Kakum National Park

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    <title>Kakum National Park</title>
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'''Kakum National Park''', dey de coastal area for [[Central Region (Ghana)|Central Region]]&lt;ref&gt;[https://touringghana.com/central-region/ &quot;Central Region&quot;]. ''touringghana.com''. 24 February 2016. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220320175619/https://touringghana.com/central-region/ Archived] from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20220203020435/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/tourism/CentralRegion.php &quot;Central Region&quot;]. ''www.ghanaweb.com''. Archived from [https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/tourism/CentralRegion.php the original] on 3 February 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://national-parks.org/ghana/kakum &quot;Kakum National Park (Official GANP Park Page)&quot;]. ''national-parks.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230926165847/https://national-parks.org/ghana/kakum Archived] from the original on 26 September 2023. Retrieved 29 July 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey [[Ghana]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://ghana.travel/gtas-experience-ghana-share-ghana-campaign-to-promote-domestic-tourism-visits-central-western-regions/ &quot;GTA's Experience Ghana, Share Ghana Campaign To Promote Domestic Tourism Visits Central &amp; Western Regions - Ghana.Travel&quot;]. 11 May 2023. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240618060044/https://ghana.travel/gtas-experience-ghana-share-ghana-campaign-to-promote-domestic-tourism-visits-central-western-regions/ Archived] from the original on 18 June 2024. Retrieved 11 July 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; E bola lyk 375 square kilomètres (145 sq mi). Dem do de park for 1931 insyd so say e go check like e be reserve. dem gazette am as national park for 1992 insyd after dem do sam survey dem bell avifauna. De area be tropical forest.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20140107201234/http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2010-073.pdf &quot;Parks and reserves of Ghana: Management Effectiveness Assessment of Protected Areas&quot;] (PDF). IUCN. Archived from [http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2010-073.pdf the original] (PDF) on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2013.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20230711120834/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1396 &quot;Kakum National Park (Assin Attandanso Reserve) (#)&quot;]. UNESCO.  from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 11 April 2013.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;[http://www.microsfere.org/en/kakum-national-park/index.htm &quot;Kakum National Park&quot;]. Microsfere. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140107214241/http://www.microsfere.org/en/kakum-national-park/index.htm Archived] from the original on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 11 April 2013.&lt;/ref&gt; One thing wey dey be about de park be say e be de people for de area way start am, no be de State Department of Wildlife wey dem for do am before. Ebe three location for Africa wey get canopy walkway.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/kakum-canopy-walk &quot;Kakum Canopy Walk&quot;]. ''Atlas Obscura''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230711113259/https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/kakum-canopy-walk Archived] from the original on 11 July 2023. Retrieved 11 July 2023.&lt;/ref&gt; Wey dey lyk 350 metres (1,150 ft) long, way esan dey connect seven trees top wey you go fi enter de forest.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;[http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6324 &quot;Kakum National Park - Assin Attandaso Resource Reserve&quot;]. Bird Life. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150101020828/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6324 Archived] from the original on 1 January 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2013.&lt;/ref&gt;

De most notable endangered species of fauna for de park insyd be Diana monkey,&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160130213738/https://www.britannica.com/animal/diana-monkey &quot;Diana monkey | primate&quot;]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Archived from [https://www.britannica.com/animal/diana-monkey the original] on 30 January 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; giant bongo antelope,&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.britannica.com/animal/bongo-antelope &quot;Bongo | antelope&quot;]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190419030126/https://www.britannica.com/animal/bongo-antelope Archived] from the original on 19 April 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; yellow-backed duiker&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Cephalophus_silvicultor.html &quot;Yellow-backed duiker (''Cephalophus silvicultor'') - Quick facts&quot;]. ''www.ultimateungulate.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110501010415/http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Cephalophus_silvicultor.html Archived] from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; den African elephant.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/african-elephant &quot;African Elephant | Species | WWF&quot;]. ''World Wildlife Fund''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220323201916/https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/african-elephant Archived] from the original on 23 March 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; E sanso be Important Bird Area&lt;ref&gt;BirdLife International. [https://www.birdlife.org/projects/ibas-mapping-most-important-places/ &quot;Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs)&quot;]. ''BirdLife''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220323201916/https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/african-elephant Archived] from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; wey de Bird Life International&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.britannica.com/topic/BirdLife-International &quot;BirdLife International | conservation group&quot;]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518111414/https://www.britannica.com/topic/BirdLife-International Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; recognize plus de bird area fully dey overlap de park area. Dem confirm 266 species de bird inventory for de park insyd, wey dey include eight species of global conservation concern. One of dis species of concern be de white-breasted guineafowl.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.iucnredlist.org/en &quot;The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species&quot;]. ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200304172225/https://www.iucnredlist.org/en Archived] from the original on 4 March 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; Dem record nine species of hornbill&lt;ref&gt;BirdLife International. [https://www.birdlife.org/asia/projects/helmeted-hornbill &quot;The Helmeted Hornbill crisis and BirdLife's conservations efforts&quot;]. ''BirdLife''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518112032/https://www.birdlife.org/asia/projects/helmeted-hornbill Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; den de grey parrot.&lt;ref&gt;BirdLife International. [https://www.birdlife.org/africa/news/ghana%E2%80%99s-grey-parrot-population-may-soon-cease-exist &quot;Ghana's Grey Parrot population may soon cease to exist&quot;]. ''BirdLife''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191102212207/http://www.birdlife.org/africa/news/ghana%E2%80%99s-grey-parrot-population-may-soon-cease-exist Archived] from the original on 2 November 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; Wey e sanso get more dan 600 butterflies as well, wey na dem discover a new species insyd 1993. As of 2012, dem locate de densest population of forest elephants for Ghana for Kakum insyd.&lt;ref&gt;Karlya, Maria (7 March 2012). ''[https://books.google.com.gh/books?id=-Usaa39rAmwC&amp;pg=RA1-PA120&amp;redir_esc=y Ghana (Other Places Travel Guide)]''. Other Places Publishing. pp. 120–. ISBN &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-935850-10-6|978-1-935850-10-6]]&lt;/bdi&gt;. Retrieved 14 April 2013.&lt;/ref&gt;

De Museums and Monuments Board for de Republic of Ghana propose say UNESCO&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.britannica.com/topic/UNESCO &quot;UNESCO | Definition, History, Members, &amp; Facts&quot;]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180402163139/https://www.britannica.com/topic/UNESCO Archived] from the original on 2 April 2018. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; declare de park natural World Heritage Site under criteria vii den x. Dem make de submission for 2000 insyd wey dem list am under de tentative List of World Heritage Sites.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20230711120834/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1396 &quot;Kakum National Park (Assin Attandanso Reserve) (#)&quot;]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''.  from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 11 July 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;

== History ==
Insyd 1931, de area dey drain by de headwater wey dey de catchment of de [[Kakum River]] as dem declare am as a forest reserve den manage by de Forestry Division. During dis period, dem prevent all logging operations, particularly of de mahogany&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.britannica.com/topic/mahogany-wood &quot;Mahogany | wood&quot;]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190629151308/https://www.britannica.com/topic/mahogany-wood Archived] from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Khaya ivorensis'') tree species. De logging operations san continue till 1989 wey de management of de reserve transfer am go de Wildlife Department.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

A Feasibility Study den Preliminary 5-year Management Plan for de development of Kakum National Park as ebi ecotourism destination dem develop am insyd 1990 under a project wey dem conduct am for de United Nations Development Program (Dudley 1990). De Feasibility Study dey include preliminary biodiversity assessments give de flora den fauna of Kakum Forest Reserve den adjoining [[Assin-Attandanso Game Production Reserve|Assin-Attandanso Forest Reserve,]] den an elephant population survey (Dudley 1990; Dudley, Mensah-Ntiamoah,&amp; Kpelle 1992; Dudley 1995). De Feasibility Study den Preliminary 5-year Management Plan dem develop am plus a collaborative den consultative process wey edey involve a consulting biologist, forestry officials, wildlife officials, local communities, Ghanaian universities, regional government officials, den other key stakeholders (Dudley 1992).

Dem for recognize say one, Mr. Ebenezer Kwasi Agbley, de den Central Regional Manager for Ghana Tourist Board carry dis dream come under a program he wey he initiate den implement am - Tourism Development Scheme for Central Region (TODSCER) wey he expand den e become CENTRAL REGION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM under wey later dem create Commission - Central Region Development Commission(CECECOM). He showcase de TODSCER program insyd America den draw a number of sponsoring institutions both bilateral den multi-lateral from de donor community give de project to ein maturity. De project later carry Game &amp; Wildlife to manage den maintain the Park.

Insyd 1992, de Wildlife Department gazet Kakum say ebe park wey come under de Wildlife Reserves Regulations (Ll 1525) as de Kakum Conservation Area wey edey include de Assin Attandanso Forest Reserve.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20220701193626/https://fcghana.org/page.php/?page=268&amp;section=32&amp;typ=1&amp;subs=271 &quot;Kakum and the Assin Attandanso Reserves, Ghana&quot;]. ''www.fcghana.org''. Archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20220701193626/https://fcghana.org/page.php/?page=268&amp;section=32&amp;typ=1&amp;subs=271 the original] on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; After a survey for de faunal richness wey dey de conservation area, dem split am into de Kakum National Park den de Assin Attandanso Forest Reserve for de same year insyd. Dem justify de split as ebi argument dat Cape Coast den 33 other towns plus villages continue dey need timber from de forest den potable water wey dem fi get am from Kakum River.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

== Flora ==

; Moist forests

* ''Entandrophragma cylindricum''
* ''Entandrophragma angolense''
* ''Guarea cedrata''
* ''Guarea thompsonii''
* ''Piptadeniastrum africanum''
* ''Milicia excelsa (Lophira alata)'' 
* ''Triplochiton scleroxylon''
* ''Sterculia rhinopetalia''
* ''Sterculia oblonga''
* ''Pterygota macrocarpa''
* ''Anigeria robusta''
* ''Terminalia superba''
* ''Strombosia glaucescens''
* ''Cola gigantea''
* ''Mansonia altissima''
* ''Celtis zenkeri''
* ''Ricinodendron heudelotii''
* ''Antiaris toxicaria''

; Swamp forests

* ''Alstonia boonei''
* ''Cleistopholis patens''
* ''Carapa procera''
* ''Mitragyna stipulosa''
* ''Raphia vinifera''
* ''Scandent''
* ''Calamus deeratus'' (Palm)
* ''Laccosperma secundiflorum''
* ''Laccosperma opacum''
* ''Eremospatha macrocarpa''
* ''Glyphaea brevis'' (shrub)
* ''Myriathus arboreus''
* ''Paullinia pinnata''
* ''Thaumatococcus daniellii'' (Herb)
* ''Sarcophrynium brachystachys''
* ''Ataenidia conferta''

; Riverine forest (Edaphic forest)

* ''Pseudospondias microcarpa''&lt;ref&gt;[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Pseudospondias+microcarpa &quot;Pseudospondias microcarpa - Useful Tropical Plants&quot;]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200919032314/http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Pseudospondias+microcarpa Archived] from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Ceiba pentandra''&lt;ref&gt;[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Ceiba+pentandra &quot;Ceiba pentandra - Useful Tropical Plants&quot;]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200514010034/http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Ceiba+pentandra Archived] from the original on 14 May 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Xylopia spp''&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20200807010250/http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Xylopia+aethiopica &quot;Xylopia aethiopica - Useful Tropical Plants&quot;]. ''www.tropical.theferns.info''. Archived from [http://www.tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Xylopia+aethiopica the original] on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Uapaca guineensis''&lt;ref&gt;[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Uapaca+guineensis &quot;Uapaca guineensis - Useful Tropical Plants&quot;]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200703020303/http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Uapaca+guineensis Archived] from the original on 3 July 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;

; Boval vegetation

* ''Sansevieria liberica''&lt;ref&gt;[https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/sansevieria_liberica.htm &quot;Sansevieria liberica&quot;]. ''keyserver.lucidcentral.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170619112321/http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/sansevieria_liberica.htm Archived] from the original on 19 June 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Commelina'' ''spp''&lt;ref&gt;[https://earthmedicineinstitute.com/more/library/medicinal-plants/commelina-spp/ &quot;Commelina spp&quot;]. ''earthmedicineinstitute.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518133314/https://earthmedicineinstitute.com/more/library/medicinal-plants/commelina-spp/ Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Hildegardia barteri''&lt;ref&gt;[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Hildegardia+barteri &quot;Hildegardia barteri - Useful Tropical Plants&quot;]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220925014659/https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Hildegardia+barteri Archived] from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (bloom as red flowers during Christmas)
* ''Elaeophorbia grandifolia''&lt;ref&gt;[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Euphorbia+grandifolia &quot;Euphorbia grandifolia - Useful Tropical Plants&quot;]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220925012642/https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Euphorbia+grandifolia Archived] from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Sterculia tragacantha''&lt;ref&gt;[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Sterculia+tragacantha &quot;Sterculia tragacantha - Useful Tropical Plants&quot;]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220615074928/http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Sterculia+tragacantha Archived] from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Ceiba pathandra''
* ''Albizia ferruginea''&lt;ref&gt;[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Albizia%20ferruginea &quot;Albizia ferruginea - Useful Tropical Plants&quot;]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220925013225/https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Albizia%20ferruginea Archived] from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Ricinodendron heudelotii''&lt;ref&gt;[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Ricinodendron+heudelotii &quot;Ricinodendron heudelotii - Useful Tropical Plants&quot;]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160430173918/http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Ricinodendron+heudelotii Archived] from the original on 30 April 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Fauna ==
De park dey contain rare animals, dem report chaw oda fauna wey dey include forest elephants,&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/african-forest-elephant &quot;African Forest Elephant | Species | WWF&quot;]. ''World Wildlife Fund''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200610162236/https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/forest-elephant Archived] from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; forest buffalo,&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.britannica.com/animal/forest-buffalo &quot;Forest buffalo | mammal&quot;]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200926193121/https://www.britannica.com/animal/forest-buffalo Archived] from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; civet den cats.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Two hundred forest elephants (''Loxodonta cyclotis''), potto&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.britannica.com/animal/potto &quot;Potto | primate&quot;]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201006085505/https://www.britannica.com/animal/potto Archived] from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Perodicticus potto''), Demidoff's galago&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wildsolutions.nl/vocal-profiles/galagoides/demidovii/ &quot;Demidoff's dwarf galago (Galagoides demidovii)&quot;]. ''Wildsolutions''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200814174746/http://www.wildsolutions.nl/vocal-profiles/galagoides/demidovii/ Archived] from the original on 14 August 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Galago demidovii''), African civet&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_civet.html &quot;African Civet | African Mammal Guide&quot;]. ''www.krugerpark.co.za''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518141054/http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_civet.html Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Viverra civetta''), two-spotted palm civet&lt;ref&gt;A-Z-Animals.com. [https://a-z-animals.com/animals/african-palm-civet/ &quot;African Palm Civet&quot;]. ''a-z-animals.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200929180214/https://a-z-animals.com/animals/african-palm-civet/ Archived] from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Nandinia binotata''), leopard&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_National_Park_Wildlife-travel/kruger-park-wildlife-leopards.html &quot;Facts About Leopards | Kruger National Park Wildlife&quot;]. ''www.krugerpark.co.za''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240618055957/https://www.krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_National_Park_Wildlife-travel/kruger-park-wildlife-leopards.html Archived] from the original on 18 June 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Panthera pardus''), bongo (''Tragelaphus euryceros''), chaw species of duikers (small antelopes), red river hog&lt;ref&gt;[https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/red-river-hog &quot;Red River hog&quot;]. ''Smithsonian's National Zoo''. 25 April 2016. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190507075639/https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/red-river-hog Archived] from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Potamochoerus porcus pictus''), giant forest hog&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20170318212509/http://uwec.ug/portfolio/giant-forest-hog/ &quot;Giant Forest Hog&quot;]. Archived from [https://uwec.ug/portfolio/giant-forest-hog/ the original] on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Hylochoerus meinertzhageni''), long-tailed pangolin&lt;ref&gt;Burrell, Leslie. [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Manis_tetradactyla/ &quot;Manis tetradactyla (long-tailed pangolin)&quot;]. ''Animal Diversity Web''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518142323/https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Manis_tetradactyla/ Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Manis tetradactyla''), white-belied pangolin&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20190518142508/https://www.pangolinsg.org/pangolins/tree-pangolin/ &quot;White-bellied pangolin&quot;]. ''Pangolin Specialist Group''. Archived from [https://www.pangolinsg.org/pangolins/tree-pangolin/ the original] on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Manis tricuspis''), giant pangolin&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/giant-pangolin &quot;Giant Pangolin&quot;]. ''Animals''. 19 December 2018. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518142757/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/g/giant-pangolin/ Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Manis gigantea''), chaw species of forest squirrels, North African crested porcupine&lt;ref&gt;[https://wildlifewaystation.org/animals/species/porcupine-african-crested &quot;Porcupine, African Crested&quot;]. ''wildlifewaystation.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518143311/https://wildlifewaystation.org/animals/species/porcupine-african-crested Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Hystrix cristata''), dwarf crocodile&lt;ref&gt;[https://sdzwildlifeexplorers.org/animals/african-dwarf-crocodile &quot;African dwarf crocodile&quot;]. ''San Diego Zoo Kids''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518143444/https://kids.sandiegozoo.org/animals/african-dwarf-crocodile Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (''Osteolamus tetraspis''), monitor lizards, Home's hinged tortoise, serrated tortoise&lt;ref&gt;[http://reptilesmagazine.com/homes-hingeback-tortoise/ &quot;Home's Hingeback Tortoise&quot;]. ''www.reptilesmagazine.com''. 29 October 2013. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518143613/http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Homes-Hingeback-Tortoise/ Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; from de park.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; 

Primates&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/primate.htm &quot;Primate&quot;]. ''ScienceDaily''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190630152528/https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/primate.htm Archived] from the original on 30 June 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; for de park insyd dey include de ''Colobus vellerosus''&lt;ref&gt;Walker, Shannon. [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Colobus_vellerosus/ &quot;Colobus vellerosus (ursine colobus)&quot;]. ''Animal Diversity Web''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200804000004/https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Colobus_vellerosus/ Archived] from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (VU), ''Procolobus verus''&lt;ref&gt;[https://animaldiversity.org/collections/contributors/Grzimek_mammals/Colobinae/Procolobus_verus/ &quot;Procolobus verus (olive colobus)&quot;]. ''Animal Diversity Web''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518144355/https://animaldiversity.org/collections/contributors/Grzimek_mammals/Colobinae/Procolobus_verus/ Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (LR/nt), den ''Cercopithecus diana roloway''&lt;ref&gt;Johnson, Kelsey. [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Cercopithecus_roloway/ &quot;Cercopithecus roloway (Roloway monkey)&quot;]. ''Animal Diversity Web''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210618212944/http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Cercopithecus_roloway/ Archived] from the original on 18 June 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; (CR).&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

== Tourism ==
Kakum be Ghana ein first protected area wey receive major support give visitor facilities. Dem open de visitor centre for Earth Day 1997 wey de park receive de Global Tourism for Tomorrow Award de year wey dey follow.&lt;ref&gt;Eagles, Paul Franklin John; McCool, Stephen F. (2002). ''[https://books.google.com.gh/books?id=xIWwmVUUU4wC&amp;pg=PA207&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Tourism in national parks and protected areas: planning and management]''. CABI. pp. 207–. ISBN &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-85199-759-9|978-0-85199-759-9]]&lt;/bdi&gt;. Retrieved 14 April 2013.&lt;/ref&gt; Tourism numbers increase ova de years:  2,000 insyd 1992; 27,000 insyd 1996; ova 70,000 tourists insyd 1999;&lt;ref&gt;Zeppel, Heather (2006). ''[https://books.google.com.gh/books?id=noFNSuofi6IC&amp;pg=PA220&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q&amp;f=false Indigenous Ecotourism: Sustainable Development and Management]''. CABI. pp. 220–. ISBN &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-84593-125-4|978-1-84593-125-4]]&lt;/bdi&gt;. Retrieved 14 April 2013.&lt;/ref&gt; wey e attract 135,870 visitors during 2009.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041339/http://www.encapafrica.org/documents/biofor/ETOA_Ghana_FINAL.pdf &quot;Bio diversity and Tropical Forests - Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment&quot;] (PDF). USAID: Encapafrica.org. pp. 111, 115. Archived from [http://www.encapafrica.org/documents/biofor/ETOA_Ghana_FINAL.pdf the original] (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 April 2013.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Gallery==
&lt;div style=&quot;max-width: 400px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;gallery mode=slideshow&gt;
File:KAKUM NATIONAL PARK 16.jpg|Trees
File:Canopy walkway at Kakum National Park 3.jpg|The canopy walkway
File:Childrens Park at Kakum National Park.jpg|Playground for kids
File:Kakum 2167.jpg|Canopy walkway
File:Kakum National Park entrance.jpg|Entrance
File:Kakum National Park caution 03.jpg|Sign post
File:Safety tips of the Kakum National Park.jpg|Safety tips
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
&lt;References/&gt;

== External links ==
'''Kakum National Park''' at Wikipedia ein sisto projects

* [[File:Commons-logo.svg|link=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[commons:Category:Kakum_National_Park|Wikimedia Commons]]
* [[File:Wikivoyage-logo.svg|link=https://en.Wikivoyage.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[wikivoyage:Kakum_National_Park|Wikivoyage]]
* [[File:Wikidata-logo.svg|link=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q383541|16x16px]] [[wikidata:Q568693|Wikidata]]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180315051337/http://www.kakumpark.com.gh/ Kakum National Park Official Website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060820003105/http://www.ecotour.org/destinations/kakum.htm Travel information from Conservation International]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928022651/http://advance05.williamhaun.com/ghana/canopywalk/index.html Photo Gallery of Kakum National Forest's Canopy Walk]

[[Category:Ghana]]
[[Category:IUCN Category II]]
[[Category:National parks of Ghana]]
[[Category:Central Region (Ghana)]]
[[Category:Eastern Guinean forests]]
[[Category:Protected areas dem establish insyd 1992]]
[[Category:Forest reserves of Ghana]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ghana]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites]]
[[Category:World Heritage Tentative List]]
[[Category:Pages plus maps]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Meri Nana-Ama Danquah</title>
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'''Meri Nana-Ama Danquah''' (dem born am 13 September 1967) be Ghanaian-American writer, editor, journalist den public speaker, wey na ein name for birth be '''Mildred Mary Nana-Ama Boakyewaa Brobby'''.&lt;ref&gt;Danquah, Meri Nana-Ama (1998). ''[[iarchive:willowweepformeb00danq/page/103|Willow Weep for Me: A Black Woman's Journey Through Depression]]'' (First&amp;nbsp;ed.). W.W. Norton &amp; Co. p.&amp;nbsp;[[iarchive:willowweepformeb00danq/page/103|103]]. ISBN&amp;nbsp;&lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/9780393045673|9780393045673]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; She be best known for ein 1998 memoir ''Willow Weep for Me: A Black Woman's Journey Through Depression.'' Dem shortlist ein short story &quot;When a Man Loves a Woman&quot; for de 2022 AKO Caine Prize for African Writing.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20260114153801/http://www.caineprize.com/press-releases/2022/6/8/the-ako-caine-prize-announces-its-2022-shortlisted-authors &quot;The AKO Caine Prize announces its 2022 shortlisted writers&quot;]. The AKO Caine Prize. 8 June 2022. Retrieved 13 July 2022.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Bibliography ==

=== As author ===
*''Willow Weep for Me: A Black Woman’s Journey Through Depression'', W. W. Norton &amp; Company, 1998, ISBN 9780393045673

=== As editor ===
* ''Shaking the Tree: A Collection of New Fiction and Memoir by Black Women'', W. W. Norton, 2003, ISBN 978-0393050677
* ''The Black Body'', Seven Stories Press, 2009, ISBN 978-1583228890
* ''Becoming American: Personal Essays by First Generation Immigrant Women'', Hyperion Books, 2000, ISBN 978-0786865895
* ''American Woman: Personal Essays by First Generation Immigrant Women'' (Expanded Second Edition), Seven Stories Press, 2012, ISBN 978-1609804084
* ''Accra Noir'', Akashic Books, 2020, ISBN 9781617758898

=== Selected essays and articles ===
* [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/middleground/danquah.htm &quot;Life as an Alien&quot;], in O'Hearn, Claudine Chiawei (ed.), ''Half and Half: Writers on Growing Up Biracial and Bicultural'' (Pantheon Books, 1998), ''The Washington Post'', 17 May 1998.
* [https://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2014/05/28/what-i-learned-from-my-auntie-maya/ &quot;What I Learned From My Auntie Maya&quot;], ''Wall Street Journal'', 28 May 2014.
* [http://www.kwelijournal.org/nonfiction/2014/8/6/a-different-breed-by-nana-ama-danquah &quot;A Different Breed&quot;] (memoir excerpt), ''Kweli'', 9 August 2014.
* &quot;Afro-Kinky Human Hair&quot;, in: ''Everything But The Burden: What White People Are Taking From Black Culture'', edited by Greg Tate, 2003, New York: Harlem Moon Broadway Books, ISBN 978-0-7679-1497-0
* &quot;Saying Goodbye to Mary Danquah&quot;, in ''New Daughters of Africa'', edited by Margaret Busby, 2019. London: Myriad Editions; New York: Amistad Press.
* &quot;When A Man Loves A Woman&quot;, ''Accra Noir'', 2020.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;When A Man Loves A Woman&quot;. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20241101075424/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/565c3d39e4b027c789ba5b70/t/629e2154d520f727f401d1a5/1654530389142/When+A+Man+Loves+A+Woman+-+Nana+Ama+Danquah+%28Accra+Noir%29.pdf Accra Noir]'' (PDF). Retrieved 11 June 2022.&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
[[Category:Human]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Ghanaians]]
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Ghanaian writers]]
[[Category:Women anthologists]]
[[Category:Women essayists]]
[[Category:Women memoirists]]
[[Category:Ghanaian women short story writers]]
[[Category:People wey komot Accra]]
[[Category:Ghanaian emigrants to de United States]]
[[Category:Writers wey komot Accra]]
[[Category:American women memoirists]]
[[Category:American people of Ghanaian descent]]
[[Category:Bennington College alumni]]
[[Category:University of Ghana people]]

&lt;references /&gt;
==External links==
* [https://kentgh.wordpress.com/2011/04/15/interview-ghanas-literary-icon-%E2%80%93-nana-ama-danquah/ &quot;INTERVIEW: Ghana's literary icon – Nana-Ama Danquah&quot;], Kent's Diaries, 15 April 2011.
* [https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/on-the-margin-thursday-march-4-2021/id1155173935?i=1000511583181 Guest: Nana-Ama Danquah, editor of ''Accra Noir''], ''On The Margin'' with Ethelbert Miller, WPFW, 4 March 2021.
* Joanne Hichens, [https://www.timeslive.co.za/sunday-times/books/news/2022-01-18-qa-with-ghanas-nana-ama-danquah/ &quot;Q&amp;A with Ghana’s Nana-Ama Danquah&quot;], ''TimesLIVE'', 18 January 2022.
* [https://africainwords.com/2022/07/13/qas-nana-ama-danquah-ako-caine-prize-shortlist-2022/ &quot;Q&amp;As: Nana-Ama Danquah – AKO Caine Prize shortlist 2022&quot;], ''Africa In Words'', 13 July 2022.</text>
      <sha1>cg9ydg8jv53f28v36dm0n5iul2nthtb</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Mzbel</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>1792</id>
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      <text bytes="8522" sha1="1kalrdpmrrwbq65rpn8rn8a5vx6wjq0" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
'''Belinda Nana Ekua Amoah''' (dem born am December 26, 1979), dem popularly know am as '''Mzbel''', be a [[Ghanaian]] Hiplife artist.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news |title=Mbzel biography |work=Peace FM |url=http://people.peacefmonline.com/pages/musicians/mzbel/biography/ |access-date=30 March 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; She be de CEO of Mzbel Music, Bel Group, Bel Eye Media den odas. Mzbel sanso be a radio presenter den an actress, wey she appear insyd chaw movies''.'' She be a global ambassador give people plus disability.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=francis|date=2018-02-16|title=Mzbel confirmed as PromoAfrica’s Music ambassador on disability|url=https://www.ghanabusinessnews.com/2018/02/16/mzbel-confirmed-as-promoafricas-music-ambassador-on-disability/|access-date=2024-12-15|website=Ghana Business News|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|date=2018-02-19|title=PromoAfrica Unveiled Mzbel As Music Ambassador|url=https://dailyguidenetwork.com/promoafrica-unveiled-mzbel-music-ambassador/|access-date=2024-12-15|website=DailyGuide Network|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Early life den education==
She grow up insyd James Town, she attend de God Wisdom Preparatory School wey she continue go Korle Gonno 1 den Owusu Mills' JHS at Mamprobi, a suburb of [[Accra]] for ein junior high school education. She admit say she start dey bleach ein skin for ein teen years secof na dat be de norm insyd Jamestown.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=http://glammynews.com/2017/03/mzbel-bleaching-teenager-norm-jamestown/ |title=Mzbel: I Started Bleaching as a Teenager Because it was the Norm in Jamestown - GlammyNews.com |date=25 March 2017 |access-date=27 March 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Mzbel then continue to pursue secondary education for Abuakwa State College. She study general arts, dey major insyd economics, geography den French. She then apply make she study at de [[Ghana Institute of Languages]] wey she train make she cam turn a bilingual secretary.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|last=bmensah|date=2 December 2021|title=OldGeezOnY: Celebrating the goddess of Ghana Music, Mzbel|url=https://yfmghana.com/oldgeezony-celebrating-the-goddess-of-ghana-music-mzbel/|access-date=13 January 2023|website=YFM Ghana|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Discography ==

=== Albums ===
* 16 years&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Music |first=Hitstreet |date=23 January 2021 |title=DOWNLOAD MP3: Mzbel – 16 Years (ft. Castro) |url=https://www.hitstreet.net/download-mp3-mzbel-16-years-ft-castro/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=Hitstreet.net |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Tongues&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dwomoh |first=Bright |date=20 April 2018 |title=DOWNLOAD MP3 : Mzbel – Tongues (Prod By Hydraulix Fonye) - GhanaSongs.com - Ghana Music Downloads |url=https://www.ghanasong.com/download-mp3-mzbel-tongues-prod-by-hydraulix-fonye/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Awoso Me&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Frenzy |first=D. J. |date=3 December 2021 |title=Download MP3: Mzbel - Awoso Me Ft Bak Tye |url=https://www.oneclickghana.com/mzbel-awoso-me-ft-bak-tye/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=OneClickGhana.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Legelege&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Cubana |first=Neche |date=21 November 2022 |title=Mzbel - Legelege {{!}} Mp3 Download |url=https://highlifeng.com/ghana/mzbel-legelege/ |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=HighlifeNg |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Saucy Girl 
* Edey Be 

