, "The British Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth century unleashed a phenomenon never before even remotely experienced by any society." He described "three cultural elements" required for "sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress": (1, 2) The belief that it was both ''possible'' and ''desirable''. (3) Supportive policy measures had to be implemented. "[B]efore 1750 they did not produce anything like an Industrial Revolution or sustainable economic growth propelled by technological progress.<ref>Mokyr (2017, pp. 19-20).</ref> Acemoglu (2026, p. 53) similarly mentioned the eighteenth century in saying, "The breakthroughs in production technology that started in the middle of the eighteenth century in Britain unleashed the Industrial Revolution." Aghion et al. (2021, esp. pp. 29-30) offer a ''later'' date for the start of the Industrial Revolution: They report that, "European economies prior to 1820 experienced a series of phases of growth and decline. This raises a question: How did the pre-1820 period differ from the takeoff that started with the first Industrial Revolution?" Aghion et al. (2021, p. 20) describe the "first Industrial Revolution" as having been triggered by "the invention of the steam engine by James Watt in the 1770s ... . The invention of electricity set off the second Industrial Revolution, whose golden age was in the first half of the twentieth century. This second revolution originated with the invention of the [[w:Incandescent light bulb|light bulb]] by [[w:Thomas Edison|Thomas Edison]] in 1879 and of the [[w:dynamo|dynamo]] by [[w:Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in 1866."<ref>The dynamo was independently invented by [[w:Henry Wilde (engineer)|Henry Wilde]], [[w:Charles Wheatstone|Charles Wheatstone]], [[w:Samuel Alfred Varley|Samuel Alfred Varley]] and Siemens, all about the same time, according to the Wikipedia article on [[w:Dynamo#Practical designs|dynamo]], accessed 2026-10-18.</ref> The image in Figure 1 raises questions about these claims by Mokyr, Acemogu, and Aghion et al.: It shows growth followed by stagnation in Holland but not "phases of growth and decline" with the exception of wars and [[w:Herbert Hoover|Herbert Hoover]]. It also does ''not'' show the slope (i.e., rate of growth) increasing starting around 1750 or the 1770s or 1879 or 1886. Instead it shows sustained growth in GDP per capita for England / Great Britain / the UK starting ''abruptly'' after 1649 with economic disruptions during the reign of [[w:Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] (1702-1714) and the [[w:War of the Spanish Succession|War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714). This was followed by relatively steady but slower growth as England was ruled by Kings [[w:House of Hanover#Monarchs of Great Britain, Ireland, and Hanover|George I, II, and III]] (1714-1820). Another dramatic increase in the slope started abruptly about 1819. Acemoglu and Johnson (2023, chapter 1) are more consistent with Figure 1. They said that, "the Industrial Revolution ... [was] rooted in institutional changes that started empowering the middling sort of English people from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries onward." ... However, "the quality of life of a European peasant circa 1700 was not much different from that of an Egyptian peasant two thousand or seven thousand years previously." (chapter 5) They also claim that, "English national production per capita doubled from 1500 to 1700", (chapter 5), and "Growth emerged slowly in the second half of the eighteenth century as the Industrial Revolution, based on major technological breakthroughs and their application in industry, took root." (p. 45, chapter 2) Indeed, Figure 1 shows English GDP per capita doubling between 1500 and 1700, but it appears to have been fairly constant from 1500 to 1649, then roughly doubled in the next half century. [The data on England up to 1700 in Figure 1 came from Broadberry et al. (2015), which was not available when Acemoglu and Robinson were writing ''Why Nations Fail'', which appeared in 2012.] Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, ch. 11) describe the financial instability and slow growth during the reigns of Queen Anne and George I, II, and III. After the Glorious Revolution, France, Spain, the pope, and others refused to recognize [[w:William III of England|William and Mary]] (1689-1702) and then Queen Anne as heads of state of England. Instead they continued to support the claims of James II and then his son, [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|James Francis Edward Stuart]] (the "Old Pretender", a brother of Queen Anne), after James II died in 1701. During the War of the Spanish Succession, each side tried to exploit the internal divisions of the other. Owen (1938, ch. 8) said France almost succeeded in an attempt in 1708 to [[w:Planned French invasion of Britain (1708)|land between 5 and 6 thousand soldiers in northeast Scotland]]. [[w:Louis XIV|Louis XIV]] had hoped to get the Old Protector named as King James VIII of Scotland. There were still [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobites]] in Scotland, who supported the Old Pretender and likely would have supported the invaders if they had landed. If they had succeeded, it would have created major problems for Queen Anne and her supporters. However, the Royal Navy prevented the invaders from disembarking, and they returned to France. When Queen Anne died in 1702, she was succeeded by George I. His Parliament was dominated by the Whig party, which represented the new mercantile and economic interests and had been the main organization behind the Glorious Revolution. Once in power, they were tempted to use their newly found position to prey on the rights of others but were constrained both by competing groups in Parliament, "and by the very institutions that they had fought to introduce to strengthen Parliament and to prevent the emergence of a new absolutism and the return of the Stuarts",<ref>After James II fled England, the new government worked to block [[w:Jacobitism|Jacobitism]], which attempted to restore the [[w:House of Stuart|House of Stuart]] to the thrones of Scotland and Britain. When James II died, his son became titular head of this movement, who became known as "the [[w:James Francis Edward Stuart|Old Pretender]]". After he died, he was replaced by his son, who became known as "the [[w:Charles Edward Stuart|Young Pretender]]".