=== Singles ===
* She Saw Me 
* Asibolanga&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=CratesHub |first=Alloh |title=Mzbel - Asibolanga (Produced by Sky beatz) (Ghana MP3) |url=https://www.crateshub.com/ghana-music/mzbel-asibolanga.html |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=CratesHub.com |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Gamashi Life&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Ndwompafie |date=8 December 2022 |title=Download MP3: Mzbel – Gamashi Life (Sweetie) ft. King Jerry |url=https://www.ndwompafie.net/mzbel-gamashi-life-sweetie-ft-king-jerry/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=Ndwompafie.net |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Videography ==
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Title
!Year
!Ref
|-
|''Legelege''
|—
|&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Music Video Mzbel - Legelege |url=http://pulse.com.gh/music-videos/music-video-mzbel-legelege-id3977282.html |website=Pulse.com.gh |publisher=David Mawuli |access-date=22 February 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|Mmo
|
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=BlissGh |title=Mzbel - Mmo ft. Paa Kwasi (Official Video) » BlissGh |url=https://www.blissgh.com/mzbel-mmo-ft-paa-kwasi-video-music/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=BlissGh |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|''Slowly''
|—
|&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Mzbel out with new music video 'Slowly' |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/Mzbel-out-with-new-music-video-Slowly-519639 |website=Ghanaweb.com |publisher=Zion Felix |access-date=24 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|''Go Your Way''
|—
|&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=NEW MUSIC VIDEO: &quot;Go Your Way&quot; By Mzbel |url=http://www.peacefmonline.com/pages/showbiz/music/201708/323899.php |website=Peacefmonline.com |access-date=24 November 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|Asibolanga
|2022
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Okunmwendia |first=Ella |date=29 November 2022 |title=Classy and bougie: Folks react as Mzbel features Tornado in ASIBOLANGA MV |url=https://yen.com.gh/entertainment/music/223475-mzbel-drops-vibrant-music-video-single-asibolanga-visuals-feature-socialite-nana-tornado/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=Yen.com.gh - Ghana news. |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|This Thing
|2016
|&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|-
|One More Time
|2016
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Mzbel - One More Time (Official Video) |url=https://beatznation.com/Videos/mzbel-one-time-official-video/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=Beatz Nation |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|illegal Connection
|2016
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Clip: Illegal Connection - MzBel |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/music_videos/Illegal-Connection-MzBel-5720 |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=www.ghanaweb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|16 years
|2015
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Metrolagu |title=Mzbel - 16 years (feat. Castro ) (Official Video) Download Music Mp3 Convert |url=http://mt.metrolagu.ru/getmp3?v=zHQH_UT01n4 |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=mt.metrolagu.ru}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|Edey Be
|2016
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Adinkra |first=Fiifi |date=8 December 2016 |title=Mzbel - E Dey B (Feat. Castro) |url=https://ghanandwom.net/mzbel-e-dey-b-feat-castro/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=GhanaNdwom.net |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|Obaa
|2019
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=SongZilla |url=https://songzilla.com/track/184048/obaa |access-date=12 January 2023 |website=songzilla.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|Fakye
|2019
|&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Byte, Nii Smiley (4 September 2016). [https://web.archive.org/web/20250220092611/https://www.ghanacelebrities.com/2016/09/04/watch-mzbel-drops-official-music-video-thing/ &quot;Watch: Mzbel Drops Official Music Video For 'This Thing'&quot;]. ''GhanaCelebrities.Com''. Retrieved 12 January 2023.&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|Go Your Way
|2019
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Cubana |first=Neche |date=21 November 2022 |title=Mzbel - Go Your Way {{!}} Mp3 Download |url=https://highlifeng.com/ghana/mzbel-go-your-way/ |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=HighlifeNg |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|Tongues
|2018
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dwomoh |first=Bright |date=20 April 2018 |title=DOWNLOAD MP3 : Mzbel – Tongues (Prod By Hydraulix Fonye) - GhanaSongs.com - Ghana Music Downloads |url=https://www.ghanasong.com/download-mp3-mzbel-tongues-prod-by-hydraulix-fonye/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|Onye Ogbemi
|2015
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dwomoh |first=Bright |date=16 March 2015 |title=MzBel – Onye Ogbemi (You Cant Kill Me) (Prod By FimFim) - GhanaSongs.com - Ghana Music Downloads |url=https://www.ghanasong.com/mzbel-onye-ogbemi-prod-by-fimfi/ |access-date=12 January 2023 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|Mama Sweet
|2019
|&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Cubana |first=Neche |date=21 November 2022 |title=Mzbel - Mama Sweet {{!}} Mp3 Download |url=https://highlifeng.com/ghana/mzbel-mama-sweet/ |access-date=2023-01-12 |website=HighlifeNg |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20250216031218/https://x.com/goddessmzbel Mzbel] for Twitter top
* [https://www.instagram.com/mzbeldaily/ Mzbel] for Instagram top
* [https://www.facebook.com/goddessmzbel Mzbel] for Facebook top
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Human]]
[[Category:Ghanaian highlife musicians]]
[[Category:Ghanaians]]
[[Category:Musicians wey komot Accra]]
[[Category:21st-century Ghanaian women singers]]
[[Category:21st-century Ghanaian singers]]
[[Category:Abuakwa State College alumni]]</text>
      <sha1>1kalrdpmrrwbq65rpn8rn8a5vx6wjq0</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Sudan</title>
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      <text bytes="14465" sha1="e4he7iy8ad0k0bqgk2j64gu632gced1" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
'''Sudan''', officially de '''Republic of the Sudan''', be a country insyd Northeast Africa. E dey border de [[Central African Republic]] to de southwest, [[Chad]] to de west, [[Libya]] to de northwest, [[Egypt]] to de north, de Red Sea to de east, [[Eritrea]] den [[Ethiopia]] to de southeast, den [[South Sudan]] to de south. Sudan get a population of 50 million people as of 2024&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Sudan Population 2024 (Live) |url=https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/sudan-population/ |access-date=1 June 2024 |website=}}&lt;/ref&gt; wey e dey occupy 1,886,068 square kilometres (728,215 square miles), wey dey make am [[Africa]] ein third-largest country by area den de third-largest by area insyd de Arab League. Na ebe de largest country by area insyd Africa den de Arab League til de secession of South Sudan insyd 2011;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html#su |title=Area |work=The World Factbook |publisher=U.S. Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=13 May 2018 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226211750/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html#su |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; since then na [[Algeria]] hold both titles. Sudan ein capital den most populous city be Khartoum.

Na [[Islam]] be Sudan ein state religion wey na dem dey apply de Islamic laws from 1983 til 2020 wen de country cam turn a secular state.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20130902160838/http://sudan.gov.sd/ar/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=category&amp;layout=blog&amp;id=39&amp;Itemid=75 &quot;عن السودان&quot;] (in Arabic). Archived from [http://sudan.gov.sd/ar/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=category&amp;layout=blog&amp;id=39&amp;Itemid=75 the original] on 2 September 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2017.&lt;/ref&gt; Sudan be a least developed country den among de poorest countries for de world insyd,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=World Bank Open Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/|access-date=2024-05-31|website=World Bank Open Data}}&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey rank 170th for de Human Development Index as of 2024 den 185th by nominal GDP per capita. Ein economy dey largely rely for agriculture top secof international sanctions den isolation, as well as a history of internal instability den factional violence. De large majority of Sudan be dry den over 60% of Sudan ein population dey live insyd poverty. Sudan be a member of de United Nations, Arab League, [[African Union]], COMESA, Non-Aligned Movement den de Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

== Government den politics ==

=== Administrative divisions ===
Dem divide Sudan into 18 states (''wilayat'', sing. ''wilayah''). Dem further divide dem into 133 districts.

[[File:Political Regions of Sudan, July 2010.svg|thumb|{{legend|#f7931d|Central den northern states}}
{{legend|#8cc63f|Darfur}}
{{legend|#800080|Eastern Front}}
{{legend|#FFFF00|Abyei Area}}
{{legend|#fb6282|South Kurdufan den Blue Nile states}}]]

{{div col|colwidth=10em|content=
* Gezira
* Al Qadarif
* Blue Nile
* Central Darfur
* East Darfur
* Kassala
* Khartoum
* North Darfur
* North Kordofan
* Northern
* Red Sea
* River Nile
* Sennar
* South Darfur
* South Kordofan
* West Darfur
* West Kordofan
* White Nile
}}

== Demographics ==

=== Urban areas ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |Largest cities anaa towns insyd Sudan

According to de 2008 census&lt;ref&gt;[http://citypopulation.de/Sudan.html &quot;Sudan: States, Major Cities, Towns&quot;]. ''citypopulation.de''. Retrieved 26 July 2021.&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
!Rank
!Name
!State
!Pop.
|-
|1
|Omdurman
|Khartoum
|1,849,659
|-
|2
|Khartoum
|Khartoum
|1,410,858
|-
|3
|Khartoum North
|Khartoum
|1,012,211
|-
|4
|Nyala
|South Darfur
|492,984
|-
|5
|Port Sudan
|Red Sea
|394,561
|-
|6
|El-Obeid
|North Kordofan
|345,126
|-
|7
|Kassala
|Kassala
|298,529
|-
|8
|Wad Madani
|Gezira
|289,482
|-
|9
|El-Gadarif
|Al Qadarif
|269,395
|-
|10
|Al-Fashir
|North Darfur
|217,827
|}

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Sudan]]
[[Category:1956 establishments insyd Africa]]
[[Category:Arabic-speaking countries den territories]]
[[Category:Countries for Africa insyd]]
[[Category:East African countries]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries den territories]]
[[Category:Federal republics]]
[[Category:Least developed countries]]
[[Category:Member states of de African Union]]
[[Category:Member states of de United Nations]]
[[Category:Member states of de Arab League]]
[[Category:Member states of de Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]
[[Category:Military dictatorships]]
[[Category:Saharan countries]]
[[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1956]]

== Bibliography ==
'''Books'''

* {{cite book|last=Adams|first=William Y.|title=Nubia. Corridor to Africa|year=1977|publisher=Princeton University|isbn=978-0691093703}}
* Berry, LaVerle B., ed. (2015). ''[https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo63176 Sudan: A Country Study]''. Library of Congress (Washington, D.C.) {{ISBN|978-0-8444-0750-0}}.
* {{cite book|last=Beswick|first=Stephanie|title=Sudan's Blood Memory|year=2004|publisher=University of Rochester|isbn=978-1580462310}}
* {{cite book|last=Brown|first=Richard P. C.|year=1992|title=Public Debt and Private Wealth: Debt, Capital Flight and the IMF in Sudan|publisher=Macmillan Publishers|location=London|isbn=978-0-333-57543-7}}
* Churchill, Winston (1899; 2000). ''The River War: An Historical Account of the Reconquest of the Soudan''. Carroll &amp; Graf (New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-7867-0751-5}}.
* {{cite book|last=Churchill|first=Winston|year=1902|title=The River War|chapter=The Rebellion of the Mahdi|edition=New and Revised|url=https://archive.org/stream/riverwarhistoric00chur}}
* Clammer, Paul (2005). ''Sudan: The Bradt Travel Guide''. Bradt Travel Guides (Chalfont St. Peter); Globe Pequot Press. (Guilford, Connecticut). {{ISBN|978-1-84162-114-2}}.
* {{cite book|last=Daly|title=Empire on the Nile}}
* Evans-Pritchard, Blake; Polese, Violetta (2008). ''Sudan: The City Trail Guide''. City Trail Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-9559274-0-9}}.
* {{cite book|last=Edwards|first=David|title=The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415369879}}
* El Mahdi, Mandour. (1965). A Short History of the Sudan. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-913158-9}}.
* Fadlalla, Mohamed H. (2005). ''The Problem of Dar Fur'', iUniverse (New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-595-36502-9}}.
* Fadlalla, Mohamed H. (2004). ''Short History of Sudan''. iUniverse (New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-595-31425-6}}.
* Fadlalla, Mohamed H. (2007). ''UN Intervention in Dar Fur'', iUniverse (New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-595-42979-0}}.
* {{cite book|last=Hasan|first=Yusuf Fadl|title=The Arabs and the Sudan. From the seventh to the early sixteenth century|year=1967|publisher=Edinburgh University|oclc=33206034}}
* {{cite book|last=Hesse|first=Gerhard|title=Die Jallaba und die Nuba Nordkordofans. Händler, Soziale Distinktion und Sudanisierung|year=2002|publisher=Lit|isbn=978-3825858902|language=de}}
* {{cite book|last1=Holt|first1=P. M.|last2=Daly|first2=M. W.|title=History of the Sudan: From the coming of Islam to the present Day|year=2000|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-0582368866|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780582368866}}
* Jok, Jok Madut (2007). ''Sudan: Race, Religion and Violence''. Oneworld Publications (Oxford). {{ISBN|978-1-85168-366-6}}.
* Köndgen, Olaf (2017). ''The Codification of Islamic Criminal Law in the Sudan. Penal Codes and Supreme Court Case Law under Numayri and al-Bashir''. Brill (Leiden, Boston). {{ISBN|9789004347434}}.
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Levtzion|editor-first1=Nehemia|editor-last2=Pouwels|editor-first2=Randall|year=2000|title=The History of Islam in Africa|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=9780821444610|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC}}
* {{cite book|last=Loimeier|first=Roman|title=Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology|year=2013|publisher=Indiana University|isbn=9780253007889}}
* {{cite book|last=Morewood|year=1940|title=The British Defence of Egypt 1935–40|publisher=Suffolk}}
* {{cite book|last=Morewood|year=2005|title=The British of Egypt|publisher=Suffolk}}
* Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2001). ''Slavery in Mauritania and Sudan: The State Against Blacks'', in ''The Modern African State: Quest for Transformation''. Nova Science Publishers (Huntington, New York). {{ISBN|978-1-56072-936-5}}.
* {{cite book|last1=O'Fahey|first1=R.S.|last2=Spaulding|first2=Jay L.|title=Kingdoms of the Sudan|year=1974|publisher=Methuen Young Books|isbn=978-0416774504}}
* Peterson, Scott (2001). ''Me Against My Brother: At War in Somalia, Sudan and Rwanda—A Journalist Reports from the Battlefields of Africa''. Routledge (London; New York City). {{ISBN|978-0-203-90290-5}}.
* Prunier, Gérard (2005). ''Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide''. Cornell University Press (Ithaca, New York). {{ISBN|978-0-8014-4450-0}}.
* {{cite book|last=Ruffini|first=Giovanni R.|year=2012|title=Medieval Nubia. A Social and Economic History|publisher=Oxford University}}
* {{cite book|last=Shackelford|first=Elizabeth|year=2020|title=The Dissent Channel: American Diplomacy in a Dishonest Age|publisher=Public Affairs|isbn=978-1-5417-2448-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Shinnie|first=P.L.|title=The Cambridge History of Africa. Volume 2|chapter=Christian Nubia.|editor=J.D. Fage|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University|year=1978|pages=556–588|isbn=978-0-521-21592-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Spaulding|first=Jay|title=The Heroic Age in Sennar|year=1985|publisher=Red Sea|isbn=978-1569022603}}
* {{cite book|last=Suliman|first=Osman|year=2010|title=The Darfur Conflict: Geography or Institutions?|publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis|isbn=978-0-203-83616-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hrn-dkM00koC}}
* {{cite book|last=Vantini|first=Giovanni|title=Oriental Sources concerning Nubia|year=1975|publisher=Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften|url=http://www.medievalnubia.info/dev/index.php/Giovanni_Vantini%27s_Oriental_Sources_Concerning_Nubia|oclc=174917032}}
* {{cite book|last=Welsby|first=Derek|title=The Medieval Kingdoms of Nubia. Pagans, Christians and Muslims Along the Middle Nile|year=2002|publisher=British Museum|place=London|isbn=978-0714119472}}
* {{cite book|last=Werner|first=Roland|title=Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche|year=2013|publisher=Lit|isbn=978-3-643-12196-7|language=de}}
* Zilfū, ʻIṣmat Ḥasan (translation: Clark, Peter) (1980). ''Karari: The Sudanese Account of the Battle of Omdurman''. Frederick Warne &amp; Co (London). {{ISBN|978-0-7232-2677-2}}.
* {{Cite web|last=Evason|first=Nina|date=1 July 2023|title=North Sudanese Culture|url=https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/north-sudanese-culture/north-sudanese-culture-core-concepts|access-date=1 July 2023|website=SBS Cultural Atlas|language=English|type=Article|quote=&quot;The Republic of the Sudan (also known as North Sudan) is a North African country bordering seven other nations.&quot;|ref=286|agency=SBS}}

'''Articles''' 

* {{cite journal|last1=Hatem|first1=Elliesie|title=Quo vadis bilād as-Sūdān?: the contemporary framework for a national interim constitution|journal=Recht in Afrika|date=2005|volume=8|issue=1|pages=63–82|url=http://www.gair.de/pdf/publikationen/Elliesie_Sudan.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=Lajtar|first=Adam|chapter=Qasr Ibrim's last land sale, AD 1463 (EA 90225)|title=Nubian Voices. Studies in Christian Nubian Culture|year=2011|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/5857688}}
* {{cite journal|last=Martens-Czarnecka|first=Malgorzata|year=2015|title=The Christian Nubia and the Arabs|journal=Studia Ceranea|volume=5|pages=249–265|doi=10.18778/2084-140X.05.08|doi-access=free|hdl=11089/18404|hdl-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last=McGregor|first=Andrew|journal=Sudan&amp;Nubia|volume=15|year=2011|title=Palaces in the Mountains: An Introduction to the Archaeological Heritage of the Sultanate of Darfur|url=https://issuu.com/sudarchrs/docs/s_n15_mcgregor|pages=129–141}}
* {{cite journal|last=Peacock|first=A.C.S.|title=The Ottomans and the Funj sultanate in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries|year=2012|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|volume=75|issue=1|pages=87–11|doi=10.1017/S0041977X11000838}}
* {{cite journal|last=Sharkey|first=Heather J.|title=Arab Identity and Ideology in Sudan: The Politics of Language, Ethnicity and Race|year=2007|url=http://southsudanhumanitarianproject.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/formidable/Sharkey-J.-2007-Arab-Identity-and-Ideology-in-Sudan-The-Politics-of-Language-Ethnicity-and-Race2-annotated.pdf|pages=21–43|journal=African Affairs|volume=107|issue=426|doi=10.1093/afraf/adm068|access-date=24 September 2018|archive-date=12 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012152657/http://southsudanhumanitarianproject.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/formidable/Sharkey-J.-2007-Arab-Identity-and-Ideology-in-Sudan-The-Politics-of-Language-Ethnicity-and-Race2-annotated.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite journal|last=Spaulding|first=Jay|title=The Fate of Alodia|journal=Meroitic Newsletter|volume=15|year=1974|url=http://www.meroiticnewsletter.org/MeroNews15.pdf#page=13&amp;zoom=125(0,0)|pages=12–30}}
* {{cite book|last=Vantini|first=Giovanni|title=Acta Nubica. Proceedings of the X International Conference of Nubian Studies Rome 9–14 September 2002|editor=Alessandro Roccati and Isabella Caneva|year=2006|chapter=Some new light on the end of Soba|pages=487–491|publisher=Libreria Dello Stato|isbn=978-88-240-1314-7}}
== External links ==
{{sister project links||d=Q1049|c=Category:Sudan|n=Category:Sudan|b=no|v=no|voy=Sudan|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}}
{{Library resources box}}
* [https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=SD Key Development Forecasts for Sudan] from International Futures

=== Government ===
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20250217105525/https://nic.gov.sd/ Information Portal] – Official Sudan Information Portal
* [https://www.presidency.gov.sd/eng Presidency] [https://web.archive.org/web/20241006020201/https://presidency.gov.sd/eng Archived] 6 October 2024 at the Wayback Machine – official website of the president of Sudan
* [http://cbs.gov.sd/ Statistics] [https://web.archive.org/web/20180315121142/http://cbs.gov.sd/ Archived] 15 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine – official website of Central Bureau of Statistics

=== Maps ===
* {{Osmrelation-inline|192789}}
{{Authority control}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Talk:Main Page</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
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      <id>105000</id>
      <parentid>104784</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-25T13:29:24Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki */ new section</comment>
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      <text bytes="32976" sha1="1q2dhg450o8nwofmxyyt5h6izkgna3w" xml:space="preserve">== Request for Admin ==
Hello everybro, as ebe me wey I start de Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia, I dey seek de support of fellow editors so say I go be de Administrator give dis project. To promote Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia, I for be de admin so say I go fi perform oda tasks wey dey hia such as make we komot invalid articles, support fresh editors, komot vandalism den develop existing editors. Thanks waa

* Hello everyone, as I started the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia, I am seeking the support of fellow editors so that I can be the Administrator of this project. To promote Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia, I have to be an admin so that I can perform important tasks such as removing of invalid articles, support new editors, remove vandalism and also developing existing editors. Thanks very much
''You go fi support me for here ''

'''Thanks everybro''' - [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 17:47, 6 July 2023 (GMT)

:[[User:Ibn Dagara|Ibn Dagara]] ([[User talk:Ibn Dagara|talk]]) 22:15, 17 October 2023 (GMT)
I strongly support [[User:Xibitgh|Xibitgh]] ([[User talk:Xibitgh|talk]])

==Support==
#[[User:NanaYawBotar|NanaYawBotar]] ([[User talk:NanaYawBotar|talk]]) 18:00, 6 July 2023 (GMT)
# [[User:Jwale2|Jwale2]] ([[User talk:Jwale2|talk]]) 18:54, 6 July 2023 (GMT)
# [[User:Gyanford|Gyanford]] ([[User talk:Gyanford|talk]]) 19:27, 6 July 2023 (GMT)
#[[User:Cornelius Agordome|Cornelius Agordome]] ([[User talk:Cornelius Agordome|talk]]) 11:05, 10 July 2023 (GMT)
#[[User:Amuzujoe|Amuzujoe]] ([[User talk:Amuzujoe|talk]]) 21:39, 10 July 2023 (GMT)
# [[User:Yaw tuba|Yaw tuba]] ([[User talk:Yaw tuba|talk]]) 18:27, 19 July 2023 (GMT)
# [[User:Azorbli|Azorbli]] ([[User talk:Azorbli|talk]])
# [[User:MartinezYA|MartinezYA]] ([[User talk:MartinezYA|talk]]) 05:51, 18 October 2023 (GMT)
#[[User:Xibitgh|Xibitgh]] ([[User talk:Xibitgh|talk]])

== Support ==

support [[Special:Contributions/197.210.76.72|197.210.76.72]] 13:56, 14 August 2023 (GMT)

== Support ==

support [[User:Umargana1|Umargana1]] ([[User talk:Umargana1|talk]]) 13:58, 14 August 2023 (GMT)

== Update links from Incubator to local ==

Some links on the FA blurb are still external to the incubator project. (Also, if we could get some more templates and modules imported from enwiki, like [[:en:Template:Documentation]], that would be great. Maybe we can raise it on Meta so someone with more experience can import/recreate them with dependencies?). [[User:MSG17|MSG17]] ([[User talk:MSG17|talk]]) 19:32, 23 August 2023 (GMT)

:Also, the page is using a Portuguese map, instead of the English file: [[:File:Ghana Regions map.png]] [[User:MSG17|MSG17]] ([[User talk:MSG17|talk]]) 19:35, 23 August 2023 (GMT)
::Thanks for the observation [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 14:43, 2 September 2023 (GMT)

== Request to continue Adminship ==
Hello everybro, I dey seek de support of fellow editors so say I go continue be de Administrator give dis project. To promote Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia, I for continue de adminship so say I go fi perform oda tasks wey dey hia such as make we komot invalid articles, support fresh editors, komot vandalism den develop existing editors. Thanks waa

* Hello everyone, I am seeking the support of fellow editors so that I can continue being the Administrator of this project. To promote Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia, I have to continue being an admin so that I can perform important tasks such as removing of invalid articles, supporting new editors, remove vandalism and also developing existing editors. Thanks very much
''You go fi support me for here ''
'''Thanks everybro''' - [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:41, 13 October 2023 (GMT)
===Support===
# [[User:Ibn Dagara|Ibn Dagara]] ([[User talk:Ibn Dagara|talk]]) 22:15, 17 October 2023 (GMT)
#[[User:Azorbli|Azorbli]] ([[User talk:Azorbli|talk]])
# [[User:MartinezYA|MartinezYA]] ([[User talk:MartinezYA|talk]]) 05:51, 18 October 2023 (GMT)
# [[User:Xibitgh|Xibitgh]] ([[User talk:Xibitgh|talk]])
#[[User:Jwale2|Jwale2]] ([[User talk:Jwale2|talk]]) 14:01, 19 October 2023 (GMT)
# [[User:Yaw tuba|Yaw tuba]] ([[User talk:Yaw tuba|talk]]) 06:23, 22 October 2023 (GMT)

== Ghana Month Edit-a-thon ==

Dear Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia Community,

We are excited to announce a month-long initiative aimed at enhancing gender representation on the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia. This project, organized by the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikimedians Community, seeks to address the underrepresentation of notable female personalities on our platform.

Project Objectives:

1. To increase the visibility and representation of Ghanaian women on the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia.

2. To create a more inclusive and diverse portrayal of Ghanaian history and culture.

3. To engage the community in actively contributing to articles related to notable female personalities.

Planned Activities:

1. Editing Workshops: Hands-on workshops to teach participants how to contribute and edit articles on the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia. Guidance on creating and improving articles related to notable female personalities in Ghana.

2. Panel Discussions: Featuring gender activists, notable female personalities, and Wikimedians. Discussing the importance of gender representation and its impact on knowledge diversity.

3. Content Creation Competition: A friendly competition encouraging participants to create or improve Wikipedia articles. Incentives such as awards, certificates, or recognition for outstanding contributions.

4. Outreach Events: Awareness campaigns at media stations with urban reach using Ghanaian Pidgin. Emphasizing that Ghanaian Pidgin is a written language, encouraging public participation.

5. Closing Ceremony: An in-person event at the end of the month to celebrate achievements. Showcasing edited articles, sharing success stories, and expressing gratitude to participants.

Significance of the Project:
Gender representation is a crucial aspect of creating a comprehensive and diverse narrative. By actively participating in this initiative, you contribute to breaking gender stereotypes and fostering a more inclusive portrayal of Ghanaian history and achievements. Your involvement is instrumental in making a positive impact on the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia community.

How You Can Participate:

Join our WhatsApp group for regular updates and discussions.
Follow us on X (formerly Twitter) for real-time updates and engagement ([https://twitter.com/Ghpidginwiki @Ghpidginwiki]) .
Register for upcoming events using Wikimedia Event Registration tools.

Let's come together as a community to make a meaningful change. Your participation matters!

Thank you for your support and commitment.

Best regards,

[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:54, 14 January 2024 (GMT)

== Enabling Section Translation: a new mobile translation experience ==

{{int:Hello}} Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedians!

Apologies as this message is not in your language, {{int:Please-translate}}.

The [[mw:Wikimedia_Language_engineering|WMF Language team]] is pleased to let you know about our plans to enable the [[mw:Content_translation/Section_translation|Section translation]] tool in Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia. For this, our team would want you to read about the tool and test it so you can:

* Give us your feedback

* Ask us questions

* Tell us how to improve it.

Below is background information about Section translation, why we have chosen your community, and how to test it.

'''Background information'''

[[mw:Content_translation|Content Translation]] has been a successful tool for editors to create content in their language. More than one million articles have been created across all languages since the tool was released in 2015. The Wikimedia Foundation Language team has improved the translation experience further with the Section Translation. The WMF Language team enabled the early version of the tool in February 2021 in Bengali Wikipedia. Through their feedback, the tool was improved and ready for your community to test and provide feedback to make it better.

[https://design.wikimedia.org/strategy/section-translation.html Section Translation] extends the capabilities of Content Translation to support mobile devices. On mobile, the tool will:

* Guide you to translate one section at a time in order to expand existing articles or create new ones.

* Make it easy to transfer knowledge across languages anytime from your mobile device.

Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia seems an ideal candidate to enjoy this new tool since it has a Content Translation tool enabled by default.

We plan to enable the tool by 15th of February 2024, if there are no objections from your community. After it is enabled, we’ll monitor the content created with the tool and process all the feedback. In any case, feel free to raise any concerns or questions you may already have in any of the following formats:

* As a reply to this message

* On [[mw:Talk:Content_translation/Section_translation|the project talk page]].

'''Try the tool'''

Before the enablement, you can try the current implementation of the tool in [https://test.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&amp;from=en&amp;to=gpe&amp;sx=true#/sx our testing instance]. Once it is enabled on Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia, you’ll have access to [[:trv:Special:ContentTranslation|https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:ContentTranslation]] with your mobile device. You can select an article to translate, and machine translation will be provided as a starting point for editors to improve.

'''Provide feedback'''

Please provide feedback about Section translation in any of the formats you are most comfortable with. We want to hear about your impressions on:

* The tool

* What you think about our plans to enable it

* Your ideas for improving the tool.

Thanks, and we look forward to your feedback.

[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[User talk:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 05:26, 31 January 2024 (GMT) On behalf of the WMF Language team.

:Thanks for this message and we are grateful the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia has been selected to try this new feature. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:09, 1 February 2024 (GMT)

== Flower of the month ==

[[File:Chrysothemis_pulchella_̠11.jpg|thumb|&lt;center&gt;Chrysothemis pulchella&lt;/center&gt;]]
Dear all.

For your huge efforts on Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia I want to award you with the [[:als:Wikipedia:Blueme vum Monet|Flower of the month]].

Best regards, --[[User:Holder|Holder]] ([[User talk:Holder|talk]]) 06:00, 8 March 2024 (GMT)

:We appreciate you @[[User:Holder|Holder]] [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 14:55, 8 March 2024 (GMT)

== Request to continue Adminship ==

Hello everybro, I dey seek de support of fellow editors so say I go continue be de Administrator give dis project. To promote Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia, I for continue de adminship so say I go fi perform oda tasks wey dey hia such as make we komot invalid articles, support fresh editors, komot vandalism den develop existing editors. Thanks waa

* Hello everyone, I am seeking the support of fellow editors so that I can continue being the Administrator of this project. To promote Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia, I have to continue being an admin so that I can perform important tasks such as removing of invalid articles, supporting new editors, remove vandalism and also developing existing editors. Thanks very much

''You go fi support me for here ''
'''Thanks everybro''' - [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:05, 11 October 2024 (GMT)

:Carry on plus the good job, adey throw my support give you. [[Special:Contributions/154.161.146.186|154.161.146.186]] 01:43, 12 October 2024 (GMT)

==== Support ====
*[[User:Heatrave|Heatrave]] ([[User talk:Heatrave|talk]]) 11:26, 11 October 2024 (GMT)
*Bro dey for long on Wikipedia top n so he get more knowledge on it top, I dey support am strongly [[User:Ruky Wunpini|Ruky Wunpini]] ([[User talk:Ruky Wunpini|talk]]) 11:48, 11 October 2024 (GMT)
*yh we dey give you total support. [[User:Jwale2|Jwale2]] ([[User talk:Jwale2|talk]]) 13:15, 11 October 2024 (GMT)
*I Dey support DaSupremo. Eve hard working and he Dey do the job well.  [[Special:Contributions/154.160.6.233|154.160.6.233]] 14:46, 11 October 2024 (GMT)
*[[User:Zakaria Tunsung|Zakaria Tunsung]] ([[User talk:Zakaria Tunsung|talk]]) 00:55, 13 October 2024 (GMT)
*I dey support Supremo for dis role [[User:Gyanford|Gyanford]]
*Adey support DaSupremo for dis role sake of he be the co-founder wey he sana be experienced editor [[User:Yaw tuba|Yaw tuba]]

== Proposal to enable the &quot;Contribute&quot; entry point in Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia  ==

{{Int:Hello}} Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedians,

Apologies as this message is not in your language. {{Int:please-translate}}.

The [[mediawikiwiki:Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization|WMF Language and Product Localization]] team proposes enabling an entry point called &quot;Contribute&quot; to your Wikipedia.

The [[:bn:বিশেষ:Contribute|Contribute]] entry point is based on collaborative work with other product teams in the Wikimedia Foundation on [[mediawikiwiki:Edit_Discovery|Edit discovery]], which validated the entry point as a persistent and constant path that contributors took to discover ways to contribute content in Wikipedia.

Therefore, enabling this entry point in your Wikipedia will help contributors quickly discover available tools and immediately click to start using them. This entry point is designed to be a central point for discovering contribution tools in Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia.

'''Who can access it'''

Once it is enabled in your Wikipedia, newcomers can access the entry point automatically by just logging into their account, click on the User drop-down menu and choose the &quot;Contribute&quot; icon, which takes you to another menu where you will find a self-guided description of what you can do to contribute content, as shown in the image below. An option to &quot;view contributions&quot; is also available to access the list of your contributions.

[[File:Mobile_Contribute_Page.png|link=https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Mobile_Contribute_Page.png|Mobile Contribute Page]]                             [[File:Mobile_contribute_menu_(detailed).png|link=https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datei:Mobile_contribute_menu_(detailed).png|Mobile contribute menu (detailed)]]

For experienced contributors, the Contribute icon is not automatically shown in their User drop-down menu. They will still see the &quot;Contributions&quot; option unless they change it to the &quot;Contribute&quot; manually.

This feature is available in four Wikipedia (Albanian, Malayalam, Mongolian, and Tagalog). We have gotten valuable feedback that helped us improve its discoverability. Now, it is ready to be enabled in other Wikis. One major improvement was to [[phab:T369041|make the entry point optional for experienced contributors]] who still want to have the &quot;Contributions&quot; entry point as default.          