</ref> according to Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 302-303). The Whigs gave "[[w:Common land|common land]]" to nobles, confiscating it from commoners. Some commoners, who had traditionally shared that land, joined "Blacks", so called, because they blackened their faces when hunting on former commons or destroying the property of the nobility or extorting money from nobles or their employees. Parliament retaliated by passing the [[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]], under which someone accused of [[w:Poaching|poaching]] a [[w:Hare|hare]], for example, could under certain circumstances receive a summary judgment of guilty and then be executed without delay if apprehended later.<ref>Newman and Brown, eds. (1997, p. 58). See also the Wikipedia article on "[[w:Black Act 1723|Black Act 1723]]", accessed 2026-10-17.</ref> But not all accused were summarily executed. In 1724 "John Huntridge was accused of aiding deer stealers and abetting known Blacks, both crimes punishable by hanging. The prosecution of Huntridge came right from the top, initiated by the Regency Council of Lords Justices ... . After a trial of eight or nine hours, the jury found Huntridge innocent, partly on procedural grounds, since there were irregularities with the way the evidence had been collected. ... The jury was made up not of Huntridge’s peers, but of major landowners and gentry, who ought to have sympathized" with the noble, whose property had been attacked by Blacks allegedly aided by Huntridge.<ref>Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, pp. 304-305).</ref> These kinds of actions by the Parliaments of George I, II, and III might explain the slower growth during that period compared to that of the last half of the seventeenth century. That slower growth ended abruptly at the time of the [[w:Peterloo massacre|Peterloo Massacre]], 1819-08-16, visible in Figure 1. The growth of factories implied growth of cities, where workers lived closer together and could more easily organize. A campaign arose with multiple demands: They opposed the [[w:Corn Laws|Corn Laws]], which kept prices high for cereal grains and products made from them. They also demanded "universal [adult male] suffrage" and secret ballots in elections. A series of public meetings discussing these grievances led to one 1819-08-16, which attracted roughly 60,000. Acemoglu and Robinson (2012, p. 207) reported that, {{quote| The authorities were very nervous about the meeting, and a force of six hundred cavalry of the [[w:15th The King's Hussars|Fifteenth Hussars]] had been assembled. As the speeches began, a local magistrate decided to issue a warrant for the arrest of the speakers. As police tried to enforce the warrant, they met with the opposition of the crowd, and fighting broke out. At this point the Hussars charged the crowd. Within a few chaotic minutes, eleven people were dead and probably six hundred wounded. The ''[[w:Manchester Observer|Manchester Observer]]'' called it the Peterloo Massacre. But given the changes that had already taken place in economic and political institutions, long-run repression was not a solution in England. The Peterloo Massacre would remain an isolated incident. Following the riot, the political institutions in England gave way to the pressure, and the destabilizing threat of much wider social unrest, particularly after the 1830 revolution in France against [[w:Charles X of France|Charles X]], who had tried to restore the absolutism destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789. In 1832 the government passed the [[w:Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]]. It enfranchised [[w:Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[w:Leeds|Leeds]], [[w:Manchester|Manchester]], and [[w:Sheffield|Sheffield]], and broadened the base of voting so that manufacturers could be represented in Parliament. ... [I]n 1846 they managed to get the hated Corn Laws repealed ... .}} The ''Manchester Observer'' closed roughly two years later after [[w:Manchester Observer#Closure by repeated prosecution|repeated prosecutions]] for [[w:Seditious libel|seditious libel]]. However, the British government placed enough other limits on its power that enough other commoners were allowed to become successful entrepreneurs that the rate of economic growth in the UK increased immediately, as indicated by the increase in the slope of the UK line in Figure 1 until World Wars I and II. == In sum == The above suggests that the rate of economic growth changes with either (a) a change in administration -- a new head of state -- or (b) some other major event like war, the Peterloo Massacre, or the [[w:Wall Street crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]]. Policy changes that can increase growth include (1) limits on grants of monopolies, (2) diverse ownership and control of the major media and (3) support for immigrants. However, correlation does not imply causation. [[w:Randomized controlled trial|Randomized controlled trial]]s have made important contributions to human understanding of economic growth, as documented by Banerjee, Duflo, and Kramer, cited above and recommended in the Wikiversity article on "[[Information is a public good: Designing experiments to improve government]]". Failing that, more analyses of data from different political jurisdictions with different media policies could be useful, as described by Neff and Pickard (2024).<ref>Graves (2025) includes an analysis of the data in Neff and Pickard (2024).