We plan to enable it '''on mobile''' for Wikis, where the Section translation tool is enabled. In this way, we will provide a main entry point to the mobile translation dashboard, and the exposure can still be limited by targeting only the mobile platform for now. If there are no objections to having the entry point for mobile users from your community, we will enable it by 9th November 2024.

We welcome your feedback and questions in this thread on our proposal to enable it here. Suppose there are no objections, we will deploy the &quot;Contribute&quot; entry point in your Wikipedia.

We look forward to your response soon.

Thank you!

On behalf of the WMF Language and Product Localization team.  [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[User talk:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 03:28, 23 October 2024 (GMT)

:Hello [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]], thanks for reaching out and thanks for considering the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia for this feature. I will share this info on our WhatsApp page for others' valuable contribution. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:41, 23 October 2024 (GMT)
::Hello [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]],
::Thank you for responding to this message. We will go ahead and enable the feature since there are no objections to having it in your Wiki. [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[User talk:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 22:59, 6 November 2024 (GMT)
:::Noted with thanks [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 23:11, 6 November 2024 (GMT)

== An improved dashboard for the Content Translation tool ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
{{Int:hello}} Wikipedians,

Apologies as this message is not in your language, {{Int:please-translate}}.

The [[mediawikiwiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization|Language and Product Localization team]] has improved the [https://test.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&amp;filter-type=automatic&amp;filter-id=previous-edits&amp;active-list=suggestions&amp;from=en&amp;to=es Content Translation dashboard] to create a consistent experience for all contributors using mobile and desktop devices. The improved translation dashboard allows all logged-in users of the tool to enjoy a consistent experience regardless of their type of device.

With a harmonized experience, logged-in desktop users now have access to the capabilities shown in the image below.
[[file:Content_Translation_new-dashboard.png|alt=|center|thumb|576x576px|Notice that in this screenshot, the new dashboard allows: Users to adjust suggestions with the &quot;For you&quot; and &quot;...More&quot; buttons to select general topics or community-created collections (like the example of Climate topic).  Also, users can use translation to create new articles (as before) and expand existing articles section by section. You can see how suggestions are provided in the new dashboard  in two groups (&quot;Create new pages&quot; and &quot;Expand with new sections&quot;)-one for each activity.]]
[[File:Content_Translation_dashboard_on_desktop.png|alt=|center|thumb|577x577px|In the current dashboard, you will notice that you can't adjust suggestions to select topics or community-created collections. Also, you can't expand on existing articles by translating new sections.]]
We will implement [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation#Improved translation experience|this improvement]] on your wiki '''on Monday, March 17th, 2025''' and remove the current dashboard '''by May 2025'''.
Please reach out with any questions concerning the dashboard in this thread. 

Thank you!

On behalf of the Language and Product Localization team.
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]]&lt;/bdi&gt; 02:55, 13 March 2025 (GMT)
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== Our Digi Rights Edit-a-thon ==

Hello everyone! Our Digi Rights Edit-a-thon be project wey dey seek make e amplify youth voices den dey enhance civic engagement insyd a secure digital space by make we create den improve content on Wikipedia den Wikidata. De focus regions dey include de Sahel region, neighbouring West Africa, den de Horn of Africa.

We go contribute to bridging content gaps on topics such as de African Union Convention on Cybersecurity and Personal Data Protection, e-democracy, digital mobilisation insyd social movements, SDG16, freedom of expression, den human rights. Additionally, de initiative go highlight de roles of governments, NGOs, den grassroots organisations wey dey address censorship, surveillance, den online disinformation insyd Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, den Togo

You fi join dis campaign for dis link top: (https://w.wiki/EWvG). Thanks waa [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 08:51, 19 June 2025 (GMT)

== &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Migration to Parsoid&lt;/span&gt; ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
&lt;em&gt;[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation/Product and Technology/Parsoid Read Views/Read View Announcement|Read this in another language]]&lt;/em&gt;

Hello everyone! I am glad to inform you that as the next step in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification|Parser Unification]] project, Parsoid will soon be turned on as the default article renderer on your wiki. We are gradually increasing the number of wikis using Parsoid, with the intention of making it the default wikitext parser for MediaWiki's next long-term support release. This will make our wikis more reliable and consistent for editors, readers, and tools to use, as well as making the development of future wikitext features easier.

If this disrupts your workflow, don’t worry! You can still opt out through a user preference or turn Parsoid off on the current page using the Tools submenu, as described in the [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Extension:ParserMigration|Extension:ParserMigration]] documentation.

There is [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification/Confidence Framework|more information about our roll-out strategy]] available, including the testing done before we turn on Parsoid for a new wiki.

To report bugs and issues, please look at our [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Parsoid/Parser Unification/Known Issues|known issues]] documentation and if you found a new bug please create a phab ticket and tag the [[phab:project/view/5846|Content Transform Team in Phabricator]].
&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;[[mw:User:ABreault (WMF)|Content Transform Team]]&lt;/bdi&gt; 00:35, 6 January 2026 (GMT)
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== Annual review of de Universal Code of Conduct den Enforcement Guidelines ==

&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
I dey wrep to you make you know say dem now gbele de annual review period give de Universal Code of Conduct den Enforcement Guidelines. You fi make suggestions for changes thru 9 February 2026. Dis be de first step of chaw dem go take for de annual review. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Annual review/2026|Read more information den find a conversation to join on de UCoC page for Meta top]].

De [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] (U4C) be a global group dem dedicate to providing an equitable den consistent implementation of de UCoC. Na dem plan den implement dis annual review by de U4C. For more information den de responsibilities of de U4C, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|you fi review de U4C Charter]].

Please share dis information plus oda members insyd your community werever else wey fi be appropriate.

-- In cooperation plus de U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]])&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;

21:01, 19 January 2026 (GMT)
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== Re-using references with different details – introducing Sub-referencing ==

[[File:Sub-referencing re-use + RefPreview.png|thumb|Sub-referencing: Example]]
Hi, I’m Johannes from WMDE’s [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes|Technical Wishes team]]. Sorry for writing in English, please support us by translating this message!

We’ve been working on a new feature to improve re-using references with different details: '''[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|Sub-referencing]]'''. We’ve deployed the feature to German-language Wikipedia four months ago. After iterating on the initial feedback we’re ready to rollout sub-referencing to additional wikis. 

'''What to expect?'''

You will notice footnotes like [1.1] in Wikipedia articles, if citations are used with different details (e.g. different page numbers) using sub-references. We are implementing a [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing/History|long-held community wish]]: Many Wikipedia articles currently contain references that are almost identical but differ in details such as the page number. This leads to cluttered reference lists which make it harder for readers to quickly assess how many different sources have been used. And unlike with [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#Status quo: Re-using references in wikitext and VisualEditor|identical reuses]], re-using references with different details [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#Status quo: Re-using references with different details in wikitext|previously required duplicating the reference]], which led to longer wikitext and – [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#Status quo: Re-using references with different details in VisualEditor|especially in VisualEditor]] – also to more time expenditure.

[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|Sub-referencing]] solves these issue: We are adding a new [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#In wikitext|wikitext attribute]] &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;details=&quot;...&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; – similar to the existing attribute &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;ref name=&quot;...&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;. [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#In VisualEditor|VisualEditor users]] can use the &quot;add details&quot; button to insert sub-references. You can find detailed instructions [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|on our project page]]. We also [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing/Learnings|published a report]] about our learnings on the first three months of sub-referencing on German Wikipedia which you might find interesting.

'''Deployment'''

We’ll likely deploy sub-referencing to this project on February 17. Please let me know if you have any questions. We look forward to your feedback on the new feature, either on [[:m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|our discussion page]], my [[User talk:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|user talk page]], or as a reply to this post.

Best regards from the Technical Wishes team --[[User:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|Johannes Richter (WMDE)]] ([[User talk:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|talk]]) 15:34, 3 February 2026 (GMT)

:Today we've deployed [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|sub-referencing]] to gpewiki. Please let us know if you notice any issues or if you have suggestions on how to improve the feature. We’re already [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing/Learnings#Further deployments and our next steps|working on some ideas]] like improving the reader’s view if there are lots of sub-references in the same article. You can find more information about the feature and how to re-use references with different details using sub-references in VisualEditor and Wikitext in the announcement above or on [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|our project page]].
::
:Some suggestions: We are using a [[Special:TrackingCategories|tracking category]] for pages using sub-referencing to quickly identify any issues with the new feature. You can change the category name via [[MediaWiki:Cite-tracking-category-ref-details]]. You might want to create the category page (currently [[:Category:Pages that use sub-references]]) using &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;__HIDDENCAT__&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; to hide it from the default reader’s view (see [[:d:Q129764848]]).
::
:You could also consider creating local versions of [[MediaWiki:Cite-ve-dialog-subreference-help-dialog-link]] and [[MediaWiki:Cite-ve-dialog-subreference-help-dialog-link-ve]] to point directly at [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|translated versions of our project page]] (if existing – or link to local help pages on sub-referencing if the community creates them). The default ''Special:MyLanguage'' links to our metawiki project page unfortunately won't work properly for logged-out editors and will always lead to the English version. Both links are used for VisualEditor users, the first one is displayed in a pop-up when using the &quot;add details&quot; button for the first time, the second link is permanent when using the VE dialogue to add details to a reference.
::
:If you’ve enabled the gadget [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Reference Tooltips|Reference tooltips]] in your user preferences instead of using the default [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Help:Reference Previews/sv|Reference Previews]], you [[:phab:T416304#11622766|won’t see the entire sub-reference information]]. We will soon provide guidance to communities on how to update the gadget.
::
:You can use our [[:m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|sub-referencing talk page]] to provide feedback on the new feature – or just reply to this post. Thanks for piloting the feature! [[User:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|Johannes Richter (WMDE)]] ([[User talk:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|talk]]) 16:23, 24 February 2026 (GMT)

== Request for comment (global AI policy) ==

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
Apologies for writing in English. {{int:Please-translate}}
A [[:m:Requests for comment/Artificial intelligence policy|request for comment]] is currently being held to decide on a global AI policy. {{int:Feedback-thanks-title}}
[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 00:57, 26 April 2026 (GMT)
&lt;/bdi&gt;
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== &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Vote now in the 2026 U4C election&lt;/span&gt; ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;section begin=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
Eligible voters are asked to participate in the 2026 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] election. More information–including an eligibility check, voting process information, candidate information, and a link to the vote–are available on Meta at the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|2026 Election information page]]. The vote closes on 2 June 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780358400 00:00 UTC].

Please vote if your account is eligible. Results will be available by 14 June 2026. -- In cooperation with the U4C,&lt;section end=&quot;announcement-content&quot; /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

[[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 17:14, 27 May 2026 (GMT)
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== RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons ==

&lt;bdi lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Apologies for writing in English, please help translate this message to your language. You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|talk]])&lt;/bdi&gt; 17:11, 23 June 2026 (GMT)
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== &lt;span lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki&lt;/span&gt; ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
&lt;section begin=&quot;Message&quot;/&gt;
'''Legal &amp; Safety Contacts'''

Hello community, the Wikimedia Foundation has provided a [[wmf:Special:MyLanguage/Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_Legal_and_Safety_Contacts_FAQ|Please read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|talk page]].

&lt;section end=&quot;Message&quot;/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

-- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 13:29, 25 June 2026 (GMT)
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      <sha1>1q2dhg450o8nwofmxyyt5h6izkgna3w</sha1>
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De '''University of Benghazi''' formerly dem know am as '''Garyounis University''', be public varsity insyd Benghazi, [[Libya]], de country ein second-largest city as well as one of de most prestigious institutes of higher education for de country insyd. Na dem found am as de University of Libya for December 15, 1955.

== History ==
Na dem divide de University of Libya go two institutions insyd 1976: de University of Tripoli, situate insyd de region ein capital insyd de northwest, den de University of Benghazi, locate insyd de country ein second metropolitan area insyd de northeast. As result of de division, dem authorize each varsity make e form ein own designation; hence, de University of Tripoli den insyd 1976 de University of Benghazi both entities entitle to Al-Fateh University den Garyouins University, respectively. During de 2011 Libyan Civil War, na dem once more transform de title of Garyounis University to de University of Benghazi.&lt;ref&gt;[http://uob.edu.ly/en &quot;Welcome to the University of Benghazi&quot;]. ''University of Benghazi''. Retrieved 2016-12-05.&lt;/ref&gt;

De University of Benghazi dey consist of 23 faculties den 230 departments den institutes insyd Benghazi city. Nonetheless, for 2020 insyd, de Faculty of Arts dissolve one of ein literary faculties go two sections, wey dey increase de overall number of faculties to 24. For addition, de varsity ein campuses den scientific institutes occupy total area of approximately 500 hectares (1,200 acres), wey over 85,000 undergraduate students den 3,000 postgraduate students.

For April 17, 2016, de Libyan National Army overpower de militants wey seize de varsity den de surrounding territory in order make dem train dema troops while dem dey launch missiles towards de city.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20190421234445/https://www.libyaherald.com/2016/04/17/army-takes-benghazi-uni-campus-but-not-huwari-cement-plant/ &quot;Army takes Benghazi University campus, however, not Al-Hawari cement factory&quot;]. ''Libya Herald''.&lt;/ref&gt; During de civil war de students of de varsity of Benghazi students disperse to chaw primary, secondary den high schools for order make dem plete dema educations.

Amal Bayou be one of de varsity ein professors.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.awid.org/whrd/amal-bayou &quot;Amal Bayou&quot;]. ''Association for Women's Rights in Development''. Retrieved 2023-03-11.&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;{{Commons}}
[[Category:University of Benghazi]]
[[Category:1955 establishments insyd Libya]]
[[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 1955]]
[[Category:Universities insyd Libya]]
[[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 1955]]
[[Category:Education insyd Libya]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>University of Bangui</title>
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De '''University of Bangui''' (French: Université de Bangui) be public varsity wey dey locate insyd Bangui, [[Central African Republic]].

== History ==
Before independence for Oubangui-Chari insyd (later make dem bell am de [[Central African Republic]]), most students wey dey go on to higher education dem head for varsities for France insyd. After dem gain independence for 1958 insyd, de Central African Republic take part for de Foundation for Higher Education in Central Africa (FESAC) insyd. De FESAC encompass several former French colonies, each plus schools anaa institutes plus specific focus. Within de FESAC, de Central African Republic get de agricultural institute.

De FESAC begin to come apart for de late 1960s insyd, wey for November 12, 1969, dem create de University of Bangui by government ordinance. De University of Bangui expand de focus of study for agriculture top make e include scientific research, law, economics, rural development den liberal arts.

== Student enrollment ==
For de beginning of de 2000–01 academic year, de higher education sector consist of two public institutions per, de University of Bangui den de National School of Administration den Judiciary (ENAM), den one private school, de International Preparatory College (College Preparatoire International, CPI). Na student enrollment insyd 1998–99 be 5,486, wich represent increase of nearly 80% for three decades insyd. Today, dem approximately enroll 6,500 students insyd de post-secondary system.

Enrollment figures dey indicate dat de number of students wey dey prepare for de mathematics den physical sciences baccalaureate degrees dem significantly increase. For de University of Bangui de proportion of students insyd mathematics den sciences jump go 35% for 2000 insyd, compare plus 8% for 1981 insyd.

De percentage of female students remain very low. Edey vary from 3% insyd science to 16% insyd law den de human sciences. Young women dey face strong pressures for de society insyd make dem lef school den take up dema traditional role of housekeepers. Ethnic minorities, such as Pygmies den Bororo, be poorly represented insyd higher education.

== Public figures of de varsity ==

* Gaston Mandata N'Guérékata (1953–present), former vice-chancellor
* Faustin-Archange Touadéra (1957–present), former vice-chancellor
* Laurent Ngbongbo Ngbonga (1960–present)
* Sylvie Ngouadakpa

== External links ==

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170925124057/http://univ-bangui.org/ Official website]

[[Category:University of Bangui]]
[[Category:Universities insyd de Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 1969]]
[[Category:1969 establishments insyd de Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Education insyd de Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 1969]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi</title>
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'''Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi''' (Arabic: قصر الحير الشرقي, lit. 'Eastern al-Hayr Palace anaa de &quot;Eastern Castle&quot;') be castle (''qasr'') insyd de middle of de Syrian Desert. Na de Umayyad caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik build am insyd 728-29 CE insyd an area rich insyd desert fauna.&lt;ref name=&quot;constable56&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Housing the Stranger in the Mediterranean World: Lodging, Trade, and Travel in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages|url=https://archive.org/details/housingstrangerm00cons|url-access=limited|last=Constable|first=O.R.|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=0-521-81918-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/housingstrangerm00cons/page/n69 56]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Na dem apparently use am as a military den hunting outpost.&lt;ref&gt;[https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1298/ Un Château du désert: Qasr al-Hayr ach-Charqi - UNESCO World Heritage Centre] [https://web.archive.org/web/20090213151432/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1298/ Archived] February 13, 2009, at the Wayback Machine..&lt;/ref&gt; De palace be de counterpart of [[Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi]], a nearby castle palace dem build one year earlier.&lt;ref name=&quot;constable56&quot; /&gt; Ebe one of de so-called desert castles.

== Location ==
Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharq dey 28 kilometres (17 mi) from Al-Sukhnah den 100 kilometres (62 mi) from Sergiopolis (Rusafa), near Bishri Mountain near Palmyran Middle Mountains.

== Syrian Civil War ==
During Syria Civil War, na armed groups capture Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi insyd 2013, then by ISIS. Na dem damage de Castle by looting den vandalism. Na dem burgle de visitor house.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|title=A desert Castle: Qasr al-Hayr ach-Charqi {{!}} UNESCO|url=https://en.unesco.org/syrian-observatory/news/desert-castle-qasr-al-hayr-ach-charqi|website=en.unesco.org|access-date=2025-02-26|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20220131163230/https://en.unesco.org/syrian-observatory/news/desert-castle-qasr-al-hayr-ach-charqi|archive-date=2022-01-31|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; De Syrian Army recapture de castle for 22 August 2017.&lt;ref&gt;@watanisy (22 August 2017). [https://web.archive.org/web/20250611033144/https://x.com/watanisy/status/900013634172137472 &quot;tigers captured Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi&quot;] (Tweet) &amp;#x2013; via Twitter.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Architecture ==
Like oda Umayyad architectural works, na dem influence de construction style by Byzantine den Sasanian architectures.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Arce|first1=Ignacio|title=UMAYYAD BUILDING TECHNIQUES AND THE MERGING OF ROMAN-BYZANTINE AND PARTHO-SASSANIAN TRADITIONS: CONTINUITY AND CHANGE|journal=Late Antique Archaeology|url=https://www.academia.edu/11851524/UMAYYAD_BUILDING_TECHNIQUES_AND_THE_MERGING_OF_ROMAN-BYZANTINE_AND_PARTHO-SASSANIAN_TRADITIONS_CONTINUITY_AND_CHANGE|access-date=4 April 2019|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== World Heritage Status ==
Na dem add dis site to de UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on June 8, 1999, insyd de Cultural category.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1298/|title=Un Château du désert: Qasr al-Hayr ach-Charqi - UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=2009-03-04|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213151432/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1298/|archive-date=February 13, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Gallery ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Qasr_al-Hayr_al-Sharqi,_Walls_and_towers,_Syria.jpg|Walls den towers
File:Qasr_al-Hayr_al-Sharqi,_Towers,_Syria.jpg|Walls den towers
File:Qasr_al-Hayr_al-Sharqi,_Archs,_Syria.jpg|Byzantine arches den columns
File:Qasr_al-Hayr_al-Sharqi_-_GAR_-_10-03.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
[[Category:2025 Wiki Dey Love Ramadan Contributions]]
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Qasr Al-Hayr Al-Sharqi}}
[[Category:8th-century fortifications]]
[[Category:Umayyad architecture insyd Jordan]]
[[Category:Umayyad palaces]]
[[Category:Umayyad architecture insyd Syria]]
[[Category:Castles insyd Syria]]
[[Category:Palaces insyd Syria]]
[[Category:Buildings den structures insyd Homs Governorate]]
[[Category:8th-century establishments insyd de Umayyad Caliphate]]
[[Category:729 establishments]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User talk:Emmanuel Anin</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>20936</id>
    <revision>
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        <id>9</id>
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      <comment>/* English links */ new section</comment>
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      <text bytes="1552" sha1="rwfj903j8dgmmhldr0bnh86g35cskt0" xml:space="preserve">== afrocreative hashtag ==

kindly remeber to use the afrocreative hashtag when editing [[User:BA Ocansey|BA Ocansey]] ([[User talk:BA Ocansey|talk]]) 15:25, 11 September 2025 (GMT)

:Thanks, boss [[User:Emmanuel Anin|Emmanuel Anin]] ([[User talk:Emmanuel Anin|talk]]) 02:59, 12 September 2025 (GMT)
::Hello Emmanuel, please, we do not have your contact details, so reaching out to you is really hard.
::Can you kindly share your contact details with us or can you quickly text me n whatsapp using this number 0549793896 [[User:BA Ocansey|BA Ocansey]] ([[User talk:BA Ocansey|talk]]) 09:41, 1 June 2026 (GMT)
:::Okay please.  [[User:Emmanuel Anin|Emmanuel Anin]] ([[User talk:Emmanuel Anin|talk]]) 10:01, 1 June 2026 (GMT)

== Translation Lesson ==

Good evening, I noticed your translation skills, and I wanted to ask you how you translate, if my tools or manual [[User:Prempy|Prempy]] ([[User talk:Prempy|talk]]) 22:35, 6 June 2026 (GMT)

:Let's text on WhatsApp, please. 
:0547490356 [[User:Emmanuel Anin|Emmanuel Anin]] ([[User talk:Emmanuel Anin|talk]]) 11:12, 7 June 2026 (GMT)

== English links ==

Hello @[[User:Emmanuel Anin|Emmanuel Anin]]. Thanks for your contributions for de Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia top. Abeg e do ah make you no add English links to de translated articles. E go fi direct menners make dem lef de Pidgin article to English Wikipedia so make you take note. If you spy ah I dey komot dem from de articles you translate so please. Thanks  [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 00:02, 26 June 2026 (GMT)</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>105057</id>
      <parentid>105052</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-26T07:17:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emmanuel Anin</username>
        <id>1692</id>
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      <comment>/* English links */ Reply</comment>
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      <text bytes="1680" sha1="3ghim8ottflxo68agj6n4z4w2wxpito" xml:space="preserve">== afrocreative hashtag ==

kindly remeber to use the afrocreative hashtag when editing [[User:BA Ocansey|BA Ocansey]] ([[User talk:BA Ocansey|talk]]) 15:25, 11 September 2025 (GMT)

:Thanks, boss [[User:Emmanuel Anin|Emmanuel Anin]] ([[User talk:Emmanuel Anin|talk]]) 02:59, 12 September 2025 (GMT)
::Hello Emmanuel, please, we do not have your contact details, so reaching out to you is really hard.
::Can you kindly share your contact details with us or can you quickly text me n whatsapp using this number 0549793896 [[User:BA Ocansey|BA Ocansey]] ([[User talk:BA Ocansey|talk]]) 09:41, 1 June 2026 (GMT)
:::Okay please.  [[User:Emmanuel Anin|Emmanuel Anin]] ([[User talk:Emmanuel Anin|talk]]) 10:01, 1 June 2026 (GMT)

== Translation Lesson ==

Good evening, I noticed your translation skills, and I wanted to ask you how you translate, if my tools or manual [[User:Prempy|Prempy]] ([[User talk:Prempy|talk]]) 22:35, 6 June 2026 (GMT)

:Let's text on WhatsApp, please. 
:0547490356 [[User:Emmanuel Anin|Emmanuel Anin]] ([[User talk:Emmanuel Anin|talk]]) 11:12, 7 June 2026 (GMT)

== English links ==

Hello @[[User:Emmanuel Anin|Emmanuel Anin]]. Thanks for your contributions for de Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia top. Abeg e do ah make you no add English links to de translated articles. E go fi direct menners make dem lef de Pidgin article to English Wikipedia so make you take note. If you spy ah I dey komot dem from de articles you translate so please. Thanks  [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 00:02, 26 June 2026 (GMT)

:Sure thing, Sir. Thanks waa [[User:Emmanuel Anin|Emmanuel Anin]] ([[User talk:Emmanuel Anin|talk]]) 07:17, 26 June 2026 (GMT)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Blue Nile</title>
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      <text bytes="16103" sha1="ra6wivg8qip32oaelqq7hiunm85odjz" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
De '''Blue Nile''' be river wey e originate at Lake Tana for Ethiopia iinsyd. E dey travel give approximately 1,450 km (900 mi) thru Ethiopia den Sudan. Along plus de White Nile, e be one of de two major tributaries of de Nile den e dey supply about 85.6% of de water to de Nile during de rainy season.

== Course ==
De distance of de river from ein source to ein confluence, dem variously report am between 1,460 den 1,600 kilometres (910 and 990 mi). Dis uncertainty fi result from de fact dat de impenetrable gorges cut for de Ethiopian Highlands to a depth of sam 1,500 metres (4,900 ft). According to materials wey de Central Statistical Agency publish am, an Ethiopian government agency, de Blue Nile get a total length of 1,450 kilometres (900 mi), of wey 800 kilometres (500 mi) dey insyd Ethiopia.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&amp;view=doc&amp;id=184&amp;format=raw&amp;Itemid=466 &quot;Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&amp;view=doc&amp;id=184&amp;format=raw&amp;Itemid=466|date=13 November 2010}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)&lt;/ref&gt;

==== For Ethiopia insyd ====
De Blue Nile dey originate at Gish Abay at Sekela for Ethiopia insyd (wey dem bell am de Abay River). De river dey flow generally south before e enter a canyon about {{convert|400|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} long, about {{convert|30|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Lake Tana, wey be tremendous obstacle give travel den communication between north den south Ethiopia. Dem first refer to de canyon as de &quot;Grand Canyon&quot; for 1968 insyd by a British team dat accomplish de first descent of de river from Lake Tana to de end of de canyon; subsequent river rafting parties bell am de &quot;Grand Canyon of de Nile&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Engelking |first1=Marina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gzx5qS4AvzwC&amp;dq=%22Grand+Canyon+of+the+Nile%22&amp;pg=PA37 |title=Breakthroughs: An Integrated Advanced English Program |last2=McPherson-Ramirez |first2=Gloria |date=15 April 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-542738-7 |via=Google Books}}&lt;/ref&gt; De Blue Nile Falls (Amharic: Tis Abay, literally &quot;great smoke&quot;), one of Ethiopia ein biggest tourist attractions, dem dey locate am at de start of de canyon.   

De river dey loop across northwest Ethiopia before numerous tributaries feed am  between Lake Tana den de Ethiopia–Sudan border. Those for ein left bank top, for downstream order insyd, dey include de Wanqa River, de Bashilo River, de Walaqa River, de Wanchet River, de Jamma River, de Muger River, de Guder River, de Agwel River, de Nedi River, de Didessa River den de Dabus River. Those for de right side top, sanso for downstream order insyd, dey include de Handassa, Tul, Abaya, Sade, Tammi, Cha, Shita, Suha, Muga, Gulla, Temcha, Bachat, Katlan, Jiba, Chamoga, Weter den de Beles.&lt;ref name=&quot;Huntingford&quot;&gt;These lists are based on the compilation in G.W.B. Huntingford, ''Historical Geography of Ethiopia from the first century AD to 1704'' (London: British Academy, 1989), p. 34&lt;/ref&gt;

==== For Sudan insyd ====
[[File:Whiteandblueniles.jpg|thumb|Satellite image wey White den Blue Niles dey merge]]De Blue Nile then dey head northwest into Sudan. E travel give approximately {{Convert|650|km|mi|abbr=on}}, wey e flow past Er Roseires den e receive de Dinder River for ein right bank top at Dinder. At Khartoum, de Blue Nile dey join de White Nile den, as de Nile, e dey flow thru Egypt to de Mediterranean Sea at Alexandria. 

== Water flow ==
[[File:Zusammenfluss der Nile.JPG|thumb|Confluence of de Blue den White Nile rivers near Khartoum, de capital of Sudan]]De flow of de Blue Nile dey reach maximum volume for de rainy season from June to September insyd, wen e dey supply 80{{endash}}86% of de water of de Nile proper. De river be a major source of de flooding of de Nile for Egypt insyd dat contribute to de fertility of de Nile Valley den de consequent rise of Ancient Egypt den Egyptian mythology. Plus de completion of de Aswan Dam for 1970 insyd, dem floods stopped occurring for lower Egypt insyd. During de summer monsoon season, de Blue Nile floods erode a vast amount of fertile soil from de Ethiopian Highlands dem carry am downstream as silt, wey e turn de water dark brown anaa almost black.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Its Origin, Falls, and Gorge |url=http://www.dinkneshethiopiatour.com/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820192901/http://www.dinkneshethiopiatour.com/index.htm |archive-date=20 August 2015 |access-date=11 October 2015 |publisher=Dinknesh Ethiopia Tour}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De Blue Nile dey vital to de livelihood of Egypt: as de most significant tributary of de Nile, e dey contribute ova 85% of de Nile ein streamflow.&lt;ref name=&quot;handle2012&quot;&gt;Mohamed Helmy Mahmoud Moustafa Elsanabary{{Citation |last1=Elsanabary |first1=Mohamed Helmy Mahmoud Moustafa |title=Teleconnection, Modeling, Climate Anomalies Impact and Forecasting of Rainfall and Streamflow of the Upper Blue Nile River Basin |year=2012 |location=[[Canada]] |publisher=[[University of Alberta]] |doi=10.7939/R3377641M |hdl=10402/era.28151}}&lt;/ref&gt; Though shorter dan de White Nile, 59% of de water dat dey reach Egypt dey originate from de Ethiopian highlands via de Blue Nile. De river sanso be an important resource give Sudan, wey de Roseires Dam den Sennar Dam dey contribute to de 80% of de country ein electricity generation from hydropower. Dem dams sanso help dey irrigate de Gezira Scheme, wey be most famous give ein high-quality cotton, as well as wheat den animal feed crop production for de area insyd.  

For November 2012 insyd, Ethiopia begin construction of de Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam, a 6000-megawatt hydroelectric dam for de river top. Dem dey expect de dam to be a boost give de Ethiopian economy. Sudan den Egypt, howeva, voice demma concerns ova a potential reduction for water available insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=Ethiopia: Nile Dam Project a Hydropower Hope, but Regional Sore Point |year=2012 |url=http://www.trust.org/item/?map=nile-dam-project-a-hydropower-hope-but-regional-sore-point |access-date=9 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714191513/http://www.trust.org/item/?map=nile-dam-project-a-hydropower-hope-but-regional-sore-point |archive-date=14 July 2015 |url-status=live |location=[[Africa]] |publisher=[[Thomson Reuters Foundation]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Electricity generation begin for February 2022 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-60451702|title=Ethiopia starts generating power from River Nile dam|work=BBC News|date=20 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== History ==
[[File:Completed new Sebara Dildiy bridge.jpg|thumb|Suspension bridge ova de Blue Nile River. E be de only pedestrian cable bridge ova de Blue Nile for Ethiopia insyd.]]
[[File:Bridges across the Blue Nile Gorge.jpg|thumb|Blue Nile Gorge for Ethiopia insyd.]]De Egyptian dey fear dat Ethiopia fi block de Blue Nile be major factor for de long den complex Ethiopian-Egyptian relationship insyd. While Egypt rely for Ethiopia top give ein waters, Ethiopia depend for de Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria top give patriarchal authority den de appointment of ein metropolitan. Dis interdependence shape events since de 11th century. Give centuries, de threat of blocking de Blue Nile be an effective strategy for dey ensure de appointment of Egyptian metropolitans. Howeva, for practice insyd, neither a diversion nor large-scale use of de river ein waters, dem eva attempt am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |date=2003 |pages=27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

An early crisis emerge during de reign of Zagwe King Gebre Mesqel Lalibela, whom de Egyptians suspect of attempting to divert de river, even though ein kingdom neva extend to de Blue Nile. E be Emperor Amda Seyon I wey first occupy de Blue Nile basin den begin dey spread Christianity der.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |date=2003 |pages=27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De Emperors of de Solomonic dynasty, particularly Dawit II, Yeshaq I, den Zara Yaqob, continue dey assert Ethiopia ein control ova de river as a diplomatic tool. Dem sanso reinforce dis concept for religious terms insyd, wey e identify de Blue Nile plus de biblical Gihon den dey adapt de Tammera Maryam to legitimize demma authority ova de waters. Medieval European myths about a powerful Christian Ethiopia wey e aid for de destruction of Islam insyd further elevate de significance of de Blue Nile for Ethio-Egyptian relations insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C |date=2003 |pages=27}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De first European dem know to have seen de Blue Nile for Ethiopia insyd den de river ein source be Pedro Páez, a Spanish Jesuit wey reach de river ein source for 21 April 1618 top.&lt;ref&gt;R. E. Cheesman, ''Geographical Journal'', '''71''' (1928), p.&amp;nbsp;361&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, de Portuguese João Bermudes, de self-described &quot;Patriarch of Ethiopia&quot;, provide de first description of de Tis Abay River Falls for ein memoirs insyd wey e publish for 1565 insyd, den any number of Europeans wey live for de Ethiopia insyd for de late 15th century insyd such as Pêro da Covilhã could have seen de river long before Páez, but not reach ein source. De source of de Nile proper sanso reach for 1629 insyd by de Portuguese Jesuit missionary Jerónimo Lobo den for 1770 insyd by de Scottish explorer James Bruce.         