</ref> == Caveat == The above attempts to accurately reflect the perspectives of all sources cited. Readers are invited to revise this article, subject to the standard Wikimedia rules of writing from a [[Wikiversity:Disclosures|neutral point of view]], [[Wikiversity:Cite sources|citing credible sources]] -- while raising other questions and concerns on the associated [[Wikiversity:FAQ|'''{{'}}“Discuss”{{'}}''' page]] -- and treating others with respect. == Notes == {{reflist}} == Bibliography == * <!-- Daron Acemoglu (2026-08-11) What Happened to Liberal Democracy?: Remaking a Politics of Shared Prosperity (Function)-->{{cite Q|Q141241291}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and Simon Johnson (2023) Power and Progress: Our Thousand-Year Struggle Over Technology and Prosperity (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q125292212}} * <!--Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2012) Why Nations Fail (Crown)-->{{cite Q|Q7997840}} * <!--Philippe Aghion, Céline Antonin, and Simon Bunel (2021) The Power of Creative Destruction: Economic Upheaval and the Wealth of Nations (Harvard University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q137641358}} * <!--Ajzenman, Nicolas (29 January 2023). "Migrants don't cause crime rates to increase — but false perceptions endure anyway". The Conversation.-->{{cite Q|Q141758664}} * <!--Costas Arkolakis, Michael Peters, and Sun Kyoung Lee, (2020) "European Immigrants and the United States’ Rise to the Technological Frontier"-->{{cite Q|Q141678287}} * <!--Dean Baker (2016) Rigged: How globalization and the rules to the modern economy were structured to make the rich richer-->{{cite Q|Q100216001}} * <!--Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo (2019) Good Economics for Hard Times (PublicAffairs)-->{{cite Q|Q85764011}} * <!--Jutta Bolt and Jan Luiten van Zanden (2024-09-18) "Maddison style estimates of the evolution of the world economy: A new 2023 update", Journal of Economic Surveys, 1-41-->{{cite Q|Q126723821}} * <!--S. N. Broadberry, B. Campbell, A. Klein, M. Overton and B. van Leeuwen (2015) ''British Economic Growth 1270-1870'' (Cambridge University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q57945943}} * <!--Donald S. L. Cardwell (1972) Turning Points in Western Technology (Neale Watson, Science History Pubs)-->{{cite Q|Q141795083}} * <!--Renée DiResta (2026) Invisible Rulers: The People Who Turn Lies into Reality, updated edition-->{{cite Q|Q141156783}} * <!--Renée DiResta and Rachel Kleinfeld (2025-09-10) For Expertise to Matter, Nonpartisan Institutions Need New Communications Strategies-->{{cite Q|Q141158362}} * <!--Katarzyna Dośpiał-Borysiak (2017) "Model of state management of petroleum sector -- Case of Norway-->{{cite Q|Q141774179}} * <!--Rachel Foxley (2013) The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Oxford University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136227988}} * <!--Benjamin Gonzalez O’Brien, Loren Collingwood, Stephen Omar El-Khatib (2017-05-07) "The Politics of Refuge: Sanctuary Cities, Crime, and Undocumented Immigration-->{{cite Q|Q55932800}} * <!--Graves (2025-01-08) Defend Free Speech For All (Town Hall)-->{{cite Q|Q132855526}} * <!--Graves (2023-03-21) Do copyrights and paywalls on academic journals violate the US Constitution?-->{{cite Q|Q126116187}} * <!--Christopher Hibbert, Ben Weinreb, John Keay, Julia Keay, and Matthew Weinreb (2011-09-09) The London Encyclopaedia, 3rd ed.-->{{cite Q|Q137188993}} * <!-- Historian, USPS (2010) Postage Rates for Periodicals -->{{cite Q|Q112167199}} * <!--Richard R. John (1995) Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse-->{{cite Q|Q54641943}} * <!--Volker Leppin and Timothy J. Wengert (2015) "Sources for and against the Posting of the Ninety-Five Theses"-->{{cite Q|Q141737347}} * <!--Lawrence Lessig (2004) Free Culture-->{{cite Q|Q830526}} * <!--Olivier Marie and Paolo Pinotti (2024-02-01) "Immigration and Crime: An International Perspective", Journal of Economic Perspectives. 38 (1): 181–200-->{{cite Q|Q128434874}} * <!--Martínez, Daniel E.; Martínez-Schuldt, Ricardo D.; Cantor, Guillermo (2017). " Providing Sanctuary or Fostering Crime? A Review of the Research on 'Sanctuary Cities' and Crime" . Sociology Compass. 12 e12547. doi:10.1111/soc4.12547. ISSN 1751-9020.-->{{cite Q|Q55932802}} * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2010). The Death and Life of American Journalism (Bold Type Books) -->{{cite Q|Q104888067}}. * <!-- Robert W. McChesney; John Nichols (2016). People get ready-->{{cite Q|Q87619174}} * <!--Robert Michels (1911) Les Partis politiques, essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties-->{{cite Q|Q7210216}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (2017) A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy (Princeton University Press)-->{{cite Q|Q136118590}} * <!--Joel Mokyr (1994) "Cardwell's Law and the political economy of technological progress", Research Policy 23(5)561-574-->{{cite Q|Q139772607}} * <!--Ashley N. Muchow & Taisiia Stanishevska (2026) "From Headlines to Handcuffs: Local News Coverage of Immigrant Crime and Hispanic Arrest", Justice Quarterly, vol. 43(3) (https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2025.2550307)-->{{cite Q|Q141760694}} * <!--Neff and Pickard (2024) "Funding Democracy: Public Media and Democratic Health in 33 Countries"-->{{cite Q|Q131468289}} * <!--Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds. (1997) Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714–1837: An Encyclopedia-->{{cite Q|Q141759196|authors = Gerald G. Newman and Leslie Ellen Brown, eds.}} * <!--John Hely Owen (1938) War at Sea Under Queen Anne 1702–1708-->{{cite Q|Q141757101}} * <!--Andrew Pettegree (2015-10-27) Brand Luther: How an Unheralded Monk Turned His Small Town into a Center of Publishing, Made Himself the Most Famous Man in Europe--and Started the Protestant Reformation-->{{cite Q|Q141761223}} * <!--Thomas Piketty (2022) A Brief History of Equality-->{{cite Q|Q139886018}} * <!--Joad Raymond (2006-11-02) Pamphlets and Pamphleteering in Early Modern Britain-->{{cite Q|Q141761849}} * <!