Although European explorers contemplate dey trace de course of de Nile from de Blue Nile ein confluence plus de White Nile to Lake Tana, de Blue Nile Canyon discourage all attempts since Frédéric Cailliaud ein attempt for 1821 insyd. De first serious attempt by a non-local to explore dis reach of de river, de American W.W. Macmillan undertake am for 1902 insyd, wey de Norwegian explorer B.H. Jenssen assist am; Jenssen proceed upriver from Khartoum while Macmillan sail downstream from Lake Tana. Howeva, de rapids at [[:en:Famaka|Famaka]] short of de Sudan-Ethiopia border block Jenssen ein boats, den wreck Macmillan ein boats shortly after dem launch am. Macmillan encourage Jenssen to try to sail upstream from Khartoum again for 1905 insyd, but dem force am to stop {{convert|300|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip|abbr=on}} short of Lake Tana.&lt;ref&gt;Alan Moorehead, ''The Blue Nile'', revised edition (New York: Harper and Row, 1972), pp.&amp;nbsp;319f&lt;/ref&gt; Robert Cheesman, wey record ein surprise for dey arrive for Ethiopia insyd for dey find dat de upper waters of &quot;one of de most famous of de rivers of de world, den one wey dem know ein name well to de ancients&quot; dey for ein lifetime insyd &quot;dotted lines mark for de map top&quot;, manage to map de upper course of de Blue Nile between 1925 den 1933. He do dis not by dey follow de river along ein banks den thru ein impassable canyon but by dey follow am from de highlands above, wey e travel sam {{convert|5000|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} by mule for de adjacent country insyd.&lt;ref&gt;Cheesman, pp.&amp;nbsp;358–374.&lt;/ref&gt;

For de 1950s den 1960s insyd, several kayakers paddle parts of de canyon. For 1968 insyd, at de request of Haile Selassie, a team of 60 British den Ethiopian servicemen den scientists make de first full descent of de river from Lake Tana to a point near de Sudanese border wey explorer John Blashford-Snell lead am.&lt;ref&gt;Snailham, Richard. 1970. ''The Blue Nile Revealed''. London: Chatto and Windus.&lt;/ref&gt; De team use specially-built Avon Inflatables den modify Royal Engineers assault boats to navigate de formidable rapids. Subsequent rafting expeditions for de 1970s den 1980s insyd generally only cover parts of de river canyon.                 

For 1999 insyd, writer Virginia Morell&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Blue Nile: Ethiopia's River of Magic and Mystery - Bookreporter.com |url=http://www.bookreporter.com/reviews/0792279514.asp |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608171628/http://www.bookreporter.com/reviews/0792279514.asp |archive-date=8 June 2011 |access-date=3 May 2018 |website=bookreporter.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; den photographer Nevada Wier make de journey by raft from Lake Tana to Sudan, wey e publish a documentary about demma journey afterwards.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Blue Nile @ nationalgeographic.com |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0012/feature1/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006021132/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0012/feature1/ |archive-date=6 October 2012 |access-date=27 January 2013 |publisher=Ngm.nationalgeographic.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 2000, American den National Geographic reader, Kenneth Frantz, see a photo wey Nevada Wier take am give ''National Geographic'' wey fi lead am to found de charity Bridges to Prosperity. Dis photo show a bridge broken during World War II, plus 10 men for either side of de broken span top wey dem pull each oda across de dangerous gap by rope. Dis historic bridge was built by Emperor Fasilides in approximately 1660 with Roman bridge technology bring to Ethiopia by Portuguese soldiers during de battle plus de Muslim invaders for 1507 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Britannica&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Baynes |first=Thomas Spencer |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_TKcMAAAAYAAJ |title=The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature, Volume 1 |publisher=Henry G. Allen and Company |year=1838 |edition=Ninth |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_TKcMAAAAYAAJ/page/n76 65] |chapter=Abyssinia}}&lt;/ref&gt; For both 2001 den 2009 insyd, Bridges to Prosperity volunteers travel from de United States to repair de broken bridge across de Blue Nile den later build a new suspension bridge not susceptible to flood.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Envisioning a world where poverty caused by rural isolation no longer exists |url=http://www.bridgestoprosperity.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112041000/http://www.bridgestoprosperity.org/ |archive-date=12 January 2013 |access-date=27 January 2013 |publisher=Bridges to Prosperity}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 28 April 2004 top, geologist Pasquale Scaturro den ein partner, kayaker den documentary filmmaker Gordon Brown, becam de first pippoe dem know to navigate de Blue Nile for ein entirety insyd. Though demma expedition include several odas, Brown den Scaturro be de only ones to remain for de expedition top give de entire journey. Dem chronicle demma adventure plus an IMAX camera den two handheld video cameras, wey dem share demma story for de film ''Mystery of the Nile'' insyd den for a book of de same title insyd.&lt;ref&gt;Richard Bangs and Pasquale Scaturro, ''Mystery of the Nile''. New York: New American Library, 2005&lt;/ref&gt;

For 29 January 2005 top, Canadian Les Jickling den ein teammate New Zealander Mark Tanner complete de first fully human-powered transit of de entire Blue Nile den de Nile for de Sudan den Egypt insyd. Demma journey of ova {{Convert|5000|km|mi|abbr=on}} take five months den travel thru Ethiopia, Sudan, den Egypt. Dem recount dat dem paddle thru civil war conflict zones, regions dem know give bandits, den encounter multiple hazards den rapids.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Department - Alumni Association |url=http://web.uvic.ca/torch/torch2005s/dept_alumni_4.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180202121003/http://web.uvic.ca/torch/torch2005s/dept_alumni_4.htm |archive-date=2 February 2018 |access-date=1 August 2018 |website=web.uvic.ca}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070506010335/http://www.aber.ac.uk/quaternary/tana/ De Tana Project]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080512003609/http://www.niletrip.com/ Paddling de Blue Nile]
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Nile, Blue}}
[[Category:Blue Nile| ]]
[[Category:Tributaries of de Nile]]
[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Sudan]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Lake Tana]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>White Nile</title>
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De '''White Nile''' (Arabic: النيل الأبيض ''an-nīl al-'abyaḍ'') be river for North den East Africa insyd. E be de less-voluminous, but longer (den wider den shallower), of de two major tributaries of de Nile, de larger being de [[Blue Nile]].&lt;ref name=&quot;handle2012&quot;&gt;{{Citation |last1=Elsanabary |first1=Mohamed Helmy Mahmoud Moustafa |title=Teleconnection, Modeling, Climate Anomalies Impact and Forecasting of Rainfall and Streamflow of the Upper Blue Nile River Basin |year=2012 |location=[[Canada]] |publisher=[[University of Alberta]] |doi=10.7939/R3377641M |hdl=10402/era.28151}}&lt;/ref&gt; De name &quot;White&quot; dey come from de clay sediment wey dem carry for de water insyd dat changes de water to a pale color.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=foVRAAAAYAAJ&amp;q=clay&amp;pg=PA362 |title=The New American Cyclopaedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge, Volume 12 |date=1867 |page=362 |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330124542/https://books.google.com/books?id=foVRAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA362&amp;q=clay |archive-date=30 March 2023 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For de strict meaning insyd, &quot;White Nile&quot; dey refer to de river formed at Lake No, at de confluence of de Bahr al Jabal den Bahr el Ghazal Rivers. For de wider sense insyd, &quot;White Nile&quot; dey refer to all de stretches of river wey e drain from Lake Victoria thru to de merger plus de Blue Nile: de &quot;Victoria Nile&quot; from Lake Victoria via Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert, then de &quot;Albert Nile&quot; to de South Sudan border, den then de &quot;Mountain Nile&quot; anaa &quot;Bahr-al-Jabal&quot; down to Lake No.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Dumont |first1=Henri J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iF_U1NoknHoC&amp;q=Kyoga&amp;pg=PA345 |title=The Nile: Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |date=2009 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=9781402097263 |pages=344–345 |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330114516/https://books.google.com/books?id=iF_U1NoknHoC&amp;pg=PA345&amp;q=Kyoga |archive-date=30 March 2023 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;White Nile&quot; may sometimes include de headwaters of Lake Victoria, de most remote of which being 3,700 km (2,300 mi) from de Blue Nile.&lt;ref name=&quot;abc-clio&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Penn |first1=James R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=koacGt0fhUoC&amp;q=Luvironza&amp;pg=PA299 |title=Rivers of the World: A Social, Geographical, and Environmental Sourcebook |date=2001 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781576070420 |page=299 |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330114518/https://books.google.com/books?id=koacGt0fhUoC&amp;pg=PA299&amp;q=Luvironza |archive-date=30 March 2023 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:White and Blue Nile-en.svg|thumb|A map wey dey show de White Nile den de [[:en:Blue_Nile|Blue Nile]] for East Africa insyd.]]

== Course ==

=== Headwaters ===
[[File:RusumoFalls2.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Rusumo_Falls|Rusumo Falls]]]]De Kagera River, wey dey flow into Lake Victoria near deTanzanian town of Bukoba, be de longest feeder river give Lake Victoria, although sources no gree for wey e be de longest tributary of de Kagera top, den hence de most distant source of de Nile.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=McLeay|first=cam|date=2 July 2006|title=The truth about the source of R. Nile|work=[[New Vision]]|url=http://www.newvision.co.ug/PA/8/459/507212|access-date=4 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110409215243/http://www.newvision.co.ug/PA/8/459/507212|archive-date=9 April 2011|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem fi consider de source of de Nile to be either deRuvyironza, wey dey emerge for de Bururi Province, Burundi insyd&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Nile River |url=http://www.egyptattraction.com/nile-river-egypt.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070110025022/http://www.egyptattraction.com/nile-river-egypt.html |archive-date=10 January 2007 |access-date=5 February 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; (near Bukirasaz), anaa de Nyabarongo, wey dey flow from Nyungwe Forest for Rwanda insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|work=BBC News|date=31 March 2006|title=Team reaches Nile's 'true source'|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/hampshire/4864782.stm|access-date=4 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601132100/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/hampshire/4864782.stm|archive-date=1 June 2013|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dem two feeder rivers dey meet near Rusumo Falls for de border between Rwanda den Tanzania top. Dem know dem waterfalls give an event for 28–29 April 1994 top, when 250,000 Rwandans cross de bridge at Rusumo Falls into Ngara, Tanzania, for 24 hours insyd, for wat de United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees bell &quot;de largest den fastest refugee exodus for modern times insyd&quot;. De Kagera dey form part of de Rwanda–Tanzania den Tanzania–Uganda borders before e flow into Lake Victoria.  

==== For Uganda insyd ====
[[File:Flipping raft in Bujagali falls, Uganda.jpg|thumb|Rafters wey dey flip for [[:en:Bujagali_Falls|Bujagali Falls]] insyd near de mouth of deVictoria Nile]]De White Nile for Uganda insyd dey go under de name of &quot;Victoria Nile&quot; from Lake Victoria via Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert, den then as de &quot;Albert Nile&quot; from der to de border plus South Sudan.

==== Victoria Nile ====
[[File:Victoria Nile River, Uganda (15235696844).jpg|thumb|Victoria Nile, Uganda]]De Victoria Nile dey start at de outlet of Lake Victoria, at Jinja, Uganda, for de northern shore of de lake top.&lt;ref name=&quot;Fishery&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=vanden Bossche |first1=J.-P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&amp;pg=PA291 |title=Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa, Issue 18, Volume 1 |last2=Bernacsek |first2=G. M. |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]], United Nations |year=1990 |isbn=92-5-102983-0 |page=291 |access-date=4 January 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; Downstream from de Nalubaale Power Station den de Kiira Power Station at de outlet of de lake, de river dey go ova Bujagali Falls (de location of de Bujagali Power Station) about 15 km (9.3 mi) downstream from Jinja. De river then dey flow northwest thru Uganda to Lake Kyoga for de centre of de country insyd, thence west to Lake Albert.  

At Karuma Falls, de river dey flow under Karuma Bridge ({{coord|2|14|45.40|N|32|15|9.05|E|type:landmark}}) at de southeastern corner of Murchison Falls National Park. During much of de insurgency of de Lord's Resistance Army, Karuma Bridge, dem build am for 1963 insyd to help de cotton industry, be de key stop for de way to Gulu top, wey vehicles gather for convoys insyd before dem provide am plus a military escort give de final run north. For 2009 insyd, de government of Uganda announce plans to construct a 750-megawatt hydropower project several kilometres north of de bridge, wey dem schedule give completion for 2016 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Holland |first=Hereward |date=8 May 2009 |title=Uganda To Increase Capacity of Electricity Project |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uganda-energy-idAFL8103159920090508 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419012623/http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/05/08/uganda-energy-idAFL8103159920090508 |archive-date=19 April 2014 |access-date=18 April 2014 |work=[[Reuters]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; De World Bank approve funding a smaller 200-megawatt power plant, but Uganda opt give a larger project, wey de Ugandans go fund internally if necessary.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Wacha |first=Joe |date=29 October 2011 |title=Uganda Oil Money to Finance Karuma Power Project |url=http://www.ugandaradionetwork.com/a/story.php?s=37967 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419041625/http://www.ugandaradionetwork.com/a/story.php?s=37967 |archive-date=19 April 2014 |access-date=18 April 2014 |publisher=Uganda Radio Network Online}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Just before e enter Lake Albert, dem compress de river into a passage just seven meters wide at Murchison Falls, wey dey mark ein entry into de western branch of de East African Rift. De river then dey flow into Lake Albert opposite de Blue Mountains for de Democratic Republic of de Congo insyd.      

De stretch of river from Lake Kyoga to Lake Albert, dem dey sometimes bell am de &quot;Kyoga Nile&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UoEvAQAAIAAJ |title=The Indian Journal of International Law: Official Organ of the Indian Society of International Law |date=1980 |publisher=M.K. Nawaz |page=398 |language=en |access-date=5 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005152340/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=UoEvAQAAIAAJ |archive-date=5 October 2017 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Albert Nile ====
[[File:A track and pedestrians cross the Albert Nile bridge in Northern Uganda.jpg|thumb|Bridge for Albert Nile top]]Dem bell de river wey dey drain from Lake Albert to de north de &quot;Albert Nile&quot;. E dey separate de West Nile sub-region of Uganda from de rest of de country. A bridge dey pass ova de Albert Nile near ein inlet for Nebbi District insyd, but dem build no oda bridge ova dis section. A ferry dey connect de roads between Adjumani den Moyo, den navigation of de river be otherwise dan by small boat anaa canoe.   

==== For South Sudan den Sudan ====
[[File:Zusammenfluss der Nile.JPG|thumb|Confluence of Blue den White Nile near Khartoum]]From de point wey de river dey enter South Sudan from Uganda, de river dey go under de name of &quot;Mountain Nile&quot;. From Lake No for South Sudan insyd, de river dey becam de &quot;White Nile&quot; for ein strictest sense insyd, den so dey continue northwards into Sudan wey e end at ein confluence plus de Blue Nile. 

==== Mountain Nile ====
[[File:White Nile River (30741802592).jpg|thumb|De white Nile Uganda]]From Nimule for South Sudan insyd, close to de border plus Uganda, de river dey becam known as de &quot;Mountain Nile&quot; anaa &quot;Baḥr al-Jabal&quot; (sanso &quot;Baḥr el-Jebel&quot;, {{lang|ar|بحر الجبل}}), literally &quot;Mountain River&quot; anaa &quot;River of de Mountain&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;The [[:en:Arabic|Arabic]] word ''baḥr'' (بحر) can refer to either a sea or a large river&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;EB&quot;&gt;[[:en:William_Edmund_Garstin|Garstin, William Edmund]]; Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Nile|&quot;Nile&quot;]]&amp;#x20;. ''[[:en:Encyclopædia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. Vol.&amp;#x20;19 (11th&amp;#x20;ed.). pp.&amp;#x20;692–699.&lt;/ref&gt; De Southern Sudanese state of Central Equatoria thru wey de river dey flow dem know am as ''Bahr al-Jabal'' until 2006.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=16 April 2006 |title=Southern Sudan Bahr al-Jabal State changes name |url=http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article15073 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004191445/http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article15073 |archive-date=4 October 2017 |access-date=4 October 2017 |website=[[Sudan Tribune]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De southern stretch of de river dey encounter several rapids before e reach de Sudan plain den de vast swamp of de Sudd. E dey make ein way to Lake No, wey e dey merge plus de Bahr el Ghazal den der dey form de White Nile.&lt;ref name=&quot;Parsons&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Parsons |first1=Ellen C. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.157281 |title=Christus Liberator: An Outline Study of Africa |date=1905 |publisher=Macmillan Company |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.157281/page/n20 7] |language=en |access-date=5 October 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Citation |title=The Source of the Nile: Rwenzori Mountains National Park |date=16 June 2010 |url=http://www.unesco.org/archives/multimedia/document-1472 |access-date=2020-08-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803182239/http://www.unesco.org/archives/multimedia/document-1472 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |url-status=live |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; An anabranch river wey dem bell Bahr el Zeraf dey flow out of de Bahr al-Jabal at den dey flow thru de Sudd, to eventually join de White Nile. De Mountain Nile dey cascade thru narrow gorges den ova a series of rapids dat dey include de Fula (Fola) Rapids.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Nile River (Mountain) {{!}} Waterbodies.org |url=http://www.waterbodies.org/waterbody/nile-river-mountain |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021185241/http://www.waterbodies.org/waterbody/nile-river-mountain |archive-date=21 October 2020 |access-date=2020-08-20 |website=www.waterbodies.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Whiteandblueniles.jpg|thumb|De White den Blue Niles dey merge at [[:en:Khartoum|Khartoum]], de capital of [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]].]]

==== White Nile proper ====
To sam pippoe, de White Nile dey start at de confluence of de Mountain Nile plus de Bahr el Ghazal at Lake No.&lt;ref name=&quot;Parsons&quot; /&gt;

De 120 kilometers of White Nile dat dey flow east from Lake No to de mouth of de Sobat dey very gently sloping den hold many swamps den lagoons.&lt;ref name=&quot;Shahin&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Shahin |first1=Mamdouh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FhRHvYmTPqQC |title=Hydrology of the Nile Basin |date=1985 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=9780444424334 |page=40 |language=en |access-date=5 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005152213/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=FhRHvYmTPqQC |archive-date=5 October 2017 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; Wen for flood insyd, de Sobat River tributary dey carry a large amount of sediment, wey e add greatly to de White Nile ein pale color.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Sobat River |url=http://www.library.eb.com/eb/article-9068426 |access-date=21 January 2008 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |edition=Online Library}}&lt;/ref&gt; From South Sudan ein second city Malakal, de river dey run slowly but swamp-free into Sudan den north to Khartoum. Downstream from Malakal dey lie Kodok, de site of de 1898 Fashoda Incident dat mark an end to de Scramble for Africa.

For Sudan insyd, de river dey lend ein name to de Sudanese state of White Nile, before e merge plus de larger Blue Nile at Khartoum den dey form de River Nile.   

== Inland waterways ==
De White Nile be navigable waterway from de Lake Albert to Khartoum thru Jebel Aulia Dam, only between Juba den Uganda dey require de river upgrade anaa channel to make am navigable.

During part of de year, de rivers dey navigable up to Gambela, Ethiopia, den Wau, South Sudan.

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{commons}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20210124034329/http://atlas.nilebasin.org/treatise/inland-waterway-transport/ Nile inland Waterways]
* [https://dlca.logcluster.org/display/public/DLCA/2.5+South+Sudan+Waterways+Assessment South Sudan Waterway Assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609034353/https://dlca.logcluster.org/display/public/DLCA/2.5+South+Sudan+Waterways+Assessment |date=9 June 2022 }}
* [https://content.unops.org/publications/South-Sudan-River-Barge-System-Feasibility-Report-2018.pdf?mtime=20180309110200 Feasibility study river barge system] (Cranes on trucks/loader cranes and [[pallet]]s can increase efficiency)
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:White Nile| ]]
[[Category:Nile]]
[[Category:Nile basin]]
[[Category:Tributaries of de Nile]]
[[Category:Rivers of Sudan]]
[[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]]
[[Category:Rivers of Uganda]]
[[Category:Lake Albert (Africa)]]
[[Category:Lake Victoria]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Lowest points of countries]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Atbarah River</title>
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      <comment>#AWC2026</comment>
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De '''Atbarah River''' (Arabic: نهر عطبرة; transliterated: Nahr 'Atbarah), dem sanso refer am as de '''Red Nile''' den / anaa '''Black Nile''', be river for northeast [[Africa]] insyd. E dey rise for northwest [[Ethiopia]] insyd, approximately 50&amp;nbsp;km north of [[Lake Tana]] den 30&amp;nbsp;km west of Gondar. E then dey flow about 805&amp;nbsp;km (500&amp;nbsp;mi) to de Nile for north-central [[Sudan]] insyd, wey e join am at de city of Atbarah ({{coord|17.677|N|33.970|E|}}). De river ein tributary, de Tekezé (Setit) River, perhaps be de true upper course of de Atbarah, as de Tekezé dey follow de longer course prior to de confluence of de two rivers (at 14° 10' N, 36° E) for northeastern Sudan insyd. De Atbarah ne de last tributary of de Nile before e dey reach de Mediterranean.

For much of de year, e be little more dan a stream. Howeva, during de rainy season (generally July to October), de Atbarah dey rise sam 18&amp;#x20;ft (5 m) above ein normal level. At dis time, e dey form a formidable barrier between de northern den central districts of de Amhara Region of Ethiopia. Besides de Tekezé, oda important tributaries of de Atbarah dey include de Shinfa River wey dey rise west of Lake Tana, den de Greater Angereb wey get ein source north of de city of Gondar.

== History ==
De earliest surviving mention of de Atbarah be by Strabo (16.4.8), wey bell de river ''Astaboras'' (Greek: Ασταβόρας).&lt;ref name=&quot;rilly&quot;&gt;Claude Rilly, Le méroïtique et sa famille linguistique, Peeters, Louvain 2010, p. 179&lt;/ref&gt; Oda ancient authors wey dey mention de name dey include Agatharchides, wey bell am ''Astabaras'' (Greek: Ασταβάρας),&lt;ref name=&quot;rilly&quot; /&gt; den Ptolemy (Geography 4.7).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=LacusCurtius • Ptolemy's Geography — Book IV, Chapter 7 |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy/4/7*.html |access-date=2013-12-10 |publisher=Penelope.uchicago.edu}}&lt;/ref&gt; Richard Pankhurst den odas argue say dem go fi understand de name as &quot;River of de Boras pippoe&quot;, wey dem fi relate ''asta'' to Proto-Nubian ''asti'' &quot;water&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;rilly&quot; /&gt; while dem fi link ''-boras'' to a number of Roman allusions to a tribe wey dem bell am de Bora (Bera), wey live near Meroe,&lt;ref&gt;Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands'' (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 27&lt;/ref&gt; den anoda tribe wey dem name'em ''Megabares'' (Greek: Μεγάβαροι for Eratosthenes den Strabo insyd, Latin: ''Megabarri'' for Pliny de Elder insyd).&lt;ref name=&quot;rilly&quot; /&gt; Pliny de Elder dey provide a slightly different etymology of Astaboras, wey e state say &quot;for de language of de local pippoe insyd&quot; de name dey mean &quot;water wey dey cam from de shades below&quot; (''N.H.'' 5.10).  

For April 1898 insyd, dem fight a major battle beside de river during de Anglo-Egyptian invasion of Sudan 1896–1899 between Mahdist forces den an Anglo-Egyptian Army under de command of Lord Kitchener, wey result for de destruction of de 20,000-strong Mahdist detachment insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=Winston Churchill |author-link=Winston Churchill |title=The River War Volume 1 |date=1899 |publisher=Longmans |page=416 Chapter XIII}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:River War 1-13 Atbara Campaign.jpg|thumb|Atbara river campaign]]For 1964 insyd, de Khashm el-Girba Dam dam de river near Kassala for Sudan insyd to provide irrigation to de newly built town of Halfa Dughaym insyd an otherwise fairly den region den to resettle de Sudanese population driven away by de Aswan High Dam (Sad al-Aali) for Egypt insyd, wey flood 500&amp;#x20;km of de Nile Valley for southern Egypt den northern Sudan insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Hurni |first1=Hans |last2=Tato |first2=Kebede |last3=Zeleke |first3=Gete |date=May 2005 |title=The Implications of Changes in Population, Land Use, and Land Management for Surface Runoff in the Upper Nile Basin Area of Ethiopia |journal=Mountain Research and Development |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=147–154 |doi=10.1659/0276-4741(2005)025[0147:tiocip]2.0.co;2 |issn=0276-4741 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Construction for a $1.9 billion twin dam project about 20&amp;#x20;km upstream from de confluence of de Upper Atbara den Setit rivers, de Rumela den Burdana dams, wey begin for 2011 insyd den Presido Omar al-Bashir inaugurate am for February 2017 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Gregory B. Poindexter |date=2 February 2017 |title=Sudan inaugurates US$1.9 billion Upper Atbara and Setit Dam hydropower project |url=https://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2017/02/sudan-inaugurates-us-1-9-billion-upper-atbara-and-setit-dam-hydropower-project.html |access-date=4 November 2018 |publisher=HydroWorld}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Hydrology ==
Average monthly flow (1912&amp;#x2013;1982) of de Atbarah wey dem measure approximately 25&amp;#x20;km upstream of ein mouth, dem measure am for m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s insyd:&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=2000-02-26 |title=Nile - Kilo 3 |url=http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1664100.html |publisher=University of New Hampshire}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;timeline&gt;
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== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/ethiopia.html Maps of Ethiopia] - Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection, University of Texas
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Atbarah River| ]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Sudan]]
[[Category:Nile basin]]
[[Category:Tributaries of de Nile]]
[[Category:Articles wich dey contain graphical timelines]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Benue River</title>
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'''Benue River''' (French: ''la Bénoué''), previously dem know am as de '''Chadda River''' anaa '''Tchadda''', be de major tributary of de [[Niger River]] den sanso be de second-longest river for Nigeria insyd. De size of ein catchment basin be 319,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (123,000 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). Almost ein entire length of approximately 1,400 km (870 mi) dey navigable during de summer months.&lt;ref name=&quot;Babangida&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|last=Babangida|first=Abdulkareem Mojeed, Mohammed|date=December 16, 2022|title=SPECIAL REPORT: How poor infrastructure worsened flood disasters in states across Nigeria|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/headlines/570687-special-report-how-poor-infrastructure-worsened-flood-disasters-in-states-across-nigeria.html|access-date=July 4, 2023|newspaper=[[Premium Times]]|language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; As a result, e be an important transportation route for de regions insyd thru wey e dey flow.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=April 5, 2023 |title=Benue River |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/rivers/benue-river.html |access-date=July 3, 2023 |website=WorldAtlas |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; De name ''Benue'' dey come from ''bernor,'' wey dey mean 'river anaa lake of hippos’ for de Tiv insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Benue Wikipedia |first=Martin Zachary |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29268/1/10731363.pdf |title=THE RISE AND FALL OF FULANI RULE IN ADAMAWA 1809 - 1901 |publisher=University of London |year=1969 |pages=13}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Benue SE Yola.jpg|thumb|De River Benue dey look south east from Jimeta.]]
[[File:Benuerivermap.png|thumb|Map wey dey show de Benue River drainage basin.]]

== Geography ==
De Benue dey rise for de Adamawa Plateau of northern Cameroon insyd, from wey e dey flow west, den thru de town of Garoua den Lagdo Reservoir, into Nigeria south of de Mandara mountains, den thru Jimeta, Ibi den Makurdi before e meet de Niger River at Lokoja.

Large tributaries be de Faro, de Gongola den de Mayo Kébbi, wey dey connect am plus de Logone (part of de [[Lake Chad]] system) during floods. Oda tributaries dey include Taraba, Donga den Katsina Ala.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Katsina Ala River {{!}} river, western Africa {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Katsina-Ala-River |access-date=July 3, 2023 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

At de point of confluence, de Benue dey exceed de Niger by volume. De mean discharge before 1960 be 3,400 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (120,000 cu ft/s) give de Benue den 3,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (110,000 cu ft/s) give de Niger.  

== Climate ==
Benue State get a tropical savanna climate. E be warm every month of de year thrruout both wet den dry seasons. De annual temperature be 34&amp;#x20;°C den der be about 244 inch of rain for a year insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Benue weather and climate ☀️ Best time to visit 🌡️ Temperature |url=https://www.besttravelmonths.com/nigeria/benue-4042927/ |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=www.besttravelmonths.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; De state get an average humidity of 61%, dew point of 25&amp;#x20;°C, an UV-index of 7 den e dey mainly dry give 169 days for a year insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Weather for Makurdi, Benue, Nigeria |url=https://www.timeanddate.com/weather/nigeria/makurdi |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=www.timeanddate.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Major floods ==
Nigeria ein National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), conduct a “disaster risk management analysis” den advise Ministries, Departments, den Agencies (MDAs) to take proactive steps to mitigate de impact of climate change. De agency advise say water bodies across some states be desilted den dredged regularly to make water available give various purposes. De agency urge relevant institutions to carry out routine monitoring of dams den water bodies to ensure demma operation rule curve give reservoirs dey adhere to.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nseyen&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|last=Nseyen|first=Nsikak|date=September 19, 2022|title=Flooding: NEMA issues warning to Adamawa, Taraba, Benue, others|url=https://dailypost.ng/2022/09/19/flooding-nema-issues-warning-to-adamawa-taraba-benue-others/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=July 4, 2023|newspaper=[[Daily Post (Nigeria)|Daily Post]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== 2022 Flood ====
For September 23, 2022 top, flooding affect all riverine local government areas of Benue, according to de state Commissioner give Water Resources den Environment, Godwin Oyiwona. De flooding affect Makurdi, Agatu, Logo, Guma, Buruku, Otukpo, den Gwer-West.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Simire |first=Michael |date=September 23, 2022 |title=Flooding hits riverine areas in Benue |url=https://www.environewsnigeria.com/flooding-hits-riverine-areas-in-benue/ |access-date=July 4, 2023 |website=EnviroNews Nigeria |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; De government work to mitigate flooding effects den release funds give dey clean de Idye Basin.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=September 23, 2022 |title=Flooding hits riverine areas in Benue |url=https://www.environewsnigeria.com/flooding-hits-riverine-areas-in-benue/}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For October 2022 insyd, farmers for Adamawa State insyd struggle to clear off remnants of crops wey de flooding destroy am. De disaster disrupt many communities across Nigeria ein 36 states, plus hundreds of villages den urban centers wey submerge for water insyd. De disaster unsettle ova 2.4 million people den dem record ova 600 fatalities. Additionally, &quot;expansive hectares of farmlands across affected states were swept off.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Babangida&quot; /&gt;

De worst hit be mostly residents of agrarian communities near major tributaries for seven of de 21 local government areas insyd for de state insyd. Within three months, 12 Local Government Areas (LGAs) submerge, wey e affect 82,730 residents, 13,788 households, 51 pippoe injured, den 27 deaths. Farmlands worth billions of naira destroy.&lt;ref&gt;[https://thecjid.org/special-report-women-children-suffer-as-floods-submerge-adamawa-communities/ &quot;SPECIAL REPORT: Women, Children Suffer As Floods Submerge Adamawa Communities&quot;]. ''thecjid.org''. Retrieved 29-05-2026&lt;/ref&gt;

==== January 2020 ====
Presido Muhammadu Buhari inaugurate a 3.35-km drainage channel project for Makurdi, Benue insyd, to address ecological challenges for de Idye Community insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Nigeria&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=January 3, 2020|title=Buhari inaugurates 3.35km drainage in Benue|url=https://guardian.ng/news/buhari-inaugurates-3-35km-drainage-in-benue/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=July 4, 2023|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; De Presido for de fourth quarter of 2017insyd approve de project, part of de 17 ecological intervention projects, den dem complete am for 48 weeks insyd. De project aim to address de devastating effects of erosion den flood for de region insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=January 3, 2020 |title=Buhari Inaugurates 3.35km Drainage In Benue |url=https://theglittersonline.com.ng/buhari-inaugurates-3/ |website=theglittersonline.com.ng}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nigeria&quot; /&gt;

==== 2017 Flood ====
News Agency of Nigeria (NAN) report say Idye Community dey among de worst-hit areas of de 2017 flood dat displace ova 120,000 persons&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Nigeria|first=News Agency of|date=August 28, 2022|title=Floods ravage Benue villages as Governor Ortom lounges in Europe|url=https://gazettengr.com/floods-ravage-benue-villages-as-governor-ortom-lounges-in-europe/|location=Abuja, Nigeria|access-date=July 4, 2023|newspaper=[[Peoples Gazette]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; for de Benue capital insyd, Makurdi. Floods devastate more dan 200 households for Makurdi insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Report|first=Agency|date=September 14, 2022|title=Floods destroy 200 households in Makurdi|url=https://punchng.com/floods-destroy-200-households-in-makurdi/|access-date=July 4, 2023|newspaper=[[The Punch]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== 2012 Flood ====
De Benue River flood for October 2012 insyd, wey e result for a large increase insyd for de population of venomous snakes insyd for de Duguri District insyd, Alkaleri Local Government Area, Bauchi State.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/141373-snakes-kill-over-200-people-in-bauchi-council-as-government-takes-no-action.html?tztc=1|title=Snakes kill over 200 people in Bauchi council, as government takes no action|access-date=July 3, 2023|newspaper=[[Premium Times]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; A July 2013 report indicate say ova 200 pippoe for de district insyd die of snakebite. De General Hospital for Kaltungo insyd, Gombe State for Nigeria insyd, be de nearest location give treatment of snakebite; &quot;whoeva dey lucky to make am to Kaltungo, dem treat for only two days insyd den then dem return home.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;allafrica1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Agbo |first=Catherine |date=July 22, 2013 |title=Nigeria: Snakes Kill 200 in Bauchi |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201307220201.html |access-date=May 11, 2014 |work=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=June 22, 2021|title=Bauchi residents groan over snakebites|url=https://guardian.ng/news/bauchi-residents-groan-over-snakebites/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=July 3, 2023|newspaper=[[The Guardian (Nigeria)|The Guardian]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Drone_view_Benoue.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Drone_view_Benoue.jpg|Benoue huts
File:Drone_view_at_Benoue.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Drone_view_at_Benoue.jpg|Benoue view from drone
File:Traversée_de_la_Benoué_à_pirogue.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Travers%C3%A9e_de_la_Benou%C3%A9_%C3%A0_pirogue.jpg|Dey cross de Benue River from Lagdo plus a Canoe
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Pollution ==
Benue Hike Tourism den Conservation Foundation, for an attempt insyd to protect de river from various forms of pollution, inform de Benue State Government about de irregularities of sam companies for de state insyd give dey empty waste for de river insyd. Waste like ethanol, dat fi easily cause damage to human den aquatic life, dem dump am into Benue River. Subsequently, de Benue State Government take an immediate attempt to address de issue to prevent further damages give ein citizenry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Orsar|first=Hembadoon|date=April 18, 2023|title=Benue River Pollution: You Have Failed, Ortom Tells 3 Commissioners|url=https://leadership.ng/benue-river-pollution-you-have-failed-ortom-tells-3-commissioners/|access-date=July 6, 2023|language=en-US|newspaper=[[Leadership (newspaper)|Leadership]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Charles|first=John|date=2023-04-17|title=Ortom orders firm's probe for alleged River Benue pollution|url=https://punchng.com/ortom-orders-firms-probe-for-alleged-river-benue-pollution/|access-date=2023-07-26|newspaper=[[The Punch]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Sunday|first=Ochogwu|date=2023-04-17|title=Biotech company accused of polluting River Benue with cassava plant waste|url=https://dailypost.ng/2023/04/17/biotech-company-accused-of-polluting-river-benue-with-cassava-plant-waste/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2023-07-26|newspaper=[[Daily Post (Nigeria)|Daily Post]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}

* Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Benue|&quot;Benue&quot;]] . ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 754.
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Benue River}}
[[Category:Benue River| ]]
[[Category:Tributaries of de Niger River]]
[[Category:Rivers of Cameroon]]
[[Category:Rivers of Nigeria]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:North Region (Cameroon)]]
[[Category:Cameroon–Nigeria border]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ubangi River</title>
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De '''Ubangi River''' (/(j)uːˈbæŋɡi/; Swahili: ''Mto Ubangi''; French: ''Fleuve Oubangui''; Dutch: ''Mubangi Stroom''), dem sanso spell am '''Oubangui''', be river for [[Central Africa]] insyd, den de largest right-bank tributary of de [[Congo River]]. E dey begin at de confluence of de Mbomou (mean annual discharge 1,350 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s) den Uele Rivers (mean annual discharge 1,550 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s) den dey flow west, wey e form de border between [[Central African Republic]] (CAR) den de Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Subsequently, de Ubangi dey bend to de southwest den dey pass thru Bangui, de capital of de CAR, after wey e dey flow south{{snd}}wey e form de border between de DRC den de Republic of de Congo. De Ubangi dey finally join de Congo River at Liranga.

De Ubangi ein length dey about 1,060 km (660 mi). Ein total length plus de Uele, ein longest tributary, be 2,270 km (1,410 mi). De Ubangi ein drainage basin dey about 651,915 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (251,706 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). Ein discharge at Bangui dey range from about 800 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (28,000 cu ft/s) to 11,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (390,000 cu ft/s), plus an average flow of about ~4,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (140,000 cu ft/s).&lt;ref name=&quot;bossche&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Bossche |first=J.P. vanden |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&amp;pg=PA338 |title=Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa, Volume 1 |author2=G. M. Bernacsek |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=1990 |isbn=978-92-5-102983-1 |page=338}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ein mean annual discharge at de mouth dey around ~6,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (210,000 cu ft/s).&lt;ref&gt;Becker, M.; Papa, F.; Frappart, F.; Alsdorf, D.; Calmant, S.; Da Silva, J. Santos; Prigent, C.; Seyler, F. (2018). [https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01671764 &quot;Satellite-based estimates of surface water dynamics in the Congo River Basin&quot;]. ''International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation''. '''66''': 196–209. [[Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018IJAEO..66..196B 2018IJAEO..66..196B]. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jag.2017.11.015|10.1016/j.jag.2017.11.015]]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6873734 6873734].&lt;/ref&gt; Dem believe am say de Ubangi ein upper dey reach originally flow into de Chari River den [[Lake Chad]] before de Congo capture am for de early Pleistocene insyd.&lt;ref&gt;See Cooper, John E. and Hull, Gordon; ''Gorilla Pathology and Health: With a Catalogue of Preserved Materials'', p. 371 {{ISBN|9780128020395}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Togeda plus de Congo River, e dey provide an important transport artery give river boats between Bangui den Brazzaville. From ein source to 100 km (62 mi) below Bangui, de Ubangi dey define de boundary between de Central African Republic den de Democratic Republic of de Congo (DRC). Thereafter, e dey form de boundary between de DRC den de Republic of Congo until e dey empty into de Congo River.  
[[File:Transaqua.svg|thumb|Transaqua scheme (for red insyd)]]

== Lake Chad replenishment project ==
For de 1960s insyd,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Ley |first1=Willy |title=Engineers' Dreams Great Projects That COULD Come True |date=1960 |publisher=Viking Press}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Zarembka|first1=David|title=Refilling Lake Chad With Water From The Congo River Using Solar Power|url=https://cleantechnica.com/2019/06/24/refilling-lake-chad-with-water-from-the-congo-river-using-solar-power/|access-date=25 June 2019|work=[[Cleantechnica]]|date=24 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt; dem propose a plan to divert waters from de Ubangi to de Chari River. According to de plan, wey dem name am Transaqua, de water from de Ubangi go revitalize [[Lake Chad]] den provide a livelihood for fishing insyd den enhance agriculture to tens of millions of central Africans den Sahelians. Nigerian engineer J.{{nbsp}}Umolu den de Italian firm Bonifica propose Inter-basin water transfer schemes for de 1980s den 1990s insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Journal of Environmental Hydrology, Vol. 7, 1999 |url=http://hydroweb.com/jeh/jeh1999/bunu.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Fred Pearce |title=Africa at a watershed |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12917615.500 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331234016/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12917615.500 |archive-date=2009-03-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Fred Pearce |title=Africa at a watershed |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12917615.500 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331234016/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12917615.500 |archive-date=2009-03-31}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;The Changing Geography of Africa and the Middle East By Graham Chapman, Kathleen M. Baker, University of London School of Oriental and African Studies, 1992 Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-05709-4}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Combating Climate Induced Water And Energy Deficiencies In West Central Africa (Ubangi – Lake Chad Inter-basin transfer) |url=http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C09/C09Links/www.ccnet.com/~mcumolu/globclim.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526135224/http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C09/C09Links/www.ccnet.com/~mcumolu/globclim.html |archive-date=2011-05-26}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 1994 insyd, de Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC) propose a similar project, den at a March 2008 summit de heads of state of de LCBC member countries commit to de diversion project.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Voice of America News, March 28, 2008 African Leaders Team Up to Rescue Lake Chad |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/2008-03-28-voa33.cfm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080401153145/http://www.voanews.com/english/2008-03-28-voa33.cfm |archive-date=April 1, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; For April 2008 insyd, de LCBC advertise a request give proposals give a feasibility study. 

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070515071343/http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/water-resources/map-293.html Map showing the Ubangi Subbasin at World Resources Institute]
* [https://www.cicos.int/ International Commission of the Congo-Oubangui-Sangha Bassin]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ubangi River| ]]
[[Category:Central African Republic–Democratic Republic of the Congo border]]
[[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Republic of the Congo border]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Border rivers]]
[[Category:Rivers of de Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Rivers of de Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Tributaries of de Congo River]]
[[Category:Lowest points of countries]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Kasai River</title>
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[[File:Congo Map by Stanley.jpg|thumb|De solid black line dey depict Stanley ein route.]]

De '''Kasai River''' (Swahili: ''Mto Kasai'', French: ''Kasaï'' [ka.sa.i]; dem bell am '''Cassai''' for Angolan Portuguese insyd) be left bank tributary of de [[Congo River]], wey dem locate am for [[Central Africa]] insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;Broadhead, Susan (1992). ''Historical dictionary of Angola''. Metuchen, N.J: Scarecrow Press. p. 99. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0585070091|0585070091]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; De river dey begin for central Angola insyd den dey flow to de east until e dey reach de border between Angola den de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], wey e dey turn north den dey serve as de border until e dey flow into de DRC. From Ilebo, between de confluences plus Lulua river den Sankuru river, de Kasai river dey turn to a westerly direction. De lower stretch of de river, from de confluence plus Fimi river until e dey join de Congo at Kwamouth northeast of Kinshasa, dem sanso know am as de '''Kwa(h) River'''.

De Kasai basin dey consist mainly of equatorial rainforest areas, wey dey provide an agricultural land for a region dem note give ein infertile, sandy soil insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; E be a tributary of Congo river den dem find diamonds for am insyd. Around 60% of diamonds for Belgium insyd go from Kasai river give dey cut den shape.  

== Discharge ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Kasai River multiannual average discharge at Lediba gauging station&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;[https://resources.bgs.ac.uk/sadcreports/drc1989undpgroundwater.pdf Zaire] (PDF) (Report). BGS, British Geological Survey.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Becker, M.; Papa, F.; Frappart, F.; Alsdorf, D.; Calmant, S.; Da Silva, J. Santos; Prigent, C.; Seyler, F. (2018). [https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01671764 &quot;Satellite-based estimates of surface water dynamics in the Congo River Basin&quot;]. ''International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation''. '''66''': 196–209. [[Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018IJAEO..66..196B 2018IJAEO..66..196B]. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jag.2017.11.015|10.1016/j.jag.2017.11.015]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221006234856/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01671764 Archived] from the original on 2022-10-06. Retrieved 2021-09-21.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Dr. Raphael, M. Tshimanga (2019). [https://www.crrebac.org/blog/professeur-raphael-tshimanga-phd-hydrologie-2/conception-dun-reseau-optimal-de-suivi-hydrometeorologique-et-climatique-du-bassin-versant-de-kasai-120 &quot;Centre de Recherche en Ressources en Eau du Bassin du Congo&quot;].&lt;/ref&gt;
!Period
!Average discharge (m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s)
|-
!2012–2016
|9,000
|-
!1948–2012
|10,457
|-
!1950–1959
|11,318
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Kasai River multiannual average discharge at Kutu-Moke gauging station&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;Laraque, Alain; Moukandi N’kaya, Guy D. (2020). [[doi:10.3390/w12092613|&quot;Recent Budget of Hydroclimatology and Hydrosedimentology of the Congo River in Central Africa&quot;]]. ''Water''. '''12''' (9): 2613. [[Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Water..12.2613L 2020Water..12.2613L]. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.3390/w12092613|10.3390/w12092613]].&lt;/ref&gt;
!Period
!Average discharge (m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s)
|-
!1948–2012
|8,070
|-
!1950–1959
|8,790
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Kasai River multiannual average discharge at Ilebo gauging station&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;
!Period
!Average discharge (m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s)
|-
!1948–2012
|2,079
|-
!1950–1959
|2,240
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible&quot;
|+Water discharge of de Kasai River at de Lediba (3°3′25.4556″S 16°32′55.0644″E) den Kutu-Moke (3°12′33.0516″S 17°20′42.4032″E) gauging station.
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Year
! rowspan=&quot;71&quot; |
!Lediba
!
!Kutu-
Moke
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; |Average discharge
(m³/s)
|-
|2016
|9,350
| rowspan=&quot;69&quot; |
|
|-
|2015
|8,090
|
|-
|2014
|9,040
|
|-
|2013
|9,520
|
|-
|2012
|8,870
|6,800
|-
|2011
|7,940
|6,093
|-
|2010
|7,320
|5,614
|-
|2009
|8,820
|6,764
|-
|2008
|10,400
|7,976
|-
|2007
|13,180
|10,110
|-
|2006
|10,740
|8,236
|-
|2005
|9,017
|6,917
|-
|2004
|8,130
|6,235
|-
|2003
|11,520
|8,837
|-
|2002
|11,150
|8,552
|-
|2001
|9,290
|7,125
|-
|2000
|8,310
|6,496
|-
|1999
|7,030
|5,463
|-
|1998
|7,010
|5,480
|-
|1997
|9,800
|7,659
|-
|1996
|8,950
|7,000
|-
|1995
|7,620
|5,960
|-
|1994
|7,430
|5,810
|-
|1993
|8,580
|6,705
|-
|1992
|7,790
|6,089
|-
|1991
|10,410
|8,136
|-
|1990
|11,150
|8,717
|-
|1989
|12,810
|9,988
|-
|1988
|11,450
|8,953
|-
|1987
|11,120
|8,694
|-
|1986
|9,980
|7,804
|-
|1985
|9,550
|7,463
|-
|1984
|8,800
|6,879
|-
|1983
|10,340
|8,084
|-
|1982
|10,100
|7,897
|-
|1981
|9,500
|7,427
|-
|1980
|9,230
|7,213
|-
|1979
|11,710
|9,153
|-
|1978
|10,730
|8,385
|-
|1977
|12,450
|9,731
|-
|1976
|11,760
|9,194
|-
|1975
|10,720
|8,383
|-
|1974
|10,080
|7,878
|-
|1973
|9,970
|7,796
|-
|1972
|10,540
|8,236
|-
|1971
|11,360
|8,880
|-
|1970
|12,040
|9,232
|-
|1969
|13,020
|9,986
|-
|1968
|13,100
|10,050
|-
|1967
|11,510
|8,832
|-
|1966
|12,340
|9,466
|-
|1965
|10,970
|8,417
|-
|1964
|11,950
|9,167
|-
|1963
|11,960
|9,173
|-
|1962
|13,510
|10,360
|-
|1961
|12,440
|9,543
|-
|1960
|11,430
|8,764
|-
|1959
|9,960
|7,638
|-
|1958
|9,850
|7,552
|-
|1957
|11,810
|9,060
|-
|1956
|11,580
|8,882
|-
|1955
|11,360
|8,717
|-
|1954
|11,390
|8,735
|-
|1953
|10,220
|7,837
|-
|1952
|10,490
|8,646
|-
|1951
|11,260
|8,640
|-
|1950
|11,240
|8,619
|-
|1949
|11,560
|8,870
|-
|1948
|11,360
|8,716
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Notes:
Average minimum and maximum discharge: Lediba 5,000–20,000 m³/s (1932–1959), Kutu-Moke 4,400–11,600 m³/s (1932–1959)
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Source:&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Sly, Wongchuig; Benjamin, Kitambo; Fabrice, Papa; Adrien, Paris; Ayan Santos, Fleischmann; Laetitia, Gal; Julien, Boucharel; Rodrigo, Paiva; Romulo Jucá, Oliveira; Raphael M., Tshimanga; Stéphane, Calmant (2023). [https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/2024-02/010089436.pdf &quot;Improved modeling of Congo's hydrology for floods and droughts analysis and ENSO teleconnections&quot;] (PDF). ''Regional Studies''. '''50''' 101563: 21. [[Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023JHyRS..5001563W 2023JHyRS..5001563W]. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.ejrh.2023.101563|10.1016/j.ejrh.2023.101563]].&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

== Exploration ==
Henry Morton Stanley reach de confluence for 9 March 1877 top, wey e bell de river Nkutu, a &quot;powerful den deep river&quot;, but dey recognize am as e dey originate from David Livingstone ein Kwango.&lt;ref name=&quot;Stanley&quot;&gt;Stanley, H.M., 1899, Through the Dark Continent, London: G. Newnes, Vol. One {{ISBN|0486256677}}, Vol. Two {{ISBN|0486256685}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|Vol.Two,252}}

== Tributaries ==
De Kasai ein main tributaries upstream from de confluence plus de Congo:&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;[https://congeau.site/kasai.html &quot;Le cours de la rivière Kasaï&quot;].&lt;/ref&gt;

* Fimi (right – Fimi plus Lukenie 1,120 km)
* Kwilu–Kwango (left – 1,702 km)
* Loange (left – 865 km)
* Sankuru (right – Sankuru–Lubilanji 1,280 km)
* Lulua (right – 1,184 km)
* Tshikapa (left – 630 km)
* Longatshimo (left – 550 km)
* Luembe (left – 780 km)
* Lueta (right – 395 km)
{| class=&quot;wikitable mw-collapsible&quot;
|+De main tributaries from de mouth: 
!Left tributary
!Right tributary
!Length (km)
!Basin size (km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)
!Average discharge (m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s)*
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |''Kwa–Kasai''
|''2,272''
|''894,486.6''
|''10,457.3''
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Kwa'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|Mbala
|57.5
|1,100.1
|14.9
|-
|Fimi ¹
|1,120
|136,174.7
|2,252.9
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Lower Kasai'''
|-
|Lekulu
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |
|57.5
|793.5
|9.3
|-
|Buma
|138
|3,354.7
|42.3
|-
|Kwango
|1,702
|270,904.3
|3,317.4
|-
|Kamtsha
|250
|8,887.4
|106.4
|-
|Piopio
|165
|3,169.1
|34.8
|-
|
|Liau
|
|1,231.6
|14.4
|-
|Lubue
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|227
|8,611.7
|103.5
|-
|Loange
|865
|41,799.5
|489.1
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Middle Kasai'''
|-
|Lumbudji
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|137
|2,876.8
|25.4
|-
|Lubudi
|153
|1,999.2
|17
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|Sankuru ²
|1,280
|149,479.5
|1,738.1
|-
|Lutshuadi
|177
|4,596.5
|39.2
|-
|Lulua
|1,184
|70,612.5
|798
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''Upper Kasai'''
|-
|Yeye
|
|47
|1,379.3
|8.9
|-
|
|Kabambaie
|77
|2,083.7
|10.8
|-
|Lovua
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |
|297
|8,262.4
|73.9
|-
|Tshikapa
|630
|19,512.1
|179.5
|-
|Longatshimo
|550
|19,847.3
|198.5
|-
|
|Luenda
|69
|1,791.4
|10.1
|-
|Luembe
|
|780
|46,648.8
|453.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |
|Lueta (Kaungej)
|395
|13,000.1
|87.6
|-
|Kasangeshi
|206
|3,610.2
|22.1
|-
|Luele
|
|1,173.3
|7.9
|-
|Dembo
|87
|1,924.8
|13.1
|-
|Luau
|105
|4,294.4
|38.5
|-
|Lualo
|
|
|1,532.8
|14.6
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|Lutshima
|166
|1,616.6
|11.5
|-
|Munyango
|
|3,133.1
|20.9
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Notes:
&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; Period: 1948–2012; ¹ Fimi–Lukenie;

² Sankuru–Lubulanji;
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Source:&lt;ref&gt;Eric, Tilman. [https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&amp;id=54&amp;catid=215&amp;Itemid=179 &quot;Congo River&quot;].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;
|}

== Economic importance ==
De tributaries of River Kasai dey clear of obstacles like cataracts den river weed, wey dey make'em very navigable. Dem facilitate de transport sector den form an important trade artery. De river ein role for transport den trade insyd be more prominent during de pre-colonial period wen de slave trade dey legal. Slave traders use one of ein major tributaries, de Kwango River, to navigate de equatorial rain forest, capture slaves den find demma way back to de Atlantic Ocean wey dem dock demma ships. E be greatly controversial dat sam of de local kingdoms dat dey along de Kasai River support de slave trade. De Rund kingdom for instance, readily provide slaves give de most notorious slave traders like John Matthews, wey dem well know am British slave vendor. Dem activities, though dem occur between de 18th den 19th centuries, lef a lasting impact for de regions insyd wey dem be most prominent, such as between de Kwango den de Kwilu rivers. De population never recover fully, plus de population density lower dan dat of areas dat no experience de slave trade. De most probable trigger to British den Portuguese great interests for de Kasai River insyd be de presence of alluvial diamonds wey dey lie for rich deposit beds insyd, especially at de river ein mouth. More deposits dey lie along de beds of a major tributary, de Kwango River. In fact, e be common to hear de phrase “de diamond heartland of North Eastern Angola” wey dem use for reference to de Kwango River valley insyd. Dis be sekof de diamond alluvial beds wey dem find for dis region insyd be de richest for Angola insyd.           

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{commons}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120813015647/http://www.waterandnature.org/en/resources/publications/thematic-collection/facts-figures/watersheds-world Map of the Kasai River basin at Water Resources eAtlas]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Kasai River| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of Angola]]
[[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Border rivers]]
[[Category:Tributaries of de Congo River]]
[[Category:Angola–Democratic Republic of the Congo border]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Okavango River</title>
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[[File:Kavango River view.jpg|thumb|Kavango river view at Hakusembe river lodge]]
De '''Okavango River''' (dem formerly spell am ''Okovango'' anaa ''Okovanggo''), be a river for southwestern Africa insyd. Dem know am by dis name for [[Botswana]] insyd, as '''Cubango''' for [[Angola]] insyd, for '''Kavango''' for [[Namibia]] insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;mendelsohn&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Mendelsohn |first=John |date=9 September 2021 |title=A River in Trouble |url=https://conservationnamibia.com/articles/cn2021-river-in-trouble.php |access-date=8 January 2024 |website=Conservation Namibia}}&lt;/ref&gt; E be de fourth-longest river system for southern Africa insyd, wey dey run southeastward give {{convert|1,600|km|mi|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}. E dey begin at an elevation of {{convert|1300|m|ft}} for de sandy highlands of Angola insyd. Farther south, e dey form part of de border between Angola den Namibia, den dey then flow into Botswana. De Okavango no get an outlet to de sea. Instead, e dey discharge into de Okavango Delta anaa Okavango Alluvial Fan, for an endorheic basin insyd for de Kalahari Desert insyd. De '''Cuito River''' be major tributary.

== Flow ==
De Cubango den Cuito Rivers be de principal tributaries of de Okavango Delta, den dey affect ein health.&lt;ref name=&quot;mendelsohn&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Goyder |first1=David J. |last2=Barker |first2=Nigel |last3=Bester |first3=Stoffel P. |last4=Frisby |first4=Arnold |last5=Janks |first5=Matt |last6=Gonçalves |first6=Francisco M.P. |display-authors=2 |date=27 November 2018 |title=The Cuito catchment of the Okavango system: a vascular plant checklist for the Angolan headwaters |journal=PhytoKeys |publisher=Pensoft Publishers |issue=113 |pages=1–31 |bibcode=2018PhytK.113....1G |doi=10.3897/phytokeys.113.30439 |hdl=2263/71882 |issn=1314-2003 |pmc=6279898 |pmid=30524187 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; For Angola insyd, seasonal controlled burns of de vegetation dey clog de upper reaches of de Cuito den reduce water flow downstream as de accumulated water instead dey flow into de sand.&lt;ref name=&quot;into&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last1=Society |first1=National Geographic |author-link=National Geographic |title=Okavango Wilderness Project |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/okavango/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108114019/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/projects/okavango/ |archive-date=8 November 2020 |website=www.nationalgeographic.org |publisher=[[Into the Okavango]] |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Before e dey enter Botswana, de river dey drop 4 m (13 ft) for a series of rapids  insyd wey dem know am as Popa Falls, wey dey visible wen de river dey low, as during de dry season.&lt;ref&gt;Siyabona Africa Travel (Pty) Ltd, &quot;Popa Falls | Okavango River | Botswana&quot; webpage: [http://www.travel.za.net/africa_popa_falls.html TravelZA-PopaFalls]&lt;/ref&gt;

For de rainy season insyd, an outflow to de Boteti River for turn insyd seasonally dey discharge to de Makgadikgadi Pans, wey dey feature an expansive area of rainy-season wetland wey tens of thousands of flamingos congregate each summer.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Andy Burnham, Pete Evans (Layout), The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map |title=Makgadikgadi |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=22373&amp;mode=&amp;order=0 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231030065111/https://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=22373&amp;mode=&amp;order=0 |archive-date=2023-10-30 |access-date=2025-02-27 |website=The Megalithic Portal |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Part of de river ein flow dey fill Lake Ngami.  

== Flood ==
[[File:Popafälle (2018).jpg|thumb|Popa Falls (2018)]]Every wet season, Angola dey receive three times more rainfall dan Botswana, wey dey discharge a higher dan usual flow into de Okavango, wey dey turn swathes of outlying desert into a huge wetland.

Although de summer rains dey fall for Angola insyd for January insyd, dem take a whole month to travel de first 1,000&amp;#x20;km of de Okavango River, den then dem take a further four months to filter thru de plants den numerous channels of de final 250&amp;#x20;km of de delta. As a result, de flood dey at ein biggest sometime between June den August, during Botswana ein dry winter months. De delta then dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of wildlife.  

At ein widest point for a big flood year insyd, de seasonal swamp dey stretch to 150&amp;#x20;km across from east to west; one of de factors dat dey lead to de ever-changing nature of de delta be de flatness of de area. If one be say to take a cross section of de delta at ein widest point, one go find say de height variation from den mean ova dat 150&amp;#x20;km dey less dan 2 m, wey dey mean say a minor sand deposition fi cause major changes.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Okavango Delta – Part 2 {{!}} |url=http://blog.africabespoke.com:80/okavango-delta-part-2/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20180621102937/http://blog.africabespoke.com:80/okavango-delta-part-2/ |archive-date=2018-06-21 |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=blog.africabespoke.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For very wet years insyd, a part of de river ein flow fi extend along de Magweggana River (actually a northeastern distributary of de Okavango Delta) den enter de Zambezi River, wey e bypass de Kalahari.   

== Sediment transport ==
De river dey carry annually 28,000 tonnes of suspended sediment den a similar amount of bedload to de terminal swamps.&lt;ref name=&quot;hani&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Hanibal Lemma |first1=and colleagues |date=2019 |title=Bedload transport measurements in the Gilgel Abay River, Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=577 |bibcode=2019JHyd..57723968L |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.123968 |s2cid=199099061 |article-number=123968}}&lt;/ref&gt; Most of de particulate sediment wey de river carry be fine sand, plus sam silt den mud, thanks to de geological makeup of de Okavango River catchment wey dey largely underlain by Kalahari sand. Der dey low concentration of dissolved solids for de river water insyd - around 40&amp;#x20;mg/L, make up mostly of silica, calcium den magnesium bicarbonates - but dem dissolved solids dey form de largest component of sediment wey dem carry into de delta sekof de annual water volume dey so large.&lt;ref name=&quot;SafGeo&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T S |date=October 2013 |title=The okavango delta and its place in the geomorphological evolution of Southern Africa |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=116 |issue=1 |pages=1–54 |bibcode=2013SAJG..116....1M |doi=10.2113/gssajg.116.1.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== History ==
During colder periods for Earth ein history insyd, a part of de Kalahari be a massive lake, wey dem know am as Lake Makgadikgadi. For this time insyd, de Okavango go fi be one of ein largest tributaries.
[[File:Cuito and Okavango (2018).jpg|thumb|Confluence of Cuito (from top) den Okavango (wey dey flow from left to right) (2018)&lt;br /&gt;{{Coord|18|01|40|S| 020|47|31|E|display=inline|dim:10000}}]]

== Water conflict ==
Both Namibia den Botswana dey experience drought, den as a result, dem express concerns about possible conflict ova use of de river ein water. Namibia build a water canal, wey e measure about 300&amp;#x20;km long, den dem propose a project to build a 250&amp;#x20;km pipeline to divert water from de river into Namibia to help relieve de drought.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Basedau |first=Matthias |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hWrEcl2ydzEC&amp;pg=PA294 |title=Resource Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa |date=2005-01-01 |publisher=GIGA-Hamburg |isbn=978-3-928049-91-7 |pages=294 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Varis |first1=Olli |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3ilzosWx4wC&amp;pg=PA96 |title=Management of Transboundary Rivers and Lakes |last2=Tortajada |first2=Cecilia |last3=Biswas |first3=Asit K. |date=2008-03-15 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-74928-8 |pages=96 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Botswana, howeva, dey use de Okavango Delta give both tourism income den a water source. De Department of Water Affairs for Botswana insyd submit dat dem lose 97% of de water for de river insyd thru evaporation, so de country no fi afford to lose any extra water.  