--Nick Roll (2017-07-16) "Correcting Jeff Sessions: Attorney general railed against crime in sanctuary cities, citing two professors’ work. But his claims are contrary to their conclusions.-->{{cite Q|Q141735231}} * <!--J.P. Smits, E. Horlings and J.L. van Zanden (2000) Dutch GDP and its Components 1800-1913 (Groningen Growth and Development Centre)-->{{cite Q|Q137669960}} * <!--I. Sugimoto (2011) ''Economic growth of Singapore in the twentieth century: historical GDP estimates and empirical investigations'' ( World Scientific Publishing)-->{{cite Q|Q137669987}} * <!--Nik Usher and Sanghoon Kim-Leffingwell (2022-01) How Loud Does the Watchdog Bark? A Reconsideration of Local Journalism, News Non-profits, and Political Corruption -->{{Cite Q|Q134715465}} * <!--J. L. van Zanden and B. van Leeuwen (2012), ‘Persistent but not consistent: the growth of national income in Holland 1347–1807’, Explorations in Economic History, 49, pp. 119–30-->{{cite Q|Q137670058}} * <!--Brittney Washington (2018-06-19) " A Pamphlet War in England, 1641-1643"-->{{cite Q|Q141822147}} * <!--Tom K. Wong (2017-01-26) "The Effects of Sanctuary Policies on Crime and the Economy"-->{{cite Q|Q98775875}} [[Category:Original research]] [[Category:Research]] [[Category:Economics]] [[Category:Macroeconomics]] [[Category:Gross domestic product]] [[Category:Economic growth]] [[Category:Modern Monetary Theory]] [[Category:Political science]] [[Category:Freedom and abundance]] <!-- https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Category_Review --> eeesubah3rk6ha0ephv51u9r8qolmrp 0 332551 2842676 2841487 2026-10-26T16:37:37Z Numismaticus 3112922 2842676 wikitext text/x-wiki Unillustrated lot project: a permanent record of coins which were offered in old auction sales or sold in private treaty, but without illustrations, to preserve documentary evidence which may otherwise be lost in trade or by institutions. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Item ID !Territory !Reference !Coin photograph !Document photograph !Notes |- |1 |Kingdom of Macedon |Price 316 |[[File:Alexander_III_AE_as_Price_316.png|thumb|Obv./Rev. (6.39 g)]] |[[File:Ticket_re._Price_316.png|thumb|Macedonien, Alexander IV. od. III. 323-311 bronze Herakles kopf r. Rs. Kende n. Koecher 15,-]] |Ticket: Germany circa. 1960s or earlier. |- |2 |Seleucid |SC 340 |[[File:Unil2.jpg|300x300px]] |[[File:Unil2 ticket.jpg|thumb|Heinrich Pilartz VII, [19]64, no. 93]] |1.39 g. ex-Heinrich Pilartz VII, 1-3 October 1964, (Cologne, Germany), lot 93 |- | | | | | | |} 121etkhuslgodo34cjzn05wgzusjbnd 2842684 2842676 2026-10-26T17:29:33Z Numismaticus 3112922 2842684 wikitext text/x-wiki Unillustrated lot project: a permanent record of coins which were offered in old auction sales or sold in private treaty, but without illustrations, to preserve documentary evidence which may otherwise be lost in trade or by institutions. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Item ID !Territory !Reference !Coin photograph !Document photograph !Notes |- |1 |Kingdom of Macedon |Price 316 |[[File:Alexander_III_AE_as_Price_316.png|300x300px]] |[[File:Ticket_re._Price_316.png|thumb|Macedonien, Alexander IV. od. III. 323-311 bronze Herakles kopf r. Rs. Kende n. Koecher 15,-]] |6.39 g; Ticket: Germany circa. 1960s or earlier. |- |2 |Seleucid |SC 340 |[[File:Unil2.jpg|300x300px]] |[[File:Unil2 ticket.jpg|thumb|Heinrich Pilartz VII, [19]64, no. 93]] |1.39 g. ex-Heinrich Pilartz VII, 1-3 October 1964, (Cologne, Germany), lot 93 |- | | | | | | |} rg1hou7ugpmivs1xd45860wzxtx1scj 2842803 2842684 2026-10-27T08:38:19Z Numismaticus 3112922 add one 2842803 wikitext text/x-wiki Unillustrated lot project: a permanent record of coins which were offered in old auction sales or sold in private treaty, but without illustrations, to preserve documentary evidence which may otherwise be lost in trade or by institutions. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Item ID !Territory !Reference !Coin photograph !Document photograph !Notes |- |1 |Kingdom of Macedon |Price 316 |[[File:Alexander_III_AE_as_Price_316.png|300x300px]] |[[File:Ticket_re._Price_316.png|thumb|Macedonien, Alexander IV. od. III. 323-311 bronze Herakles kopf r. Rs. Kende n. Koecher 15,-]] |6.39 g; Ticket: Germany circa. 1960s or earlier. |- |2 |Seleucid |SC 340 |[[File:Unil2.jpg|300x300px]] |[[File:Unil2 ticket.jpg|thumb|Heinrich Pilartz VII, [19]64, no. 93]] |1.39 g. ex-Heinrich Pilartz VII, 1-3 October 1964, (Cologne, Germany), lot 93 |- |3 |Byzantine |Sear 518 |[[File:Byzantine, Maurice Tiberius follis, rengal year 6, Kyzikos, first officina.png|300x300px]] | |11.19 g ex-Adalbert Balvin collection, Dorotheum sale (September 2026), lot 928 pt. |} 019rk53b5kq3rityepwo360voz9l45y 0 332625 2842731 2842443 2026-10-26T22:53:11Z KyleWii 3113193 2842731 wikitext text/x-wiki Wikiversity's Advanced Placement (AP) courses need significant improvement in organization and depth of information. Almost all the learning resources can be difficult to navigate, not have explanations and leave students confused. This is very crucial because take this for example. an AP Biology resource won't be helpful if they introduce concepts like cellular transport without explaining the difference between passive and active transport. These problems can make independent studying extremely difficult, especially for students who need free resources to prepare for AP exams and don't have the money to pay for something like a private tutor. A better course would make Wikivesity an effective learning source. To solve this problem, Wikiversity should reorganize its AP courses around the College Board course frameworks and make subunits for it. Each course should have clearly defined units, learning objectives, sufficient explanations, diagrams, worked examples and practice questions with answer explanations similarly of what will be on the AP exam. Editors should review existing pages to identify what info is missing and outdated content. By working with teachers, edits and students, Wikiversity could make a more useful and accurate resource for studying AP. == Our progress == === AP Courses === Courses marked as ▲ are considered high priority. ==== Arts ==== * AP 2-D Art and Design: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP 3-D Art and Design: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Drawing: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Art History: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Music Theory: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== English ==== * AP English Language and Composition: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP English Literature and Composition: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== History and Social Sciences ==== * AP African American Studies: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Comparative Government and Politics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP European History: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Human Geography: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Macroeconomics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Microeconomics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Psychology]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * AP United States Government and Politics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP United States History]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * [[AP World History]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ ==== Math and Computer Science ==== * [[AP Calculus AB]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * [[AP Calculus BC]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * AP Computer Science A: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Computer Science Principles: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Precalculus: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Statistics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== Sciences ==== * [[AP Biology]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * [[AP Chemistry]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * [[AP Environmental Science]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Physics 1]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Physics 2]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Physics C - Electricity and Magnetism]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Physics C - Mechanics]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== AP World Languages and Cultures ==== * AP Chinese Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP French Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP German Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Italian Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Japanese Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Latin: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Spanish Language and Culture]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Spanish Literature and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== AP Capstone Diploma Program ==== * AP Research: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Seminar: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== AP Career Kickstart ==== * AP Business with Personal Finance: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Cybersecurity]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) cy2ow4ar4nab7msltelpwk5fsd0vi5p 2842732 2842731 2026-10-26T23:10:02Z KyleWii 3113193 2842732 wikitext text/x-wiki Wikiversity's Advanced Placement (AP) courses need significant improvement in organization and depth of information. Almost all the learning resources can be difficult to navigate, not have explanations and leave students confused. This is very crucial because take this for example. an AP Biology resource won't be helpful if they introduce concepts like cellular transport without explaining the difference between passive and active transport. These problems can make independent studying extremely difficult, especially for students who need free resources to prepare for AP exams and don't have the money to pay for something like a private tutor. A better course would make Wikivesity an effective learning source. To solve this problem, Wikiversity should reorganize its AP courses around the College Board course frameworks and make subunits for it. Each course should have clearly defined units, learning objectives, sufficient explanations, assignments, diagrams, worked examples and practice questions with answer explanations similarly of what will be on the AP exam. Editors should review existing pages to identify what info is missing or outdated. By working with teachers, edits and students, Wikiversity could make a more useful and accurate resource for studying AP. == Structure == Every subunit, once it's completely finished, should have 3 parts, the notes, an assignment and a quiz (both mcq and frq!) * Notes: This should just be the study notes. These should always go first. * Assignment: The assignment should prepare the user for the quiz, putting the notes into action. * Quiz: This will assess the user's knowledge on the (sub)unit. === AP mock exams === AP mock exams are really useful for preparing for the AP exam. The AP mock exams should last 2-3 hours with 45-80 MCQ and 2-6 FRQ questions depending on the course. There is no limit on how many AP mock exams (as there isn't a thing as too much practice) there should be on a Wikiversity course, as-long as its based of the real AP exam and having quality. == Our progress == === AP Courses === Courses marked as ▲ are considered high priority. ==== Arts ==== * AP 2-D Art and Design: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP 3-D Art and Design: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Drawing: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Art History: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Music Theory: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== English ==== * AP English Language and Composition: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP English Literature and Composition: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== History and Social Sciences ==== * AP African American Studies: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Comparative Government and Politics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP European History: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Human Geography: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Macroeconomics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Microeconomics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Psychology]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * AP United States Government and Politics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP United States History]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * [[AP World History]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ ==== Math and Computer Science ==== * [[AP Calculus AB]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * [[AP Calculus BC]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * AP Computer Science A: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Computer Science Principles: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Precalculus: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Statistics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== Sciences ==== * [[AP Biology]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * [[AP Chemistry]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * [[AP Environmental Science]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Physics 1]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Physics 2]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Physics C - Electricity and Magnetism]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Physics C - Mechanics]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== AP World Languages and Cultures ==== * AP Chinese Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP French Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP German Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Italian Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Japanese Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Latin: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Spanish Language and Culture]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Spanish Literature and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== AP Capstone Diploma Program ==== * AP Research: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Seminar: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== AP Career Kickstart ==== * AP Business with Personal Finance: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Cybersecurity]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) icb27n37gbb2dnx9zad9i98zaq4e112 2842733 2842732 2026-10-26T23:10:23Z KyleWii 3113193 2842733 wikitext text/x-wiki Wikiversity's Advanced Placement (AP) courses need significant improvement in organization and depth of information. Almost all the learning resources can be difficult to navigate, not have explanations and leave students confused. This is very crucial because take this for example. an AP Biology resource won't be helpful if they introduce concepts like cellular transport without explaining the difference between passive and active transport. These problems can make independent studying extremely difficult, especially for students who need free resources to prepare for AP exams and don't have the money to pay for something like a private tutor. A better course would make Wikivesity an effective learning source. To solve this problem, Wikiversity should reorganize its AP courses around the College Board course frameworks and make subunits for it. Each course should have clearly defined units, learning objectives, sufficient explanations, assignments, diagrams, worked examples and practice questions with answer explanations similarly of what will be on the AP exam. Editors should review existing pages to identify what info is missing or outdated. By working with teachers, edits and students, Wikiversity could make a more useful and accurate resource for studying AP. == Structure == Every subunit, once it's completely finished, should have 3 parts, the notes, an assignment and a quiz (both mcq and frq!) * Notes: This should just be the study notes. These should always go first. * Assignment: The assignment should prepare the user for the quiz, putting the notes into action. * Quiz: This will assess the user's knowledge on the (sub)unit. === AP mock exams === AP mock exams are really useful for preparing for the AP exam. The AP mock exams should last 2-3 hours with 45-80 MCQ and 2-6 FRQ questions depending on the course. There is no limit on how many AP mock exams (as there isn't a thing as too much practice) there should be on a Wikiversity course, as-long as its based of the real AP exam and having quality. == Our progress == === AP Courses === Courses marked as ▲ are considered high priority. ==== Arts ==== * AP 2-D Art and Design: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP 3-D Art and Design: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Drawing: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Art History: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Music Theory: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== English ==== * AP English Language and Composition: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP English Literature and Composition: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== History and Social Sciences ==== * AP African American Studies: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Comparative Government and Politics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP European History: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Human Geography: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Macroeconomics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Microeconomics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Psychology]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * AP United States Government and Politics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP United States History]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * [[AP