Namibia, for turn insyd, argue say e go only divert half of one percent of de river ein flow, den say dem entitle am to any water dat dey flow thru ein territory. To deal plus such issues, for September 1994 insyd, Angola, Namibia, den Botswana sign a multilateral agreement to form de Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission, to provide advice to de three countries about de best ways to share de Okavango River ein resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

=== Oil exploration ===
ReconAfrica, a petroleum exploration company wey dem headquarter am for [[Canada]] insyd, obtain exploration licenses give more dan 13,600 square miles of land for de former Kavango Region of Namibia insyd den for Botswana insyd. For January 2021 insyd, ReconAfrica announce de start of drilling operations for de first exploration well top. Environmental activists express concern say dem no properly vet ReconAfrica ein plans give ein test wells thru Namibia ein environmental review process, howeva ReconAfrica den both de governments of Namibia den Botswana stated say de company ein activities follow due process den dat no fracking go occur.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=ReconAfrica Environmental, Social, and Governance |url=https://reconafrica.com/our-sustainable-approach/environmental-social-governance/ |access-date=20 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite press release|title=Press release - Clarity on explorative activities by Reconnaissance Energy Botswana|url=https://twitter.com/bwgovernment/status/1359497088128733191|website=twitter.com|access-date=30 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Factual Response to article titled: &quot;Oil Drillers Threaten Okavango Ecosystem&quot; |url=http://www.mme.gov.na/news/73/No-Fracking-Activities-will-be-conducted-In-the-Okavango-Delta |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518042410/http://www.mme.gov.na/news/73/No-Fracking-Activities-will-be-conducted-In-the-Okavango-Delta |archive-date=18 May 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=mme.gov.na}}&lt;/ref&gt; ReconAfrica ein drilling area dey for de Kavango West insyd region wey dey contain a multicountry conservation park, six locally managed wildlife reserves, den one UNESCO World Heritage site, howeva de drilling license no dey include any of these protected areas.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/news/reconafrica-start-drilling-first-well-kavango-basin-namibia/ ReconAfrica starts drilling on first well in Kavango Basin, Namibia]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20210219215106/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/oil-drilling-fracking-planned-okavango-wilderness Oil drilling, possible fracking planned for Okavango region—elephants' last stronghold]&lt;/ref&gt;   

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}

* [http://www.okacom.org/ OKACOM Homepage]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Rivers of Angola]]
[[Category:Rivers of Namibia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Botswana]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Kalahari Desert]]
[[Category:Angola–Namibia border]]
[[Category:Water conflicts]]
[[Category:Border rivers]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cunene River</title>
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[[File:Epupa Falls 3.jpg|thumb|245x245px|Epupa Falls]]
De '''Cunene''' (Portuguese spelling) anaa '''Kunene''' (common Namibian spelling)&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Cunene &quot;Cunene&quot;]. ''[[:en:The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language|The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]]'' (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved May 30, 2019.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20190530134220/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/Cunene &quot;Cunene&quot;] (US) and [https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182735/https://www.lexico.com/definition/cunene &quot;Cunene&quot;]. ''[[:en:Lexico|Lexico]] UK English Dictionary''. [[:en:Oxford_University_Press|Oxford University Press]]. Archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182735/https://www.lexico.com/definition/cunene the original] on 2020-03-22.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[mwod:Cunene|&quot;Cunene&quot;]]. ''[[:en:Merriam-Webster|Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary]]''. Merriam-Webster. [[OCLC (identifier)|OCLC]] [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032680871 1032680871]. Retrieved May 30, 2019.&lt;/ref&gt; be a river for Southern Africa insyd. E dey flow from deAngola highlands southwards to de border plus [[Namibia]]. E then dey flow for a westerly direction insyd along de border until e dey reach de [[Atlantic Ocean]].

== Geography ==
One of de few perennial rivers for de region insyd, de Cunene dey about {{convert|1,050|km|mi|abbr=on}} long, plus a drainage basin {{convert|106,560|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} for area insyd. Ein mean annual discharge be 174 m3/s (6,100 cu ft/s) to 222 m3/s (7,800 cu ft/s) at ein mouth. De Epupa Falls dey lie for de river top. Olushandja Dam dey dam a tributary of de river, de Etaka, den dey help to provide de Ruacana Power Station plus water.

De main stream dey rise for 12° 30′ S. insyd den about 160 miles for a direct line from de sea insyd at Benguella, dey run generally from north to south thru four degrees of latitude, but finally dey flow west to de sea thru a break for de outer highlands insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the [[:en:Public_domain|public domain]]: [[:en:Hugh_Chisholm|Chisholm, Hugh]], ed. (1911). &quot;[[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Kunene|Kunene]]&quot;. ''[[:en:Encyclopædia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 946–947.&lt;/ref&gt;

Between de mouths of ein two tributaries, de Cunene dey traverse a swampy plain, wey e inundate during high water, den dey contain several small lakes at oda times of de year. From dis swampy region divergent branches dey run S.E. Dem be mainly intermittent, but de Kwamatuo, wey dey leave de main stream for about 15° 8′ E., 17° 15′ S. insyd, dey flow into a large marsh anaa lake dem bell Etosha, wey dey occupy a depression for de inner table-land insyd about 3400 ft. above sea-level. From de S.E. end of de Etosha lake streams issue for de direction of de Okavango, wey for times of great flood insyd, dem dey contribute sam water.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;   

For leaving de swampy region top, de Cunene dey turn decidedly to de west, den dey descend to de coast plain by a number of cataracts, wey de chief (for 17° 25′ S., 14° 20′ E. insyd) has a fall of 330 ft. De river dey becam smaller for volume insyd as e dey pass thru an almost desert region plus little anaa no vegetation. De stream sometimes dey shallow den fordable, at odas confine to a narrow rocky channel. Near de sea de Cunene dey traverse a region of sand-hills, wey dem completely block ein mouth at low water. De river dey enter de Atlantic for 17° 18′ S., 11° 40′ E. insyd. Der dey indications dat a former branch of de river once enter a bay to de south.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

== Dam controversies ==
De Namibian government propose for de late 1990s insyd to build de Epupa Dam, a controversial hydroelectric dam for de Cunene top. For 2012 insyd de, Governments of Namibia den Angola announce plans to jointly build de Orokawe dam for de Baynes Mountains insyd. According to de indigenous Himba who go fi be most affected by de construction of de dam, de dam go threaten de local ecosystem den therefore de economic basis of de Himba. During February 2012, traditional Himba chiefs issue a declaration to de [[African Union]] den to de United Nations Human Rights Council of de [[United Nations]], wey dem title &quot;Declaration of de most affected Ovahimba, Ovatwa, Ovatjimba den Ovazemba against de Orokawe Dam for de Baynes Mountains insyd,&quot; wey dey outline de fierce objections against de dam from de traditional Himba chiefs den communities dat reside near de Kunene River.&lt;ref name=&quot;Galdu&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Indigenous Himba Appeal to UN to Fight Namibian Dam |url=http://www.galdu.org/web/index.php?odas=5638&amp;giella1=eng |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017232022/http://www.galdu.org/web/index.php?odas=5638&amp;giella1=eng |archive-date=October 17, 2013 |access-date=April 6, 2012 |publisher=galdu.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;newsodrome&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Namibian Minority Groups Demand Their Rights |url=http://newsodrome.com/native_american_news/namibian-minority-groups-demand-their-rights-29917361 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017135555/http://newsodrome.com/native_american_news/namibian-minority-groups-demand-their-rights-29917361 |archive-date=October 17, 2013 |access-date=April 6, 2012 |publisher=newsodrome.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ep1061&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Declaration of the most affected Ovahimba, Ovatwa, Ovatjimba and Ovazemba against the Orokawe Dam in the Baynes Mountains |url=http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=1061 |access-date=April 6, 2012 |publisher=earthpeoples.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For September 2012 insyd, de United Nations special rapporteur for de Rights of Indigenous Peoples top visit de Himba, den hear demma concerns.

For November 23, 2012 top, hundreds of Himba den Zemba from Omuhonga den Epupa region protest for Okanguati insyd against Namibia ein plans to construct a dam for de Kunene River insyd for de Baynes Mountains insyd, against increasing mining operations for demma traditional land top den human rights violations against dem.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rebecca Sommer&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Namibia: Indigenous semi-nomadic Himba and Zemba march in protest against dam, mining and human rights violations |url=http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=2910=eng |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310002526/http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=2910=eng |archive-date=March 10, 2013 |access-date=November 24, 2012 |publisher=earthpeoples.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For March 25, 2013 top, ova a thousand Himba den Zemba pippoe march for Opuwo insyd&lt;ref name=&quot;Earth Peoples&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=German GIZ directly engaged with dispossessing indigenous peoples of their lands and territories in Namibia |url=http://earthpeoples.org/blog/?p=4151 |access-date=March 30, 2013 |publisher=earthpeoples.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; to protest once more against Namibia ein plans to build de Orokawe dam for de Cunene River insyd without dey consult plus de indigenous pippoe dat no consent to de construction plans.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Namibian&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Himba, Zemba reiterate 'no' to Baynes dam |url=http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2013/march/article/himba-zemba-reiterate-no-to-baynes-dam/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329005913/http://www.namibian.com.na/news/full-story/archive/2013/march/article/himba-zemba-reiterate-no-to-baynes-dam |archive-date=March 29, 2013 |access-date=March 26, 2013 |publisher=Catherine Sasman for The Namibian}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Attraction ==
Tourists frequent campsites anaa lodges at Epupa, wey dey offer water sports for de river top, wey dey include rafting den canoeing.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=KaokoHimba Safaris Namibia - Kaokoland, Epupa Falls Campsite, Himba People, Tours - Epupa Falls |url=http://www.kaoko-namibia.com/epupa_falls.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130422001005/http://www.kaoko-namibia.com/epupa_falls.html |archive-date=April 22, 2013 |access-date=March 23, 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ancient baobab trees dey grow alongside de gorge, den der be an attractive den well-kept viewpoint high above de village den falls. 

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

=== Sources ===
* {{cite book |author=C. Michael Hogan |title=Encyclopedia of Earth |publisher=National Council for Science and the Environment |year=2012 |editor1=P. Saundry |location=Washington DC. |section=Kunene River |editor2=C. Cleveland |section-url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Kunene_River?topic=78166}}
* {{cite journal |author1=F. C. de Moor |author2=H. M. Barber-James |author3=A. D. Harrison |author4=C. R. Lugo-Ortiz |year=2000 |title=The macroinvertebrates of the Cunene River from the Ruacana Falls to the river mouth and assessment of the conservation status of the river |journal=African Journal of Aquatic Science |volume=25 |issue=1}}
* {{cite book |last=Nakayama |first=Mikiyasu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ittv1oAJ37sC |title=International Waters in Southern Africa |publisher=[[United Nations University Press]] |year=2003 |isbn=92-808-1077-4}} Google eBook.

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071121034417/http://www.pgoimages.com/gallery.php?gall=g_namibia_serracafema Images near Kunene River] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121034417/http://www.pgoimages.com/gallery.php?gall=g_namibia_serracafema |date=2007-11-21 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120813015647/http://www.waterandnature.org/en/resources/publications/thematic-collection/facts-figures/watersheds-world Map of the Cunene River basin at Water Resources eAtlas]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Rivers of Angola]]
[[Category:Rivers of Namibia]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Huambo Province]]
[[Category:Geography of Kunene Region]]
[[Category:Angola–Namibia border]]
[[Category:African drainage basins of de Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Border rivers]]</text>
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De '''Jubba River''' anaa '''Juba River''' (Somali: ''Webiga Jubba'', Italian: ''fiume Giuba'') be a river for southern Somalia insyd wey dey flow thru de region of Jubaland. E dey begin at de border plus [[Ethiopia]], wey de Dawa den Ganale Dorya rivers dey meet, den dey flow directly south to de Somali Sea, wey e empty at de ''Goobweyn'' juncture. De Jubba basin dey cover an area of {{Convert|749000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.hrpub.org/download/201309/nrc.2013.010203.pdf Managing Shared Basins in the Horn of Africa – Ethiopian Projects on the Juba and Shabelle Rivers and Downstream Effects in Somalia].&lt;/ref&gt; De Somali regional state of Jubaland, wey dem formerly bell am ''Trans-Juba'', dem name am after de river.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Oltre Giuba (Trans-Juba), Italian Colony (1924-1926) |url=https://www.dcstamps.com/oltre-giuba-italian-colony/ |access-date=28 May 2026 |publisher=Dead Country Stamps and Banknotes |quote=Oltre Giuba (Trans-Juba) was a short lived Italian colony in the south-western part of what is now Somalia. The territory was located on the far side of the Juba River from the existing borders of Italian Somaliland, hence the name 'Trans Juba' or Oltre Giuba in Italian.}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== History ==

=== Ajuran Empire ===
De Jubba River get a rich history of a once-booming sophisticated civilization den trade network wey de powerful Somalis conducted am dat hold sway ova de Jubba River.

During de Middle Ages Jubba River dey under de Ajuran Empire of de Horn of Africa wey utilize de Jubba River give ein plantations den be de only hydraulic empire for Africa insyd. A hydraulic empire dat rise for de 13th century AD insyd, Ajuran monopolize de water resources of de Jubba River den Shebelle. Thru hydraulic engineering, e sanso construct many of de limestone wells den cisterns of de state dat be still operative den for use insyd today. Ein rulers develop new systems give agriculture den taxation, wey dem continue to used for parts of de Horn of Africa insyd as late as de 19th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;His 40&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Njoku |first1=Raphael Chijioke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C |title=The History of Somalia |year=2013 |isbn=9780313378577 |page=26 |access-date=2014-02-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Thru demma control of de region ein wells, de Garen rulers effectively hold a monopoly ova demma nomadic subjects as dem be one of de few hydraulic empire for Africa insyd. Dem construct large wells make out of limestone thruout de state, wey attract Somali nomads plus demma livestock. De centralized regulations of de wells make am easier give de nomads to settle disputes by taking demma queries to government officials wey go act as mediators. Long distance caravan trade, a long-time practice for de Horn of Africa insyd, continue unchanged for Ajuran times insyd. Today, numerous ruins den towns wey dem abandon thruout de interior of Somalia den de Horn of Africa be evidence of a once-booming inland trade network wey e date from de medieval period.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Jubba_River#CITEREFCassanelli1982|Cassanelli (1982)]], p. 149.&lt;/ref&gt;        

Plus de centralized supervision of de Ajuran, farms for Afgooye, Bardhere den oda areas insyd for de Jubba den Shebelle valleys insyd increase demma productivity. A system of irrigation ditches wey dem locally know am as ''Kelliyo'' feed directly from de Shebelle River den Jubba River into de plantations wey dem grow sorghum, maize, beans, grain den cotton during de ''gu'' (Spring for Somali insyd) den ''xagaa'' (Summer for Somali insyd) seasons of de Somali calendar. Numerous dikes den dams dey in support for dis irrigation system. To determine de average size of a farm, dem sanso invent a land measurement system plus ''moos'', ''taraab'' den ''guldeed'' wey be de terms dem use.   

De urban centers of Mogadishu, Merca, Barawa, Kismayo den Hobyo den oda respective ports becam profitable trade outlets give commodities wey dey originate from de interior of de State. De Somali farming communities of de hinterland from Jubba den Shebelle valleys bring demma crops to de Somali coastal cities, wey dem sell am to local merchants wey maintain a lucrative foreign commerce plus ships sailing to den wey dey come from Arabia, Persia, India, Venice, [[Egypt]], [[Portugal]], den as far away as Java den [[China]].&lt;ref&gt;''Journal of African History'' pg. 50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Modern Period ====
Ova two centuries pass until German explorer Baron Karl Klaus von der Decken ascend for de lower reaches of de river top for de small steamship Welf for 1863 insyd. He wreck de steamship for de rapids insyd above Bardhere, wey local Somalis attack party, wey e end for de deaths of de Baron insyd den three odas for ein party insyd. De first European to explore widely den complete de course of de river be de Italian explorer Vittorio Bottego wey Commander F. G. Dundas British Navy attend am. Bottego den ein expedition sail {{convert|400|mi|km|abbr=in|order=flip}} of de river for 1891 insyd. During ein exploration Bottego change de name of de main affluent of Jubba—de Ganale river—for Ganale Doria insyd after de famous Italian naturalist Giacomo Doria.&lt;ref&gt;1892; ''Il Giuba esplorato'', 1895.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;F. G. Dundas, &quot;Expedition up the Jub River through Somali-Land, East Africa&quot;, ''Geographical Journal'', 1 (March 1893), pp. 209–222.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Overview ==
[[File:Bardere.bridge.jpg|thumb|Bridge ova de Jubba river for Bardhere insyd.]]De Jubba basin region primarily be savanna, den be, ecologically speaking, de richest part of de country sekof ein fertile farmland. Native wildlife dey include giraffes, cheetahs, lions, leopards, hyenas, buffalos, hippopotamus, crocodiles, oryx, gazelles, camels, ostriches, jackals, den Somali wild asses. 

De Jubba River dey give ein name to de Somali administrative regions of Upper Juba (Gedo, Bay, Bakool), Middle Juba den Lower Juba, as well as to de larger historical region of Jubaland. Major cities wey de Jubba River dey pass by dey include Dolow, Luuq, Burdhubo, Beled'hawo, Bardhere, Buale, den Goobweyn near Kismaayo.  

== Make you sanso see ==

* [[Shebelle River]]

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

=== Works cited ===
* {{cite book |last=Cassanelli |first=Lee V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mlhyAAAAMAAJ |title=The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600–1900 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-8122-7832-3}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101110220920/http://multimedia.wri.org/watersheds_2003/af10.html Map of the Jubba River basin at Water Resources eAtlas]

[[Category:Jubba River| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of Somalia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Ethiopia–Somalia border]]
[[Category:Jubaland]]
[[Category:Border rivers]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Shebelle River</title>
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De '''Shebelle River''' (Oromo: Laga Shabeellee, Somali: ''Webi Shabeelle'', Amharic: እደላ, Italian: ''fiume Uebi Scebeli'') wey dem sanso historically know am as de '''Nile of Mogadishu''',&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Philips |first=John Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq5wGaae5qkC |title=Writing African History |date=2006 |publisher=University Rochester Press |isbn=978-1-58046-256-3 |pages=221 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Fage |first1=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C |title=The Cambridge History of Africa |last2=Oliver |first2=Roland |date=1975 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20981-6 |pages=137 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=ʻAlī |first=Abū al-Fidāʾ Ismāʻīl ibn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5bgWAAAAQAAJ&amp;q=abulfeda+geographie+reinaud |title=Géographie d'Aboulféda |date=1848 |publisher=Imprimerie nationale |pages=232–233 |language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; dey begin for de highlands of [[Ethiopia]] insyd, den then dey flow southeast into [[Somalia]] towards Mogadishu. Near Mogadishu, e dey turn sharply southwest, wey e dey follow de coast. Below Mogadishu, de river dey becam seasonal. During most years, de river dey dry up near de mouth of de Jubba River, while for seasons of heavy rainfall insyd, de river actually dey reach de Jubba den thus de ocean.

During periods of heavy rainfall for Ethiopia insyd, de Shebelle River den de Jubba River dey merge, den demma combined waters ultimately dey reach de Indian Ocean. Howeva, for drier years insyd, de Shebelle River dey diminish den transform into a series of wetlands den sandy plains to de northeast of de confluence plus de Jubba. De Shebelle River get a total length of 1,820 km. De area wey dey surround de Shebeli River, Arsi Oromo pippoe inhabit am, Somali pippoe for de Somali Region of Ethiopia insyd den Somali pippoe for Somalia insyd. For de lower basin of de river insyd, agriculture largely replace de traditional nomadic herding lifestyle, den de cultivation of bananas along de southern stretches of de Shebeli den Jubba rivers dey contribute significantly to Somalia ein export industry.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Shebeli River {{!}} Kenya, Somalia &amp; Ethiopia {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Shebeli-River |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Tributaries ==
De Shebelle geta number of tributaries, both seasonal den permanent rivers. Dem dey include:

* Erer River
* Galetti River
* Wabe River
De Fafen only dey reach de Shebelle for times of heavy rainfall insyd; ein stream usually dey end before e reach de main river. 

== History ==

=== Ajuran Empire ===
During de middle ages, de Shebelle river dey under de control of de Ajuran Empire den dem largely utilize am give ein plantations. Coming into prominence during de 13th century AD, de Ajuran monopolize de water resources of de Jubba den Shebelle Rivers. Thru hydraulic engineering, dem sanso construct many of de limestone wells den cisterns of de state wey many of dem still for use insyd today. Ein rulers develop new systems give agriculture den taxation, wey dem continue to use am for parts of de Horn of Africa insyd as late as de 19th century.&lt;ref name=&quot;His 40&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Njoku |first1=Raphael Chijioke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlL2vE_qRQ8C |title=The History of Somalia |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2013 |isbn=9780313378577 |page=26 |access-date=2014-02-14}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Thru demma control of de region ein wells, de Garen rulers effectively hold a monopoly ova demma nomadic subjects as dem be de only hydraulic empire for Africa insyd during demma reign. Dem construct large wells wey dem make am out of limestone thruout de state, wey attract Somali den Oromo nomads plus demma livestock. De centralized regulations of de wells make am easier give de nomads to settle disputes by dey take demma queries to government officials wey go act as mediators. Long-distance caravan trade, a long-time practice for de Horn of Africa insyd, dem continue unchanged for Ajuran times insyd. Today, numerous ruin den towns wey dem abandon thruout de interior of Somalia den de Horn of Africa be evidence of a once-booming inland trade network wey e date from de medieval period.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Cassanelli |first=Lee V. |title=The shaping of Somali society: reconstructing the history of a pastoral people, 1600-1900 |date=1982 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0-8122-7832-3 |series=Ethnohistory |location=Philadelphia |pages=149}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Plus de centralized supervision of de Ajuran, farms for Afgooye, Bardhere den oda areas insyd for de Jubba den Shabelle rivers insyd increase demma productivity. A system of irrigation ditches dem know am locally as ''Kelliyo'' feed directly from de Shebelle River den [[Jubba River|Jubba rivers]] into de plantations wey dem grow sorghum, maize, beans, grain den cotton during de ''gu'' (Spring for Somali insyd) den ''xagaa'' (Summer for Somali insyd) seasons of de Somali calendar. Numerous dikes den dams support dis irrigation system. To determine de average size of a farm, dem sanso invent a land measurement system plus dem use de terms ''moos'', ''taraab'' den ''guldeed''.          

De urban centers of Mogadishu, Merca, Barawa, Kismayo den Hobyo den oda respective ports becam profitable trade outlets give commodities wey dey originate from de interior of de state. De Somali farming communities of de hinterland from Jubba den Shebelle rivers bring demma crops to de Somali coastal cities, wey dem sell am to local merchants wey maintain a lucrative foreign commerce plus ships sailing to den coming from Arabia, Persia, [[India]], Venice, [[Egypt]], [[Portugal]], den as far away as Java den [[China]].&lt;ref&gt;Journal of African History pg.50 by John Donnelly Fage and Roland Anthony Oliver&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Modern period ====
According to Thomas Wakefield, wey visit de region, dem sanso know de river as de &quot;Adari River&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Wakefield |first1=Thomas |url=https://everythingharar.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/1884Expedition.pdf |title=Somal and Galla Land; Embodying Information Collected by the Rev. Thomas Wakefield |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |page=261}}&lt;/ref&gt; De Arsi Oromo cultivate de source of de Shebelle River. A sacred enclosure dey surround am wey demn wood am plus juniper trees, wey as of 1951 dey under de protection of a [[Muslims|Muslim]] member of de Arsi.&lt;ref&gt;J. Spencer Trimingham, ''Islam in Ethiopia'' (Oxford: Geoffrey Cumberlege for the University Press, 1952), p. 260.&lt;/ref&gt; 

For 1989 insyd, plus de help of Soviet engineers, dem build Melka Wakena dam for de upper reaches of de Shebelle River top for de Bale Mountains insyd. Producing 153 megawatts, dis dam be Ethiopia ein largest hydroelectric generator.&lt;ref&gt;Lulseged Ayalew, [https://web.archive.org/web/20060522223124/http://www.mediaethiopia.com/Engineering/Lulseged_on_hydroelectric.htm &quot;Something that We Need to Know about Our River’s Hydropower Potential&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060522223124/http://www.mediaethiopia.com/Engineering/Lulseged_on_hydroelectric.htm|date=2006-05-22}}. Accessed 20 April 2006&lt;/ref&gt;

Frequent destructive flash floods mark recent history of de Shabelle. Dem say de Shabelle flood every oda year prior to de 1960s; dat decade get only two devastating floods, de ''hidigsayley'' for 1965 insyd, den de ''soogudud'' for 1966 insyd. For de 1970s insyd, de most devastating flood be de ''kabahay'' of 1978.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ayele-35&quot;&gt;Ayele Gebre-Mariam, [http://www.nccr-north-south.unibe.ch/publications/Infosystem/On-line%20Dokumente/Upload/AGM_CriticalIssueLand.pdf ''The Critical Issue of Land Ownership''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303173436/http://www.nccr-north-south.unibe.ch/publications/Infosystem/On-line%2520Dokumente/Upload/AGM_CriticalIssueLand.pdf|date=2020-03-03}}, Working Paper No. 2 (Bern: NCCR North-South, 2005), pp. 35f (accessed 19 January 2009)&lt;/ref&gt; For 1996 insyd, floods devastate three woredas for Ethiopia insyd. For 23 October 1999 top, de river unexpectedly flood for de middle of de night insyd, wey e destroy homes den crops for 14 out of de 117 kebeles insyd for Kelafo woreda insyd, as well as 29 of de 46 kebeles for neighboring Mustahil woreda insyd. According to de local authorities, 34 people den an estimated 750 livestock die, plus 70,000 wey de floods affect'em den for need of assistance insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/eue_web/som1199.htm &quot;Drought and Floods: Stress Livelihoods and Food Security in the Ethiopian Somali Region&quot;] UNDP Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia report, dated November 1999 (accessed 28 December 2008)&lt;/ref&gt; Two more recent floods be de ''dawdle'' for 2003 insyd, wen e wash away about 100 livestock den 119 pippoe, den de flood of April 2005, wen floodwaters surround about 30,000 persons den de floods wash away 2,000 camels den 4,000 shoats; sam locals dey consider dis de worst flood for 40 years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Ayele-35&quot; /&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Shabeelle_NASA.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shabeelle_NASA.jpg|Satellite pictures wey dey show de Shebelle valley for southern Somalia den Ethiopia insyd before den during floods for 2005 insyd
File:Irrigation_along_the_Shebelle_River.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Irrigation_along_the_Shebelle_River.JPG|Astronaut photograph wey dey show irrigation along de river
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Notes ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
*[https://reliefweb.int/map/somalia/somalia-integrated-phase-classification-maps-sep-2008 ReliefWeb: Somalia Integrated Phase Classification Maps (as of Sep 2008)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110719115946/http://www.zgf.de/download/166/BMNP_GMP_2007.pdf Bale Mountains National Park]
*[[iarchive:watershedsofworl0000unse/page/n71/mode/2up|Map of de Shebelle River basin at Water Resources Institute]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060626084833/http://www.somwat.com/hydropolitics.html Hydropolitics for de Horn of Africa insyd]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Shebelle River| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Somalia]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Bale Mountains]]
[[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]]
[[Category:Jubba River]]
[[Category:Important Bird Areas of Ethiopia]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Awash River</title>
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De '''Awash River''' (sometimes dem spell am '''Awaash'''; Oromo: ''Awaash'' anaa ''Hawaas'', Amharic: ዐዋሽ, Afar: ''Hawaash We'ayot'', Somali: ''Webiga Dir'', Italian: ''Auasc'') be a major river of [[Ethiopia]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia den dey empty into a chain of lakes wey dem interconnect dat dey begin plus Lake Gargori den dey end plus Lake Abbe (anaa Abhe Bad) for de border top plus [[Djibouti]], about {{convert|100|km}} from de head of de Gulf of Tadjoura. De Awash River be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin wey dey cover parts of de Amhara, Oromia den Somali Regions, as well as de southern half of de Afar Region. De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Borgomeo |first1=Edoardo |last2=Vadheim |first2=Bryan |last3=Woldeyes |first3=Firew B. |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Tamru |first5=Seneshaw |last6=Charles |first6=Katrina J. |last7=Kebede |first7=Seifu |last8=Walker |first8=Oliver |date=2018 |title=The Distributional and Multi-Sectoral Impacts of Rainfall Shocks: Evidence From Computable General Equilibrium Modelling for the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Ecological Economics |language=en |volume=146 |pages=621–632 |bibcode=2018EcoEc.146..621B |doi=10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.11.038 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]&lt;/ref&gt;

De basin usually get two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. Dem predict [[Climate change]] to increase de water deficiency for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Taye |first1=Meron Teferi |last2=Dyer |first2=Ellen |last3=Hirpa |first3=Feyera A. |last4=Charles |first4=Katrina |date=2018 |title=Climate Change Impact on Water Resources in the Awash Basin, Ethiopia |journal=Water |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=1560 |bibcode=2018Water..10.1560T |doi=10.3390/w10111560 |issn=2073-4441 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]&lt;/ref&gt;

De Awash River basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd (as of 2021).&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Whitehead |first2=Paul |last3=Alamirew |first3=Tena |last4=Jin |first4=Li |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2023 |title=Evaluating the effects of geochemical and anthropogenic factors on the concentration and treatability of heavy metals in Awash River and Lake Beseka, Ethiopia: arsenic and molybdenum issues |journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment |language=en |volume=195 |issue=10 |page=1188 |bibcode=2023EMnAs.195.1188A |doi=10.1007/s10661-023-11674-z |issn=0167-6369 |pmc=10497432 |pmid=37698767 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]&lt;/ref&gt; Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Industries wey dey pollute for de basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;    

De Awash Valley (den especially de Middle Awash) dey internationally famous give ein high density of hominin fossils, wey dey offer unparalleled insight into de early evolution of humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;unesco&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Lower Valley of the Awash |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/10 |access-date=18 September 2021 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Site |publisher=United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem discover &quot;Lucy&quot;, one of de most famous early hominin fossils, for de lower Awash Valley insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;unesco&quot; /&gt; Give ein palaeontological den anthropological importance, dem inscribe de lower valley of de Awash for UNESCO ein World Heritage List top for 1980 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;unesco&quot; /&gt;

== Geography ==
[[File:Awash near Asaita.jpg|thumb|Awash River near [[:en:Asaita|Asaita]] (2015)]]De Awash River basin, wey dey span 23 administrative zones, dey cover 10% of Ethiopia ein area den dey host about 17% of ein population.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt; Dem partly locate am for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd. De Awash River dey {{convert|1200|km}} long.&lt;ref name=&quot;Length&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&amp;view=doc&amp;id=184&amp;format=raw&amp;Itemid=466 &quot;Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&amp;view=doc&amp;id=184&amp;format=raw&amp;Itemid=466|date=2010-11-13}}, Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)&lt;/ref&gt; E dey start for Ethiopia ein central highlands insyd at an elevation of {{convert|3000|m}} den dey pass thru a number of locations before e join Lake Abbe at a height of {{convert|250|m}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Abebe |first1=Yosef |last2=Alemayehu |first2=Taye |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Alamirew |first4=Tena |last5=Alemayehu |first5=Esayas |date=2024 |title=Demystifying Heavy Metals and Physicochemical Characteristics of Groundwater in a Volcano-Tectonic Region of Middle Awash, Ethiopia, for Multipurpose Use |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=5257 |bibcode=2024Sust...16.5257A |doi=10.3390/su16125257 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]&lt;/ref&gt; Dem divide Awash River basin into three sections: upper, middle, den lower.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; 

De Awash dey rise south of Mount Warqe, west of Addis Ababa for de woreda of Dendi insyd, close to de town of Ginchi, West Shewa Zone, Oromia. After e enter de bottom of de Great Rift Valley, de Awash dey flow south to loop around Mount Zuqualla for an easterly then northeasterly direction insyd, before e enter Koka Reservoir. Der, dem use water give de irrigation of sugar cane plantations. Downstream, de Awash dey pass de city of Adama den de Awash National Park. E then join for ein left bank top by ein chief affluent, de Germama (anaa Kasam) River, before e turn northeast at approximately {{coord|11|0|N|40|30|E}} as far north as 12° before e turn completely east to reach lake Gargori.     

Oda tributaries of de Awash dey include (for order upstream insyd): de Logiya, Mille, Borkana, Ataye, Hawadi, Kabenna den Dukem Rivers. Towns den cities along ein course dey include Metehara, Awash, Gewane den Asaita.     

Der dey tributary rivers, lakes, hot springs, den swamps for de Middle Awash Basin insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

== Climate ==
De movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) mostly influence de climate of de Awash River basin. During ein movement northwards for March/April insyd den ein retreat southwards, ITCZ dey create two rainy seasons, a shorter one around March (''Belg''), den a longer one between June den September (''Kiremt''), wey dey partly fall into one longer rainy season. De rainy season dey tend to be bimodal towards eastern Ethiopia den almost unimodal towards western Ethiopia. De time between October den March be a dry season, wey dem bell am ''Bega''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Seleshi |first1=Yilma |last2=Zanke |first2=Ulrich |date=2004-06-30 |title=Recent changes in rainfall and rainy days in Ethiopia |journal=International Journal of Climatology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=8 |pages=973–983 |bibcode=2004IJCli..24..973S |doi=10.1002/joc.1052 |issn=1097-0088}}&lt;/ref&gt; Semi-arid to arid conditions dey prevail for de Rift Valley insyd. In contrast, de highlands dey partly receive more dan {{convert|1600|mm}} of rainfall for ca. insyd, six months per year.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Knoche |first1=Malte |last2=Fischer |first2=Christian |last3=Pohl |first3=Eric |last4=Krause |first4=Peter |last5=Merz |first5=Ralf |year=2014 |title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=519 |pages=2049–2066 |bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Climate change ===
A study for 2018 insyd investigate de effects of climate change for water resources top for de Awash basin insyd. Dem use three climate models from Coupled Models Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) den give three future periods (2006–2030, 2031–2055, den 2056–2080). Dem select de models wey dem base for demma performance to capture historical precipitation characteristics top. De baseline period wey dem use give comparison be 1981–2005. Dem estimate de future water availability as de difference between precipitation den potential evapotranspiration projections wey dem dey use de Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP8.5) emission scenarios. De projections give de future three periods dey show an increase for water deficiency insyd for all seasons insyd den give parts of de basin, sekof a projected increase for temperature insyd den decrease for precipitation insyd. Dis decrease for water availability insyd go increase water stress for de basin insyd, wey e dey further threaten water security give different sectors.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

== Hydrology ==
[[File:Monthly rainfall by administrative zone in the Awash basin (1979–2015).jpg|thumb|Mean (left panel) den coefficient of variation (right panel) of monthly rainfall by administrative zone for de Awash basin insyd (1979–2015).&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;]]

=== Rainfall, droughts den floods ===
Rainfall dey vary a lot for de basin insyd from one year to de next (dem dey bell dis ''high intra-annual variability''). Dem recognize dry season water shortage as a challenge give various activities such as irrigation de domestic water supply by de Awash Basin Authority.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Howeva, flooding sanso dey occur frequently during de main rainy season for July den August insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot;&gt;Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A., Dyer, E. &amp; Tekleab, S. 2024. [https://reachwater.uk/resource/policy-and-practice-recommendations-on-flood-risk-management-in-the-awash-basin/ Policy and practice recommendations on flood risk management in the Awash basin]. REACH Discussion brief.&lt;/ref&gt; De type of flooding be different give de upper, middle den lower Awash basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:9&quot; /&gt; Research find say &quot;de type den range of flooding for de Awash Basin insyd dey vary widely wey dey reflect de basin ein complex geography&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot;&gt;Taye, M.T., Haile, A.T., Dessalegn, M., Nigussie, L., Bekele, T.W., Nicol, A. and Dyer, E. (2024). [https://reachwater.uk/resource/flood-adaptation-and-mitigation-in-the-awash-basin-responding-to-new-climate-patterns/ Flood adaptation and mitigation in the Awash Basin: Responding to new climate patterns]. REACH Synthesis report, University of Oxford, UK.&lt;/ref&gt;{{rp|7}} For example, for urban areas insyd, dem know flash floods den river overflows to occur.    

Rapid growth of agriculture, industries den urbanization within de Awash basin, as well as population growth dey place increasing demands for de basin ein water resources top. Dem know de basin give high climate variability wey dey involve droughts den floods, den climate change go likely intensify de existing challenges.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt; Dem need future water management strategies to be inclusive of all sectors den consider de equity give different users.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;        

Dem investigate flood adaption measures den one of de recommendations be say to use &quot;land-use planning dat be 'flood-centric' for ein thinking den approach insyd [...]. Dis dey mean identifying (den protecting) flood zones near build-up areas den identifying zones dat fi allow to flood to absorb de impact of extreme events.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;:10&quot; /&gt;{{rp|41}}

==== Groundwater ====
Groundwater recharge dey vary between values wey dey exceed {{convert|350|mm}} per year for de upper highlands insyd den no recharge at de bottom of de rift valley.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Ayenew |first1=Tenalem |last2=Demlie |first2=Molla |last3=Wohnlich |first3=Stefan |year=2008 |title=Hydrogeological framework and occurrence of groundwater in the Ethiopian aquifers |journal=Journal of African Earth Sciences |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=97–113 |bibcode=2008JAfES..52...97A |doi=10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2008.06.006}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem predominantly recharge groundwater at de escarpments den highlands above 1,900 m a.s.l.,&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Bretzler |first1=Anja |last2=Osenbrück |first2=Karsten |last3=Gloaguen |first3=Richard |last4=Ruprecht |first4=Janina S. |last5=Kebede |first5=Seifu |last6=Stadler |first6=Susanne |year=2011 |title=Groundwater origin and flow dynamics in active rift systems – A multi-isotope approach in the Main Ethiopian Rift |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=402 |issue=3–4 |pages=274–289 |bibcode=2011JHyd..402..274B |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.03.022}}&lt;/ref&gt; wey annual rainfall dey higher dan {{convert|1000|mm}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt; Localized small-scale recharge sanso dey suppose to occur at de flanks of de rift valley volcanoes.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Artificial groundwater recharge dey take further place at irrigated plantations at de rift valley.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; Recharge from river channel losses den via infiltration from lakes dey play a role for de Main Ethiopian Rift insyd den for southern Afar insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot; /&gt;

De Awash Basin be a densely populated den industrialized area wey numerous enterprises dey rely for groundwater top give demma operation. Therefore, de majority of human development initiatives for de basin insyd go continue to depend heavily for de quantity den quality of groundwater top.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; Groundwater management dey require proactive measures sekof de global challenges pose by rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, den various human activities.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

== Ecology ==
[[File:Parc national d'Awash-Ethiopie-Rivière (1).JPG|thumb|Awash River for de Awash National Park insyd]]Most of de Awash basin be part of de Ethiopian montane forests ecoregion. At high altitudes de Ethiopian montane grasslands den woodlands den Ethiopian montane moorlands dey predominate. De Somali Acacia–Commiphora bushlands den thickets ecoregion dey occupy low elevations for de Rift insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The ecozones of the world. The ecological division of the geosphere |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287758543 |access-date=2017-10-21 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

De basin ein vegetation get a strong anthropogenic impact.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; All ova de upper den central Awash basin, dey remain of different savanna types be still clearly visible. Dem range from thorn savannas for de lower rift insyd, bush, grass den open savannas above 800 m den woody savannas for de escarpments top den de highlands.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite thesis |author=Knoche, M. |title=Hydrological Modelling of the Upper Awash Catchment (Main Ethiopian Rift) |degree=Masters |publisher=Technische Universität Freiberg |year=2011 |location=Freiberg, Germany}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Fauna ====
De lower Awash Valley be one of de last wildlife dey preserve give de African wild ass. De mammal be now extinct for Yangudi Rassa National Park insyd, but dem still find am for de adjacent Mille-Serdo Wildlife Reserve insyd.&lt;ref&gt;Moehlman, P.D.; Kebede, F.; Yohannes, H. (2015). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/7949/45170994 &quot;''Equus africanus''&quot;]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2015''' e.T7949A45170994. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T7949A45170994.en]]. Retrieved 19 March 2026.&lt;/ref&gt; Oda large animals native to de area dey include Beisa Oryx, Soemmering ein gazelle, Dorcas gazelle, gerenuk den Grevy ein zebra. Crocodiles sanso dey flourish within de river.   

== Human activities den impacts ==
[[File:Awash River in the nineteenth century.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a camel convoy for de Awash River top den for de nineteenth century insyd by Guglielmo Massaia]]De Awash basin be de most developed, utilized, abused, impacted, den most populous (ova 15% anaa nearly 18.6 million out of 120 million) basin for Ethiopia insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; Dem know Middle Awash give dey have both large- den small-scale irrigation, as well as agroindustry den sugar factories (Wenji, Methara, den Kesem Sugar factories).&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

==== Water supply ====
De water supplies of de major urban centers like Addis Ababa, Mojo den Adama, den sanso, de irrigation waters give local den commercial agricultural lands (such as sugarcane plantation) dey depend for de Awash River den ein tributaries insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Zinabu |first1=Eskinder |last2=Alamirew |first2=Tena |last3=Gebrehiwot |first3=Solomon G. |last4=Whitehead |first4=Paul |last5=Charles |first5=Katrina |last6=Zeleke |first6=Gete |date=2024 |title=Information synthesis to identify water quality issues and select applicable in-stream water quality model for the Awash River basin in Ethiopia: A perspective from developing countries |journal=Scientific African |language=en |volume=23 |bibcode=2024SciAf..2302063Z |doi=10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02063 |doi-access=free |article-number=e02063}} [[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [[ccorg:licenses/by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]]&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Economic activities ====
De agricultural den service sectors dominate Awash basin ein economy, plus de latter dey prevail for de large urban center of Addis Ababa insyd. Agriculture dey dominate water use (about 89% of total water use for de basin insyd) den dem expect to continue to be de basis give economic growth for de coming years insyd. Crop production for particular insyd be a major component of de basin ein economy den dem see rapid growth for recent years insyd, plus de value of output dey expand by 7.9% per year for real terms insyd between 2004 den 2014. As of 2012, de total irrigated area of de basin dey less dan 2% of de total area under cultivation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;   

Forestry dey hardly exist insyd de Awash River basin, plus a few exceptions of small eucalyptus plantations. Outside of Awash National Park de open den woody savannas dey almost completely cultivated plus crops. Dis especially dey account give all escarpment terraces.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Thereby de scattered tree cover remain similar to de primary state of de savannas, while crops replace de grass layer. Only highest altitudes dey still show woodlands dem connect. Dem carry out partly reforestation for no cultivable altitudes plus secondary coniferous forests. De cultivated crops be (endemic) teff, maize, sorghum, beans den vegetables.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;         

Pastures dey hardly exist wey agriculture dey possible. De cattle graze for field edges top den waysides den for steep escarpments top. Dis be one major reason give erosion, sekof dem partly destroy vegetation cover. Stubble-grazing be a common practice for de Awash basin insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Poesen |first2=Jean |last3=Moeyersons |first3=Jan |last4=Haile |first4=Mitiku |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |date=2008-04-30 |title=Dynamics of soil erosion rates and controlling factors in the Northern Ethiopian Highlands – towards a sediment budget |journal=[[Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]] |language=en |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=695–711 |bibcode=2008ESPL...33..695N |doi=10.1002/esp.1569 |hdl=1854/LU-416185 |issn=1096-9837 |hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;            

Recurrent extreme wet den dry weather events challenge economic activities for de basin insyd. De large portion of rural poor engage for rainfed agriculture insyd for de drought-prone marginal lands insyd wey dem locate for de middle den lower reaches of de basin insyd dey suffer greatly from drought wey dey recur.&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot; /&gt;             

Climate variability already get a severe impact for populations den economic productivity top for de Awash basin insyd. Severe droughts for de basin lead to a significant depression of crop yields den death of livestock, wey dey result for increase for food insecurity insyd. Dem estimate a modest (5%) decrease for rainfall insyd to reduce de basin ein gross domestic product (GDP) 5%, plus a 10% decrease for agricultural productivity insyd. Humanitarian assistance requests be relatively common sekof climate shocks, such as de 2015/2016 El Niño events wey result for a severe drought insyd den a humanitarian response dey target ova 10 million people nationally, plus many priority districts locate for de Awash basin insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot; /&gt;

==== Pollution ====
[[File:The Awash River.jpg|thumb|De Awash River at Sodere, Ethiopia (2014)]]Municipal den industrial wastewater treatment plants dey scant den inefficient for de Awash River basin insyd. Wey dem exist, demma effluents (often dem treat am poorly) dem channel am into nearby streams, thus polluting dem.&lt;ref name=&quot;:8&quot; /&gt;

Growing industrialization den urbanization for de Awash River basin insyd severely damage de ecosystem sekof dem discharge de toxins into water bodies. De main sources of water pollution for de upper Awash River basin insyd dey come from industrial den urban wastes, agricultural runoff (pesticides, fertilizers), den sewage discharge. Both anthropogenic den geogenic activities dey contribute to de observed water quality degradation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; De term ''geogenic'' dey refer to naturally occurring contamination thru tectonic, clay, volcanic ash, den sand weathering phenomena.    

Heavy metal pollution for de surface water insyd becam a growing concern give de environment den people ein health.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; Polluting industries for de Awash River basin insyd dey include tanneries, paint factories, slaughterhouses, textiles, breweries, soft drink factories, sugar factories, hospitals, den pharmaceuticals. Wastewater dey enter de river from cities such as Addis Ababa, Awash 7 Kilo, Ambo, Sebeta, Bishoftu, Gelan, Adama, Modjo. Agricultural runoff fi be a cause of heavy metal pollution (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, U, den Zn) for aquatic bodies insyd, den industrial disposal sanso fi lead to high heavy metals concentrations such as As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Zn, den Pb concentrations.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt;

==== Water quality ====
A study of river water quality for 2023 insyd show dat high levels of heavy metals, such as Al, Mn, Mo, As, V, Fe, den Ba, dem exhibit am plus values of 1257 μg/L, 626.8 μg/L, 116.7 μg/L, 61.2 μg/L, 100.5 μg/L, 1082.7 μg/L, den 211.7 μg/L, respectively. Among 20 heavy metals wey dem analyze, 20% of de parameters within de study area dey above de WHO limit give drinking water; Al (157 μg/L), V (100.5 μg/L), Fe (1082.7 μg/L), Mn (626.8 μg/L), den Mo (103.8 μg/L) dem exhibit am at sites along de river system.&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot; /&gt; Dis be a problem as water from dem use de river as a source of drinking water den irrigation. 

De presence of emerging organic contaminants for de river water insyd dey anoda concern. Dem substances dey include pharmaceuticals, personal care products, industrial byproducts, den agricultural chemicals. Dem detect high levels of emerging organic contaminants for a study insyd for 2023 insyd for de river den shallow groundwater systems insyd: &quot;Dem detect pesticides, veterinary drugs, artificial sweeteners, den personal care products for samples from all sources insyd (surface, ground, den tap water). Dem find endocrine disruptors den equine drugs for both surface den groundwater sources insyd.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Hailu |first1=Kidist |last2=Kebede |first2=Seifu |last3=Birhanu |first3=Behailu |last4=Lapworth |first4=Dan |date=2024 |title=Tracing contaminants of emerging concern in the Awash River basin, Ethiopia |journal=Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies |language=en |volume=54 |bibcode=2024JHyRS..5401869H |doi=10.1016/j.ejrh.2024.101869 |doi-access=free |article-number=101869}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De river water den shallow groundwater connect intrinsically. Contaminants for de river water insyd fi pollute de groundwater den vice versa. A study for 2024 insyd investigate de characteristics of groundwater for a region of Middle Awash insyd give multipurpose use. E find say dem find contaminants such as arsenic, vanadium, gallium, lithium, rubidium, chromium, manganese, copper, den zinc enrich for groundwater insyd near Lake Beseka, wey geogenic activities, volcanic ash, den weathering of rocks majorly influence am.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt; Ova half of de groundwater sources dey unsuitable give drinking, wey e pose significant health risks to local communities dat rely heavily for dem sources top sekof limited access to clean surface water.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;         

For de Middle Awash Basin insyd den de country at large, de water quality of most groundwater sources dem monitor den regulate am inadequately den insufficiently. Consequently, areas within de upstream Awash Basin, particularly around Modjo, Bishoftu, Gelan, den Addis Ababa, dey highly susceptible to unregulated abstraction den pollution of groundwater.&lt;ref name=&quot;:7&quot; /&gt;

== Paleontology ==
Humans live for de valley of de Awash insyd almost since de beginning of de species. Dem find numerous pre-human hominid remains for de Middle Awash insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;HS&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |date=2001-07-12 |title=Late Miocene hominids from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=178–181 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..178H |doi=10.1038/35084063 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=11449272 |s2cid=4432082}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remains wey dem find for de Awash Valley insyd dey date from de late Miocene, Pliocene, de early Pleistocene (roughly 5.6–2.5 million years ago), den dey include fossils of many Australopithecines, wey dey include &quot;Lucy&quot;, de most famous individual Australopithecus.&lt;ref name=&quot;unesco&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;HS&quot; /&gt; Oda extinct hominids wey dem discover at de site dey include ''Homo erectus'' den ''Ardipithecus''.   

== History ==
For de 16th century insyd, dem bell Awash River de great Dir river den dey lay for de country of de Muslims insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=ʻArabfaqīh |first=Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YgIwAQAAIAAJ&amp;q=conquest+abyssinia |title=The conquest of Abyssinia: 16th century |date=2003-01-01 |publisher=Tsehai Publishers &amp; Distributors |isbn=978-0-9723172-6-9 |location=Hollywood |pages=124 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Koka Dam, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De Koka Dam before dem complete am 1960, dey creating de Koka Reservoir]]

==== 20th Century ====
De first European wey trace de course of de Awash to ein end for de Aussa oasis insyd be Wilfred Thesiger for 1933/1934 insyd, wey start at de city of Awash, wey follow de river ein course to ein final end for Lake Abhebad insyd, den continue ein expedition east to Tadjoura. (Although de explorer L. M. Nesbitt follow parts of de course of de Awash for 1928 insyd, he turn away from de river at Asaita den proceed north thru de Afar Depression to de Red Sea.&lt;ref&gt;As related in his memoirs, ''Hell-Hole of Creation: The Exploration of Abyssinian Danakil'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1935)&lt;/ref&gt;)

For 1960 insyd, dem complete de Koka Dam across de Awash River at a point around {{convert|75|km}} from Addis Ababa. Plus ein opening, e becam a major source of hydroelectric power for de area insyd. De resulting freshwater lake, Lake Gelila (wey dem sanso know am as Koka Reservoir), get an area of about {{convert|180|km2}}. Increasing sedimentation threaten both lake den dam.   

== Society den culture ==
[[File:Awash river.png|thumb|De Awash River, wey camel caravan ford am, a nineteenth century wey dey engrave (for 1852 insyd)]]De valley of de Awash from about 9° N downstream be de traditional home of de Afar pippoe den Issa Somali clan.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Markakis |first=John |date=2003 |title=Anatomy of a Conflict: Afar &amp; Ise Ethiopia |journal=Review of African Political Economy |volume=30 |issue=97 |pages=445–453 |doi=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |hdl=10.1080/03056244.2003.9659777 |issn=0305-6244 |jstor=4006987 |s2cid=153511308 |hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem include de valley of de Awash as part of de Fatagar, Ifat, den Shewa.&lt;ref&gt;Richard Pankhurst, ''The Ethiopian Borderlands'' (Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1997), p. 61&lt;/ref&gt; 

Dem name de Awash International Bank  after de Awash River.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=1 November 2022 |title=assessment of credit risk management policies |url=http://197.156.93.91/bitstream/123456789/4316/1/Thesis%20Meseret%20Zelalem.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Make you sanso see ==

* Adama–Awash Expressway
* Awash–Weldiya Railway
* List of rivers of Ethiopia
* List of fossil sites ''(plus link directory)''
* List of hominina (hominid) fossils ''(plus images)''
* List of most polluted rivers
* List of World Heritage Sites for Ethiopia insyd

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Awash River| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Great Rift Valley]]
[[Category:Prehistoric Afar Triangle]]</text>
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De '''Tana River''' be de longest river for Kenya insyd, dem sanso bell am Sagana River for de Mt Kenya region insyd den dey give ein name to de Tana River County.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name&quot;&gt;Nakaegawa T., Wachana C. and KAKUSHIN Team-3 Modeling Group. (2012). &quot;First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century,&quot; [https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_pdf ''Hydrological Research Letters'', 6, pp. 29–34].&lt;/ref&gt; E be ca. 1000&amp;#x20;km long, ein catchment dey cover ca. 100,000&amp;#x20;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; den dem fi divide am into de headwaters den de lower Tana wey dey consist of de section downstream of Kora wey de river dey flow give ca. 700&amp;#x20;km thru semi-den plains.&lt;ref&gt;(Omengo, Fred &amp; Geeraert, Naomi &amp; Bouillon, Steven &amp; Govers, Gerard. (2016). Sediment deposition patterns in a tropical floodplain, Tana River, Kenya. Catena. 143. 57–69. 10.1016/j.catena.2016.03.024.) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301291119_Sediment_deposition_patterns_in_a_tropical_floodplain_Tana_River_Kenya]&lt;/ref&gt; Ein tributaries dey include sam major rivers for de Central Region insyd like Thika, Ragati River, Nyamindi, Thiba, Mathioya, Chania, Thuci den Mutonga. De river dey rise from Mt Kenya for Nyeri insyd. E dey initially run southwest before e turn south around de massif of Mount Kenya den meanders all de way up to de Indian Ocean.

Below de dams, de river dey turn north den dey flow along de north-south boundary between de Meru den North Kitui den Bisanadi, Kora den Rabole National Reserves. For de reserves insyd, de river dey turn east, den then south east. E dey pass thru de towns of Garissa, Hola den Garsen before e enter de Indian Ocean at de Ungwana Bay-Kipini area, at de end of a river delta dat dey reach roughly 30&amp;#x20;km upstream from de river mouth einself.&lt;ref name=&quot;The Pokomo tribe of Tana River County call it Saana name&quot; /&gt; E dey run thru a semi-arid area den dey irrigate de land wey dey surround dem.   

Annual flow dey above 5,000 million cubic meters (MCM) fpr average top, but dey vary substantially both within den across years, den dey include two flood seasons each year. Between 1944 den 1978, average total flow (at Garissa) dey 6,105 MCM, wey e vary from only 1,789 MCM for 1949 insyd to 13,342 MCM for 1968 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;Hughes, F. (1990). &quot;The Influence of Flooding Regimes on Forest Distribution and Composition in the Tana River Floodplain, Kenya,&quot; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2404295 ''Journal of Applied Ecology'', 27(2), pp. 475–491].&lt;/ref&gt; During de 1982–1996 period, annual flow remain above 5,000 MCM as well.&lt;ref&gt;Maingi, J.K. and Marsh, S.E. (2002). &quot;Quantifying hydrologic impacts following dam construction along the Tana River, Kenya,&quot; [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140196300908607 ''Journal of Arid Environments'', 50, pp. 53–79].&lt;/ref&gt; De following major irrigation projects draw water from de river: Bura Irrigation den Settlement Project, Tana Irrigation Scheme den de Tana Delta Irrigation Project.&lt;ref&gt;Government of Kenya 2007. ''Kenya Vision 2030: a Globally Competitive and Prosperous Kenya''.&lt;/ref&gt;      

Der be evidence wey dey grow say [[climate change]] go disrupt de Tana River den ein surrounding habitats.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Rhosanna L. M. |last2=Warren |first2=Rachel F. |last3=Price |first3=Jeff T. |date=2021-07-21 |title=Addressing risks to biodiversity arising from a changing climate: The need for ecosystem restoration in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=16 |issue=7 |bibcode=2021PLoSO..1654879J |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0254879 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294490 |pmid=34288974 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0254879}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Muthuwatta |first1=Lal |last2=Sood |first2=Aditya |last3=McCartney |first3=Matthew |last4=Silva |first4=Nishchitha Sandeepana |last5=Opere |first5=Alfred |date=2018-06-05 |title=Understanding the Impacts of Climate Change in the Tana River Basin, Kenya |url=https://piahs.copernicus.org/articles/379/37/2018/ |journal=Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences |language=English |publisher=Copernicus GmbH |volume=379 |pages=37–42 |bibcode=2018PIAHS.379...37M |doi=10.5194/piahs-379-37-2018 |hdl=10568/96602 |s2cid=51999648 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last1=Nakaegawa|first1=Tosiyuki|last2=Wachana|first2=Calistus|date=2012|title=First impact assessment of hydrological cycle in the Tana River Basin, Kenya, under a changing climate in the late 21st Century|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hrl/6/0/6_0_29/_article|journal=Hydrological Research Letters|volume=6|pages=29–34|doi=10.3178/hrl.6.29|bibcode=2012HRL.....6...29N|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Dams ==
Dem construct a series of hydroelectric dams (de Seven Forks Hydro Stations anaa de Seven Forks Scheme) along de river. Dem dey include (for order of cascading insyd) de Masinga Dam (wey dem commission for 1981 insyd plus an installed capacity of 40MW), de Kamburu Dam (1974, 94.20MW), de Gitaru Dam (1978, 225.25MW), de Kindaruma Dam (1968, 72MW) den de Kiambere Dam (1988, 168MW).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=W.M. |last2=Hughes |first2=F.M.R. |year=1986 |title=The environmental effects of dam construction in tropical Africa: Impacts and planning procedures |journal=Geoforum |volume=17 |issue=3–4 |pages=403–410 |doi=10.1016/0016-7185(86)90007-2}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Galadin, H., Bidault, N., Stephen, L., Watkins, B., Dilley, M., and Mutunga, N. |year=2006 |title=Reducing the Impacts of Floods through Early Warning and Preparedness: A Pilot Study for Kenya |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTDISMGMT/Resources/0821363328.pdf |access-date=2012-06-23 |work=Arnold, Chen, Deichmann, Dilley, Lerner-Lam, Pullen, and Trohanis. Natural Disaster Hotspots Case Studies. |publisher=The World Bank}}&lt;/ref&gt; en &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=KenGen |url=https://www.kengen.co.ke/index.php/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=207:seven-forks-hydro-stations&amp;catid=33:power-stations}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hydropower Stations in Kenya - energypedia |url=https://energypedia.info/wiki/Hydropower_Stations_in_Kenya}}&lt;/ref&gt; De Masinga Reservoir den de Kiambere Reservoir, wey de Masinga den Kiambere dams create respectively, dey serve a dual purpose: hydro-electric power (HEP) generation den agricultural irrigation. Dem use de oda three exclusively give HEP generation. A 2003 study report say de series of dams along de Tana River supply two-thirds of Kenya ein electrical needs. Many pippoe believe dis river get groundwater underneath am, but e no get.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=May 2003 |title=Tana River, Kenya: integrating downstream values into hydropower planning |url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/casestudy06tana.pdf |access-date=2012-06-24 |work=Case Studies in Wetland Valuation #6 |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem then supply de electricity to de national grid system den distribute am countrywide thru a series of substations, transformers den cables.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=KenGen increases hydropower output |url=https://www.nation.co.ke/news/KenGen-increases-hydropower-output/1056-4521358-dtimtu/index.html |access-date=2020-02-21 |website=Daily Nation |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Eponyms ==
Dem name Two species of African reptiles after de Tana River: ''Mochlus tanae'' den ''Myriopholis tanae''.&lt;ref&gt;Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael; Grayson, Michael (2011). ''The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. {{ISBN|978-1-4214-0135-5}}. (&quot;Tana&quot;, p. 260).&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

==Read further==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20210121180831/https://www.hydrology.nl/mainnews/1-latest-news/377-securing-water-and-land-in-the-tana-basin-kenya-a-resource-book-for-water-managers-and-practitioners.html Securing water and land in the Tana Basin, Kenya: a resource book for water managers and practitioners]
* &quot;And the River Flowed On; An Adventurous Journey Down the Tana River&quot; by James Meester 1958

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20220309051435/http://kenweb.or.ke/index.php/projects/tana-delta.html &quot;Tana River Delta&quot;]. ''The Kenya Wetlands Biodiversity Research Team''. Retrieved 2026-06-01.
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Tana River (Kenya)| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of Kenya]]
[[Category:African drainage basins of de Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Garissa County]]
[[Category:Meru County]]
[[Category:Tana River County]]
[[Category:Mount Kenya]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Rufiji River</title>
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De '''Rufiji River''' dey lie entirely within [[Tanzania]]. E be largest den longest river for de country insyd, wey de confluence of de Kilombero den de Luwegu river form am. E dey approximately {{convert|600|km|mi}} long, plus a source for southwestern Tanzania insyd, wey e terminate at de Indian Ocean, opposite Mafia Island, for Pwani Region insyd. Ein principal tributary be de Great Ruaha River. E dey navigable give approximately {{convert|100|km|mi}}.

De Rufiji river dey approximately {{convert|200|km|mi}} south of Dar es Salaam. De river ein delta dey contain de largest mangrove forest for eastern Africa insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=&quot;Downstream and Coastal Impacts of Damming and Water Abstraction in Africa&quot;, ''Environmental Management'', authored by Maria Snoussi, Johnson Kitheka, Yohanna Shaghude, Alioune Kane, Russell Arthurton, Martin Le Tissier, and Hassan Virji, 2007, volume 39, page 589 |url=http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821041140/http://bscw-app1.let.ethz.ch/pub/nj_bscw.cgi/d11576989/Snoussi_2007_Downstream_and.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-21 |access-date=2015-10-18}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== History ==
A branch of ancient sea routes lead down de East African coast wey dem bell &quot;Azania&quot; by de Greeks den Romans for de 1st century CE insyd as dem describe for de Periplus of de Erythraean Sea insyd (den, very probably, Chinese: 澤散 for de 3rd century insyd by de Chinese),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2004 |title=The Peoples of the West |url=http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html |access-date=2009-04-18 |work=from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢 |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |translator=Hill, John E.}}&lt;/ref&gt; at least as far as de port dem know to de Romans as Rhapta, wey dem probably locate for de delta of de Rufiji River insyd for modern Tanzania insyd.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea.&quot; Felix A. Chami. In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp. 93-104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.&lt;/ref&gt;

During de First World War, from October 1914 to July 1915, de river delta be de scene of a protracted naval operation. Dem be de attempts, den later achievement, by de Royal Navy to neutralize den destroy de German cruiser ''Königsberg''. 

== Basin ==
De catchment basin give de Rufiji River complex be {{Convert|177429|sqkm|sqmi|0}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |author=Arvidson, Anders |display-authors=etal |date=May 2009 |title=Initial Assessment of Socioeconomic and Environmental Risks and Opportunities of Large-scale Biofuels Production in the Rufiji District |url=http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120910175844/http://www.tabef.or.tz/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Risk-Assessment-of-SEKABscluster-approach-in-Rufiji-District-2805091.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-10 |access-date=2015-10-18 |publisher=SEKAB BioEnergy (T) Ltd |page=23}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Rufiji Basin catchment area
!River
!Area
km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
!Percentage
of area
!Percentage
of run-off
|-
!Great Ruaha
| align=&quot;right&quot; |     83,970
| align=&quot;right&quot; |47
| align=&quot;right&quot; |15
|-
!Kilombero
| align=&quot;right&quot; |39,990
| align=&quot;right&quot; |23
| align=&quot;right&quot; |62
|-
!Luwegu
| align=&quot;right&quot; |26,300
| align=&quot;right&quot; |15
| align=&quot;right&quot; |18
|-
!Rufiji (lower river)
| align=&quot;right&quot; |27,160
| align=&quot;right&quot; |15
| align=&quot;right&quot; |5
|-
!
| align=&quot;right&quot; |
| align=&quot;right&quot; |
| align=&quot;right&quot; |
|-
!Total
| align=&quot;right&quot; |      177,429
| align=&quot;right&quot; |100
| align=&quot;right&quot; |100
|}

== Hydroelectric Project ==
Tanzania presido John Magufuli approve de construction of a controversial&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Hoag |first1=Heather J. |last2=Öhman |first2=May-Britt |year=2008 |title=Turning water into power: Debates over the Development of Tanzania's Rufiji River Basin, 1945-1985 |url=https://repository.usfca.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&amp;context=hist |journal=Technology and Culture |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=624–651 |doi=10.1353/tech.0.0061 |pmid=18831291 |s2cid=27222691 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Siderius |first=Christian |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/46818/2021_Book_ClimateRiskInAfrica.pdf?sequence=1#page=114 |title=Climate Risk in Africa: Adaptation and Resilience |publisher=Palgrave Macmillian |year=2021 |isbn=978-3-030-61159-0 |editor1-last=Conway |editor1-first=Declan |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |pages=93–113 |chapter=Chapter 6: High Stakes Decisions Under Uncertainty: Dams, Development and Climate Change in the Rufiji River Basin |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61160-6_6 |display-authors=etal |editor2-last=Vincent |editor2-first=Katharine |s2cid=234340454}}&lt;/ref&gt; new dam den power station for de river top at Stiegler ein Gorge.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|title=Tanzania to Construct Hydropower Plant on National Reserve|newspaper=[[Voice of America]]|date=July 26, 2019|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/africa_tanzania-construct-hydropower-plant-national-reserve/6172693.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem expect de power station to provide 2,100 megawatts of electricity, more dan triple Tanzania ein existing hydropower of 562 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Tairo|first=Apolinari|date=July 26, 2019|title=Tanzania launches Rufiji power plant|newspaper=[[The EastAfrican]]|url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/Construction-of-Tanzania-hydro-plant-begins/2560-5211880-ig941w/index.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Construction of de dam start for July 26, 2019 top, den dem expect am to be ready by 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;Takouleu&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|last=Takouleu|first=Jean Marie|date=24 July 2019|title=Stiegler's Gorge dam construction begins on July 26|publisher=Afrik 21|url=https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725050527/https://www.afrik21.africa/en/tanzania-stieglers-gorge-dam-construction-begins-on-july-26/|archive-date=25 July 2019|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Gallery ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River_Selous_Game_Reserve.jpg|Sun wey dey poke thru de clouds along de river.
File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rufiji_River,_Selous.jpg|Rufiji River at [[:en:Selous_Game_Reserve|Selous Game Reserve]].
File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ElefantenAmRufiji.jpg|Elephants along de river.
File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Along_the_Rufiji_River_in_Selous_Game_Reserve_(3)_(28420159914).jpg|De river bank
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== Read further ==

* [[:en:Felix_A._Chami|Chami, F. A.]] 1999. &quot;The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland.&quot; ''Azania'' Vol. XXXIV 1999, pp.&amp;#x20;1–10.
* Chami, Felix A. 2002. &quot;The Egypto-Graeco-Romans and Panchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea.&quot; In: ''Society for Arabian Studies Monographs 2 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region''. Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002, pp.&amp;#x20;93–104. Edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. {{ISBN|1-84171-622-7}}.
* Miller, J. Innes. 1969. Chapter 8: &quot;The Cinnamon Route&quot;. In: ''The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire''. Oxford: University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-814264-1}}
* Ray, Himanshu Prabha, ed. 1999. ''Archaeology of Seafaring: The Indian Ocean in the Ancient Period''. Pragati Publications, Delhi.