World History]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ ==== Math and Computer Science ==== * [[AP Calculus AB]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * [[AP Calculus BC]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * AP Computer Science A: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Computer Science Principles: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Precalculus: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Statistics: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== Sciences ==== * [[AP Biology]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * [[AP Chemistry]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ▲ * [[AP Environmental Science]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Physics 1]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Physics 2]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Physics C - Electricity and Magnetism]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Physics C - Mechanics]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== AP World Languages and Cultures ==== * AP Chinese Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP French Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP German Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Italian Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Japanese Language and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Latin: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Spanish Language and Culture]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Spanish Literature and Culture: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== AP Capstone Diploma Program ==== * AP Research: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * AP Seminar: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) ==== AP Career Kickstart ==== * AP Business with Personal Finance: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) * [[AP Cybersecurity]]: 0% (0 units completed, 0 units in progress and 0 units not started) == Credits == *[[User:KyleWii|KyleWii]] ([[User talk:KyleWii|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/KyleWii|contribs]]) 23:10, 26 October 2026 (UTC) qv7vrc6buum1cl9s462fno1a2tv5sh7 3 332656 2842645 2026-10-26T12:22:22Z MathXplore 2888076 vandalism1 ([[m:User:ZbVl/VD|Vandoom]]) 2842645 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2026-10-26 == [[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello, I’m letting you know that one or more of your recent contributions have been reverted because they did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, please use the [[Wikiversity:Sandbox|sandbox]] or ask for assistance at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|Colloquium]]. Thank you.<!-- Glow-vandalism1 @ 1793017340051.4s --><nowiki></nowiki> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:22, 26 October 2026 (UTC) abxd4sah1oj103cgvpxqnl0hkuzl581 6 332657 2842648 2026-10-26T13:17:08Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261020 - 20261019) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-26 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842648 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261020 - 20261019) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-26 |Author=Young W. 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Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842652 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261022 - 20261021) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-26 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} oy68vhsjqzrct82makodv1p84bvze1l 6 332660 2842654 2026-10-26T13:43:28Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B traditional (20261022 - 20261021) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-26 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842654 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B traditional (20261022 - 20261021) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-26 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} i6txqkzubeh2hixbni6mu5tyhqxlmg9 6 332661 2842656 2026-10-26T13:44:17Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B traditional (20261023 - 20261022) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-26 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842656 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B traditional (20261023 - 20261022) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-26 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} jd9qnrk30gjqer7s362ry0qbzm8m4qt 6 332662 2842658 2026-10-26T13:45:11Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B traditional (20261024 - 20261023) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-26 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842658 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B traditional (20261024 - 20261023) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-26 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 8k1dx59cbwq5iaenssj1saic08w8egm 6 332663 2842660 2026-10-26T13:49:36Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information ||Description=Block CLA 2C Multi Level (20261022 - 20261021) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-26 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842660 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information ||Description=Block CLA 2C Multi Level (20261022 - 20261021) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-26 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} ly4onpolh0wa0se519sp972px4zbis2 2 332666 2842734 2026-10-26T23:11:01Z KyleWii 3113193 Created page with "See my Wikipedia userpage, not this." 2842734 wikitext text/x-wiki See my Wikipedia userpage, not this. kp6ej0r3d9532m1fsa2w4k5znjsron2 2842735 2842734 2026-10-26T23:11:20Z KyleWii 3113193 2842735 wikitext text/x-wiki See my Wikipedia userpage, not this. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:KyleWii auyoakdsgwkr2pzcr1x5la8xgi1krrh 2842736 2842735 2026-10-26T23:11:39Z KyleWii 3113193 2842736 wikitext text/x-wiki See my Wikipedia userpage, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:KyleWii lc6wptpq08ontlp83onan1n0lq1s44l 3 332667 2842742 2026-10-26T23:28:09Z Atcovi 276019 /* Welcome */ new section 2842742 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome== {{Robelbox|theme=9|title='''[[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]], KyleWii!'''|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or get in touch with [[User talk:Atcovi|me personally]] if you would like some [[Help:Contents|help]]. 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See you around Wikiversity! --—[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:28, 26 October 2026 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} oiefzouovh1v4m5qtym2qjzvb4gfmc2 6 332668 2842783 2026-10-27T06:22:51Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261023 - 20261022) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842783 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261023 - 20261022) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} daz1dns1hw2k9rh56bei2zjnh305kjk 6 332669 2842785 2026-10-27T06:23:35Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261024 - 20261023) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842785 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261024 - 20261023) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} kyjebdps9ok7z10j6r77n4nxyz1siuh 6 332670 2842787 2026-10-27T06:24:19Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261026 - 20261024) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842787 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.SA0: Address and Dereference Operators (20261026 - 20261024) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 5tbwfqjb50y2gnz0fda4z142wna03mr 6 332671 2842789 2026-10-27T06:25:40Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B traditional (20261026 - 20261024) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842789 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Carry Lookahead Adders 2B traditional (20261026 - 20261024) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} izcgcrqkx8ywwo23o15az5ia684nzsr 6 332672 2842791 2026-10-27T06:26:51Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information ||Description=Block CLA 2C Multi Level (20261023 - 20261022) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} 2842791 wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information ||Description=Block CLA 2C Multi Level (20261023 - 20261022) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-27 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} cblju9pjtaxiwdfpu2khvxj4i62jmn9 6 332673 2842793 2026-10-27T06:27:48Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information ||Description=Block CLA 2C Multi Level (20261024 - 20261023) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2026-10-27 |Author=Young W. 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Lim |Permission={{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} qm22a1v5oh6kj6vmpa6ftud79t96s7g 2 332675 2842809 2026-10-27T09:43:48Z Wb525 3112992 Created page with "{{saved_book}} :[[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/ΛCDM]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Cosmic Time]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/the CMB]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/the GRID]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Gravity]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/the Mass Imbroglio]] :Watch source page and target page..." 2842809 wikitext text/x-wiki {{saved_book}} :[[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/ΛCDM]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Cosmic Time]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/the CMB]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/the GRID]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Gravity]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/the Mass Imbroglio]] :[[Watch source page and target page/black holes]] [[Category:Books|UG.NUG]] dlgndfzlrmyne41zjsqr8reik4gcr6o 2842811 2842809 2026-10-27T09:52:46Z Wb525 3112992 Wb525 moved page [[Collection:UG.NUG]] to [[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Book]]: Location error 2842809 wikitext text/x-wiki {{saved_book}} :[[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/ΛCDM]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Cosmic Time]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/the CMB]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/the GRID]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Gravity]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/the Mass Imbroglio]] :[[Watch source page and target page/black holes]] [[Category:Books|UG.NUG]] dlgndfzlrmyne41zjsqr8reik4gcr6o 2842816 2842811 2026-10-27T11:38:34Z Wb525 3112992 Wb525 moved page [[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Book]] to [[User:Wb525/Books/UG.NUG]]: location error 2842809 wikitext text/x-wiki {{saved_book}} :[[User:Wb525/Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/ΛCDM]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Cosmic Time]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/the CMB]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/the GRID]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Gravity]] :[[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/the Mass Imbroglio]] :[[Watch source page and target page/black holes]] [[Category:Books|UG.NUG]] dlgndfzlrmyne41zjsqr8reik4gcr6o 106 332676 2842812 2026-10-27T09:52:46Z Wb525 3112992 Wb525 moved page [[Collection:UG.NUG]] to [[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Book]]: Location error 2842812 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Book]] m2rvi92b45t2bf8j9r1gsp8yjop8en9 0 332677 2842817 2026-10-27T11:38:34Z Wb525 3112992 Wb525 moved page [[Cosmology: UG.NUG an Observation-Based Model/Book]] to [[User:Wb525/Books/UG.NUG]]: location error 2842817 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[User:Wb525/Books/UG.NUG]] agq0u37attfua0dcbl27piyhe2qpmix