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120813015647/http://www.waterandnature.org/en/resources/publications/thematic-collection/facts-figures/watersheds-world Map of de Rufiji River basin at Water Resources eAtlas]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Rufiji River| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of Tanzania]]</text>
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    <title>Gambia River</title>
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De '''Gambia River''' (dem formerly know am as de '''River Gambra''', French: ''Fleuve Gambie'', Portuguese: ''Rio Gâmbia'') be a major river for [[West Africa]] insyd, wey e run {{convert|1120|km|mi}} from de Fouta Djallon plateau for north [[Guinea]] insyd westward thru [[Senegal]] den [[The Gambia]] to de [[Atlantic Ocean]] at de city of Banjul. E dey navigable give about half dat length.

Dem strongly associate de river plus The Gambia, de smallest country for mainland Africa insyd, wey occupy de downstream half of de river den ein two banks.

== Geography ==
De Gambia River dey run a total length of {{convert|1120|km}}. From de Fouta Djallon, e dey run northwest into de Tambacounda Region of Senegal, e dey flow thru de Parc National du Niokolo Koba, then de Nieri Ko den Koulountou join am den dey pass thru de Barrakunda Falls before e enter de Gambia at Koina. At dis point, de river dey  run generally west, but for a meandering course insyd plus a number of oxbows, den about {{convert|100|km}} from ein mouth e dey gradually widen, to ova {{convert|10|km}} wide wey e dey meet de sea.

=== Crossings ===
Der dey several bridges wey dey cross de river. De largest den furthest downriver be de Senegambia Bridge between de towns of Farafenni den Soma for De Gambia insyd. For January 2019 insyd wey dem open, e dey provide a link between de stretches of de Trans-Gambia Highway for de North den South Bank of de river top. E sanso dey provide an expedited connection give Senegalese trucks wey dey travel to den from de isolated Casamance province. De bridge dey {{convert|1.9|km}} long den dey replace a previously-unreliable vehicle ferry. Dem levy a toll for vehicle crossings top.

Der be sanso bridges for de Upper River Region of The Gambia at Basse Santa Su den Fatoto insyd dat open for October 2021 insyd,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Ma|first1=Jianchun|title=Building the Friendship Bridges towards a Shared Future of China and The Gambia|url=https://thepoint.gm/africa/gambia/opinion/commentary-building-the-friendship-bridges-towards-a-shared-future-of-china-and-the-gambia|access-date=3 August 2022|agency=The Point|date=13 Oct 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; as well as a bridge for Senegal at Gouloumbou insyd.

Ferry do all oda crossings, wey dey include a primary crossing between Banjul den Barra at de mouth of de river, anaa by small boat.

==== Bolongs ====
Dem commonly refer small tributaries for de lower stretches of de river top to as ''bolongs'' anaa ''bolons.'' Dem dey include Sami Bolong, wey e divide de northern halves of de Central River Division den Upper River Division, Bintang Bolong dey divide de Lower River Division from de West Coast Division, as well as smaller bodies of water such as de Sofancama, Jurunku, Kutang, Nianji, den Sandugu bolongs.&lt;ref&gt;Gailey.&lt;/ref&gt;

== History ==
De earliest inhabitants of de area wey dem know along de Gambia River dey include de Jola, de Balante, de Bainuk, den de Manjak.&lt;ref&gt;Buhnen, 49.&lt;/ref&gt; De Carthaginian explorer Hanno de Navigator go dey reach de Gambia during ein expedition for de fifth century BC insyd.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Kunta Kinteh Island and Related Sites&quot;. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Accessed 14/8/22.&lt;/ref&gt;

According to oral tradition, Tiramakhan Traore lead large numbers of Mandinka immigrants from [[Mali]], one of Sundiata ein top generals, cam to de region for de 14th century insyd. Sam modern historians, howeva, posit dat relatively few immigrants, primarily ''jula'' traders, instead lead a gradual socio-cultural shift towards identification plus de higher-status Mandinka ethnicity den de ruling Mali Empire.&lt;ref&gt;Wright, &quot;Beyond Migration&quot;, 385.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Buhnen, 51.&lt;/ref&gt; Dem ''jula'' make de Gambia an important part of de wider West African trade network, wey dem exchange salt, shellfish, iron, cloth, ivory, beeswax, gold, slaves, leather den more as far as de [[Niger River]] den beyond.&lt;ref&gt;Wright, &quot;Darbo Jula&quot;, 33.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Van Hoven.&lt;/ref&gt;

Alvise Cadamosto, a Venetian explorer wey dey work give de Portuguese, becam de first European wey sail to de Gambia for 1455 insyd, wey e refer to de river as de ''Gambra'' anaa ''Cambra''. Oda sources from dat period dey record names such as ''Guambea'', ''Guabu'', den ''Gambu'' (possibly a conflation, at de time anaa for later historiography insyd, of de name of de river den de kingdom of Kaabu).&lt;ref&gt;Buhnen, 71.&lt;/ref&gt; While merchants of various European countries trade for de Gambia river top give two centuries after Cadamosto, de Duchy of Courland dem Semigallia be de first wey establish a permanent base, for wat dem am St Andrew's Island for 1651 insyd. After e take control of de island den e rename am 'St James' for 1661 insyd, de English vye plus de French give commercial domination of de river give de next century den a half.&lt;ref&gt;Gailey, 3.&lt;/ref&gt;

During dis period, kingdoms along de river Gambia include Niumi (wey dem sanso know am Barra), Niani, Kantora, Jimara, Kiang, Badibu, Fuladu, Tumana, den Wuli, all of wey lend demma names to districts of De Gambia today. Major posts wey dem dey trade for top anaa near near de river include Barra, Albreda, Juffure, James Island (rydee a [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Site), Tendaba, Joar, MacCarthy Island, Fattatenda, den Sutukoba.        

Around de turn of de 18th century, de Scottish explorer Mungo Park travel up de Gambia twice for ein way to de Niger River top.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Washington |first=Capt. |date=1838 |title=Some Account of Mohammedu-Siseï, a Mandingo, of Nyáni-Marú on the Gambia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1797825 |journal=The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London |volume=8 |pages=448–454 |doi=10.2307/1797825 |issn=0266-6235}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De Anglo-French Convention of 1889 delimit de borders of de Gambia Protectorate den de colony of Senegal as e dey be ten kilometers north den south of de river as far inland as Yarbutenda (near modern-day Koina), plus a 10km radius to mark de eastern border wey dem measure from de center of town.&lt;ref&gt;Gailey, 27.&lt;/ref&gt; De British therefore control de river as far as e dey navigable by sea-going vessels. Though widely dem see as temporary at de time, de borders wey dem set for 1889 insyd remain unchanged eva since.&lt;ref&gt;Gailey, 28.&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Flora den fauna ==
De aquatic fauna for de Gambia River basin insyd, dem closely associate am plus dat of de [[Senegal River]] basin, den dem usually combine de two under a single ecoregion wey dem know am de Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Although de species richness dey moderately high, only three species of frogs den one fish dey endemic to dis ecoregion.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=509: Senegal – Gambia |url=http://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/senegal_gambia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030202252/http://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/senegal_gambia |archive-date=30 October 2016 |access-date=30 October 2016 |website=Freshwater Ecoregions of the World}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Women harvest oysters from de River Gambia den use am to make oyster stew, a traditional dish for de cuisine of Gambia insyd. 

== Gallery ==
&lt;gallery mode=&quot;packed&quot; heights=&quot;style=&amp;quot;text-align:left&amp;quot;&quot;&gt;
File:Map_of_the_River_Gambra_(now_the_Gambia)_1732.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_the_River_Gambra_(now_the_Gambia)_1732.JPG|Map of de River Gambra (rydee de Gambia) 1732
File:Gambia_satellite_fires.jpeg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gambia_satellite_fires.jpeg|De western portion of de Gambia River, wey dem see from space. De line dey show de border of De Gambia.
File:RiverGambia_Janjanbureh_20190122_Upstream.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RiverGambia_Janjanbureh_20190122_Upstream.jpg|Upstream view of de river, near Janjanbureh Island
File:RiverGambia_Janjanbureh_20190122_Riverbank.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RiverGambia_Janjanbureh_20190122_Riverbank.jpg|Bank of de river, near Janjanbureh
File:RiverGambia_Janjanbureh_20190122_Ferry.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RiverGambia_Janjanbureh_20190122_Ferry.jpg|Ferry wey dey cross de river, at Janjanbureh
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== Bibliography ==

* Bühnen, Stephan. &quot;Place Names as an Historical Source: An Introduction with Examples from Southern Senegambia and Germany.&quot; History in Africa, vol. 19, 1992. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3171995.
* {{cite book |last1=Gailey |first1=Harry |title=Historical dictionary of the Gambia |date=1987 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=0810820013 |location=Metuchen, N.J.}}
* Gray, J.M. (1940). History of the Gambia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* {{cite journal |last1=van Hoven |first1=Ed |date=1996 |title=Local Tradition or Islamic Precept? The Notion of zakāt in Wuli (Eastern Senegal) (La notion de &quot;zakāt&quot; au Wuli (Sénégal)) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4392734 |journal=Cahiers d'Études Africaines |volume=36 |issue=144 |pages=703–722 |doi=10.3406/cea.1996.1863 |jstor=4392734 |url-access=subscription |access-date=2 December 2020}}
* Wright, Donald R. &quot;Beyond Migration and Conquest: Oral Traditions and Mandinka Ethnicity in Senegambia.&quot; History in Africa, vol. 12, 1985. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3171727.
* Wright, Donald R. &quot;Darbo Jula: The Role of a Mandinka Jula Clan in the Long-Distance Trade of the Gambia River and Its Hinterland.&quot; African Economic History, no. 3, 1977, pp. 33–45. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3601138. Accessed 27 Jul. 2022. 

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
*[http://www.accessgambia.com/information/gambia-river-info.html Gambia River Information &amp; Photos]

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Gambia River| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of Guinea]]
[[Category:Rivers of the Gambia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Senegal]]
[[Category:International rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Banjul]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Lake Albert (Africa)</title>
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[[File:20230601 shrub Lake albert.jpg|thumb|'''20230601 shrub Lake albert''']]
'''Lake Albert''', wey dem originally know am '''Lake Mwitanzige''' by de Banyoro, '''Nam Ovoyo Bonyo''' by de Alur, den temporarily as '''Lake Mobutu Sese Seko''', be a lake wey dem locate for [[Uganda]] insyd den de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]. E be Africa ein sixth-largest lake den de second biggest of Uganda ein Great Lakes.

== Geography ==
Dem locate Lake Albert for de border between Uganda den de Democratic Republic of the Congo top. E be de northernmost of de chain of lakes for de Albertine Rift insyd, de western branch of de East African Rift. 

E dey about {{convert|160|km|0}} long den {{convert|30|km|0}} across at ein widest, plus a maximum depth of {{convert|51|m|0}}, den a surface elevation of {{convert|619|m|0}} above sea level. 

[[File:Shoebill-Lake-Albert-1.jpg|thumb|'''Shoebill-Lake-Albert''']]Lake Albert dey part of de complicated system of de upper [[Nile]]. Ein main sources be de [[White Nile]], wey dey ultimately come from [[Lake Victoria]] to de southeast, den de Semliki River, wey dey issue from [[Lake Edward]] to de southwest. De water of de Victoria Nile dey much less saline dan dat of Lake Albert. De lake ein outlet, at ein northernmost tip, be de Albert Nile section of de [[White Nile]]. De river dey later becam known as de Mountain Nile wen ein course dey enter [[South Sudan]].

At de southern end of de lake, wey de Semliki dey come insyd, der be swamps. De Rwenzori Mountains dey to de south of de lake, den to de northwest be de Blue Mountains. De few settlements along de shore dey include Butiaba denPakwach.

== Water characteristics ==
[[File:Lake Albert Channel, Uganda (15192094327).jpg|thumb|'''Lake Albert Channel, Uganda (15192094327)''']]Unlike de very deep [[Lake Malawi]], [[Lake Tanganyika]] den Lake Kivu, Lake Albert ein water temperature dey relatively stable thruout, typically around 27–29 °C (81–84 °F), den even ein deeper sections dey contain oxygen.&lt;ref name=&quot;Green2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Green, J. |title=The Nile |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=263–286 |chapter=Nilotic Lakes of the Western Rift}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Lake Albert view from the shoreline in Buhuka, Kikuube District 01.jpg|thumb|'''Lake Albert view from de shoreline for Buhuka, Kikuube District insyd''']]De water get a pH of around anaa just below 9 den an electric conductivity of around 720–780 μS/cm. Dem be both very high give a freshwater lake but nevertheless lower dan Lake Edward.&lt;ref name=&quot;Talling2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Talling, J.F. |title=The Nile |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=367–394 |chapter=Physical and Chemical Water Characteristics}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Animals ==
Lake Albert be home to chaw aquatic den semi-aquatic animals like hippopotamuses, Uganda kob antelopes, Nile crocodiles, Nile monitors, African softshell turtles, Central African mud turtles, Williams' mud turtles, various semi-aquatic snakes den various frogs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Green2009&quot; /&gt; Water birds dey numerous den dey include pelicans, herons den de rare shoebill.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ramsar Sites |url=https://www.ugandawildlife.org/wildlife-a-conservation-2/conservation/ramsar-sites |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731054146/https://ugandawildlife.org/wildlife-a-conservation-2/conservation/ramsar-sites |archive-date=31 July 2019 |access-date=21 September 2019 |publisher=ugandawildlife.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Fish den fishing ====
Der be 55 fish species for Lake Albert insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wandera2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Wandera, S.B. |author2=J.S. Balirwa |year=2010 |title=Fish species diversity and relative abundance in Lake Albert—Uganda |journal=Aquatic Ecosystem Health &amp; Management |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=284–293 |bibcode=2010AqEHM..13..284W |doi=10.1080/14634988.2010.507120 |s2cid=84735862}}&lt;/ref&gt; Except give Nile crocodiles, de largest predator for de lake insyd be de Nile perch (native; unlike for oda Rift Valley lakes insyd wey introduce den invasive). Oda large predatory fish dey include de elongate tigerfish, African tigerfish, marbled lungfish, cornish jack, ''Bagrus docmak'', African sharptooth catfish den vundu catfish.&lt;ref name=&quot;Green2009&quot; /&gt; In addition, der be important fisheries give de Nile tilapia, Niger barb, Albert lates, electric catfish den giraffe catfish dat dem use standard fishing methods catch'em,&lt;ref name=&quot;Wandera2011&quot; /&gt; den de small ''Brycinus nurse'' den ''Engraulicypris bredoi'' dat dem mainly use light fishing to catch'em.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=2009 |title=The Lake Albert light fishery |url=http://aquaticcommons.org/20316/ |access-date=21 September 2019 |publisher=National Fisheries Resources Research Institute (Uganda)}}&lt;/ref&gt; As much as 30% of de fish production for Uganda insyd be from Lake Albert.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wandera2011&quot; /&gt;    

Lake Albert get fewer endemics dan de oda [[African Great Lakes]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Witte2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author1=Witte, F. |title=The Nile |author2=M.J.P. van Oijen |author3=F.A. Sibbing |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=647–676 |chapter=Fish Fauna of the Nile}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although de Albert Nile–de section of de Nile dat dey leave Lake Albert—get several rapids for de Nimule region insyd,&lt;ref name=&quot;Dumont2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Dumont, H.J. |title=The Nile |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}&lt;/ref&gt; dem no effectively isolate de lake from de main Nile sections.&lt;ref name=&quot;Witte2009&quot; /&gt; For contrast insyd, Lake Edward (den ultimately Lake George), dem effectively isolate am from Lake Albert by de rapids for de Semliki River top, while Lake Kyoga (den ultimately [[Lake Victoria]]), dem effectively isolate am from Lake Albert by de Murchison Falls for de Victoria Nile top.&lt;ref name=&quot;Witte2009&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Dumont2009&quot; /&gt; As a consequence, most of Lake Albert ein fish dey widespread riverine species wey dem sanso find for de main Nile sections. Der be few haplochromine cichlids; a group wey be very diverse for oda Rift Valley lakes insyd. Of de six haplochromines for Lake Albert insyd, four be endemic (''Haplochromis albertianus'', ''H. avium'', ''H. bullatus'' den ''H. mahagiensis'') den dem sanso find two for de Nile insyd (''H. loati'' den ''Pseudocrenilabrus multicolor''). For comparison insyd, most of de more dan 60 haplochromines for Lake Edward–George insyd den most of de roughly 600 haplochromines for [[Lake Victoria]]–Kyoga insyd be endemic.&lt;ref name=&quot;Witte2009&quot; /&gt; De only oda endemic fish species for Lake Albert insyd be de small cyprinid ''Engraulicypris bredoi'' den de endangered Albert lates.&lt;ref name=&quot;Witte2009&quot; /&gt;

== History ==
De Banyoro den Batooro still know Lake Albert as '''Mwitanzige''', den '''Nam Ovoyo Bonyo''' by de Alur as well as oda pippoe wey inhabit de region give centuries before de colonial age. Dis name dey mean ‘locust killer’, from ''omwita'' ‘killer’ den ''enzige'' ‘locusts’ for de Runyoro language, den 'De Lake wey defeat de locusts' for de Alur language insyd, from ''Nam'', 'Lake', ''Ovoyo'', 'deafeat', ''Bonyo'', 'Locusts'. Dis be sekof a local legend wey dey tell how a plague of locusts destroy de crops of de pippoe wey dey live for de eastern shore of de lake top, but wen dem try to cross to de oda side dem never go der.   

For 1864 insyd, de explorers Samuel Baker den Flóra von Sass find de lake&lt;ref&gt;Dorothy Middleton (2004). [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/42346 &lt;nowiki&gt;&quot;Baker [née von Sass], Florence Barbara Maria, Lady Baker (1841–1916)&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;]. ''[[:en:Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography|Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'' (online ed.). Oxford University Press. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/42346|10.1093/ref:odnb/42346]]. Retrieved 2015-09-11. (Subscription, [https://wikipedialibrary.wmflabs.org/partners/88/ Wikipedia Library] access or [https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public UK public library membership] required.)&lt;/ref&gt; den rename am after de recently deceased Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. For de 20th century insyd, Zairian Presido Mobutu Sese Seko temporarily name de lake after einself.     

European colonialists operate shipping for de lake top. De British plan shipping for Lake Albert top as part of a network of railway, river steamer den lake steamer services wey e link British interests for [[Egypt]] insyd, east Africa den southern Africa. De John I. Thornycroft &amp; Company shipyard at Wools ton, Hampshire build de cargo den passenger ship ''SS Robert Coryndon'' give dis purpose for 1930 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author=Jitze Couperus |date=2009-04-06 |title=Jitze Couperus |url=http://www.biog.com/story.php?story_id=776&amp;biog_id=856 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110910154718/http://www.biog.com/story.php?story_id=776&amp;biog_id=856 |archive-date=2011-09-10 |access-date=2011-05-18 |work=Biog: The World Biography Project}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem name am after de British Army officer Robert Thorne Corydon, wey be governor of Uganda 1918–22.&lt;ref name=&quot;Insomniac&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=2009-03-25 |title=Behold, a Dream Unfulfilled |url=https://ugandaninsomniac.wordpress.com/2009/03/25/behold-a-dream-unfulfilled/#more-2914 |access-date=2011-05-18 |work=Ugandan Insomniac; Want to sleep, can't sleep}}&lt;/ref&gt; Winston Churchill describe de ship as ''&quot;de best library afloat&quot;'' den Ernest Hemingway bell am ''&quot;magnificence on water&quot;''.&lt;ref name=&quot;Insomniac&quot; /&gt; Dem either scuttle am for 1962 insyd&lt;ref name=&quot;darbykj&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=2007-12-09 |title=darbykj's photostream |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/7479977@N03/ |access-date=2011-05-18 |work=[[Flickr]] |via=[[Yahoo!]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; anaa sink for 1964 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;darbykj&quot; /&gt; She dey remain unsalvaged den partly submerged for de lake insyd at Butyaba landing site. Dem fi still see am to date.          

Heritage Oil den Tullow Oil announce major oil finds for de Lake Albert basin insyd, plus estimates wey de multi-billion barrel field go prove to be de largest onshore field dem find for sub-Saharan Africa insyd give more dan twenty years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Oil &amp; Gas {{!}} National Environment Management Authority |url=https://www.nema.go.ug/eias/oil-gas |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314231124/https://www.nema.go.ug/eias/oil-gas |archive-date=2023-03-14 |access-date=2020-05-30 |website=www.nema.go.ug}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

For March 2014 insyd, a boat wey dey carry Congolese refugees, e capsize for Lake Albert insyd, wey e kill more dan 250 pippoe.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Uganda Lake Albert boat disaster 'killed 251 refugees'|date=March 27, 2014|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26774338|access-date=April 16, 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt;          

For 26 December 2016 top, a boat wey dey carry 45 members den fans of a local village football team capsize for Lake Albert insyd wey e kill at least 30 pippoe.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=At least 30 drown in Uganda Christmas drama on Lake Albert |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/at-least-30-drown-in-uganda-christmas-drama-on-lake-albert/ar-BBxAdou?ocid=ob-fb-enus-280 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227130141/http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/at-least-30-drown-in-uganda-christmas-drama-on-lake-albert/ar-BBxAdou?ocid=ob-fb-enus-280 |archive-date=2016-12-27 |website=MSN}}&lt;/ref&gt;           

For 24 December 2020 top, 30 people die wen a boat capsize while e dey travel from Uganda to de Democratic Republic of the Congo. De passengers dey concern about travel restrictions wey dem relate to de [[COVID-19]] pandemic for Africa insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last=Kamale|first=Jean-Yves|title=Boat capsizes between Uganda and Congo, killing more than 30|url=https://apnews.com/article/international-news-coronavirus-pandemic-uganda-b7f48d47dc32335e51070e442da98323|access-date=December 24, 2020|publisher=[[Associated Press]]|date=December 24, 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;           

De Kibiro settlement for Lake Albert top get cultural den archeological significance.&lt;ref name=&quot;kibirofinds&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Connah |first=Graham |date=March 1, 1997 |title=The cultural and chronological context of Kibiro, Uganda |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02968365 |journal=African Archaeological Review |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=25–67 |doi=10.1007/BF02968365 |s2cid=128430380 |url-access=subscription |via=Springer Link}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* Cana, Frank Richardson; Garstin, William Edmund (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Albert_Nyanza|&quot;Albert Nyanza&quot;]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). pp. 503–504.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080314015746/http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080314015746/http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |date=2008-03-14 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20191204173456/http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Details/Lake/AFR-11 World Lakes Database entry for Lake Albert] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204173456/http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Details/Lake/AFR-11 |date=2019-12-04 }}
*[http://www.mccrow.org.uk/eastafrica/eastafricanrailways/MarineDivision/EARLakes.htm &quot;East African Railways and Harbours, Marine Services&quot;]: photos of East African lake ferries including SS ''Robert Coryndon''
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Albert}}
[[Category:Lake Albert (Africa)| ]]
[[Category:African Great Lakes]]
[[Category:Lakes of de Great Rift Valley]]
[[Category:Lakes of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Lakes of Uganda]]
[[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Uganda border]]
[[Category:Nile]]
[[Category:International lakes of Africa]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Lake Edward</title>
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'''Lake Edward''' (locally '''Rwitanzigye''' anaa '''Rweru''') be one of de smaller [[African Great Lakes]]. Dem locate am for de Albertine Rift insyd, de western branch of de East African Rift, for de border between de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo (DRC)]] den [[Uganda]] top, plus ein northern shore a few kilometres south of de equator.

== History ==
Welsh explorer Henry Morton Stanley first see de lake for 1888 insyd, during de Emin Pasha Relief Expedition. Dem name de lake for honour of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales insyd, son of then British monarch Queen Victoria, den e later becam King Edward VII.

For 1973 insyd, Uganda den de then Zaire (DRC) rename am '''Lake Idi Amin''' after Ugandan dictator [[Idi Amin]]. After dem overthrow am for 1979 insyd, e recover ein former name.

For 2014 insyd, de lake be de center of an oil dispute. SOCO International enter de premises of de Virunga National Park wey dem situate de lake to prospect give oil. Howeva, villagers den workers wey attempt to stop de oil company from entering de area, dem beat'em up den even dem kidnap den torture. Dem take plans to redraw de lines of Virunga ein boundaries den exclude de lake into consideration. Howeva, since de park be a world heritage site den de lake dey part of am, such plans naturally dey go against de World Heritage Convention.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/16/world/oil-dispute-takes-a-page-from-congos-bloody-past.html|title=Oil Dispute Takes a Page From Congo's Bloody Past|last=Gettleman|first=Jeffrey|date=2014-11-15|work=The New York Times|access-date=2017-12-21|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Geography ==

=== Topography den drainage ===
Lake Edward dey lie at an elevation of {{convert|920|m|ft}}, be {{convert|77|km|mi}} long by {{convert|40|km|mi}} wide at ein maximum points, den dey cover a total surface area of {{convert|2,325|km2|mi2}}, wey e make am de 15th-largest for de continent top. De Nyamugasani River feed de lake, de Ishasha River, de Rutshuru River, de Ntungwe River, den de Rwindi River. Lake George to de northeast dey empty into am via de Kazinga Channel. Lake Edward dey empty to de north via de Semliki River into Lake Albert, wey e dey join de [[White Nile]], ultimately dey flow to de [[Nile]].   

De western escarpment of de Great Rift Valley dey tower up to {{convert|2000|m|ft}} above de western shore of de lake. De southern den eastern shores be flat lava plains. De Ruwenzori Mountains dey {{convert|20|km|mi}} north of de lake.&lt;ref name=&quot;Google&quot;&gt;Google Earth/Geographic Features/Volcanoes&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Lake Edward Drainage.jpg|thumb|Map of de Lake Edward drainage basin anaa watershed. Interactive map]]

==== Volcanism ====
De region dey show much evidence of volcanic activity ova de last 5000 years. De Katwe-Kikorongo den Bunyaruguru Volcanic Fields, plus extensive cones den craters, wey dey lie either side of de Kazinga Channel for de northwest shore of de lake top. Dem think say Lakes George den Edward use to be joined as one larger lake, but lava from dem fields flow insyd den divide am, wey e lef only de Kazinga Channel as de remnant of de past union. To de south dey lie de May-ya-Moto thermally active volcano {{convert|30|km|mi}} away, den de Nyamuragira volcano for de western Virunga Mountains insyd dey lie {{convert|80|km|mi}} south, but ein lava dey flow reach de lake for de past insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Google&quot; /&gt;     

De Katwe-Kikorongo field dey feature dozens of large craters den cones wey dey cover an area of {{convert|30|km|mi}} by {{convert|15|km|mi}} between lakes Edward den George, den dey include seven crater lakes. De largest of dem, de {{convert|2.5|km|mi}} long Lake Katwe, e occupy a crater {{convert|4|km|mi}} across den dem separate am from Lake Edward by just {{convert|300|m|ft}} of land. De crater dey about {{convert|100|m|ft}} deep, den Lake Katwe ein surface dey about {{convert|40|m|ft}} lower dan Lake Edward own. E dey remarkable dat de volcanic origin of dis area southeast of de Ruwenzoris wey dem no know am until G. F. Scott Elliot report am for 1894 insyd. Stanley visit Lake Katwe for 1889 insyd den note de deep depression, de salinity of de lake, den a spring of sulphurous water nearby, but e fail to connect dis to volcanism.&lt;ref&gt;Holmes, A. and Harwood, H.F. (1932) [http://jgslegacy.lyellcollection.org/cgi/content/abstract/88/1-4/370 &quot;Petrology of the Volcanic Fields East and South-East of Ruwenzori, Uganda&quot;], ''Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society'', '''88''' (1-4), p. 370&amp;#x2013;442, {{doi|10.1144/GSL.JGS.1932.088.01-04.16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

High-resolution analyses of de elemental composition of calcite den biogenic silica (BSi) content for piston cores insyd from Lake Edward, equatorial Africa, document complex interactions between climate variability den lacustrine geochemistry ova de past 5400 years.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Russell |first1=James M. |last2=Johnson |first2=Thomas C. |date=July 2005 |title=A high-resolution geochemical record from Lake Edward, Uganda Congo and the timing and causes of tropical African drought during the late Holocene |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=24 |issue=12–13 |pages=1375–1389 |bibcode=2005QSRv...24.1375R |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.10.003 |issn=0277-3791}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De similarly sized Bunyaruguru field for de oda side of de Kazinga Channel top dey contain about 30 crater lakes, sam of wey dey larger dan Lake Katwe.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=The mysterious twin lakes of Rubirizi {{!}} Rubirizi District |url=https://rubirizi.go.ug/opportunites/mysterious-twin-lakes-rubirizi#:~:text=Rubirizi%20District%20formerly%20Bunyaruguru%20County,which%2032%20are%20crater%20lakes. |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=rubirizi.go.ug}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-01-05 |title=Mystical 52 crater lakes, valley of the dead of Bunyaruguru |url=https://www.monitor.co.ug/uganda/lifestyle/travel/mystical-52-crater-lakes-valley-of-the-dead-of-bunyaruguru-1655932 |access-date=2022-03-02 |website=Monitor |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Settlements ====
[[File:Lake Edward.jpg|thumb|Lake Edward from Mweya for Queen Elizabeth National Park insyd]]Lake Edward dey lie completely within de Virunga National Park (DRC) den de Queen Elizabeth National Park (Uganda) den no get extensive human habitation for ein shores top, except at Ishango (DRC) for de north insyd, home to a park ranger training facility. About two-thirds of ein waters dey for de DRC insyd den one third for Uganda insyd. Apart from Ishango, de main Congolese settlement for de south insyd be Vitshumbi, while de Ugandan settlements be Mweya den Katwe for de northeast insyd, near de crater lake of dat name, wey be de chief producer of salt give Uganda. De nearest cities be Kasese for Uganda insyd to de northeast den Butembo for de DRC insyd to de northwest, wey dey respectively about {{convert|50|km|mi}} den {{convert|150|km|mi}} wey road distant am.&lt;ref name=&quot;Mich&quot;&gt;Carte Routière et Touristique Michelin (1996) ''Afrique Nord-Est et Arabie'', map scale 1:4&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;000, Paris : Pneu Michelin&lt;/ref&gt;

== Ecology ==
Lake Edward be home to many species of fish, wey dey include populations of ''Bagrus docmak'', ''Oreochromis niloticus'', ''Oreochromis leucostictus'', den ova 50 species of ''Haplochromis'' den oda haplochromine species, of wey dem formally describe only 25. Fishing be an important activity among local residents. Fauna living for de banks of de lake top &amp;#x2013; wey dey include chimpanzees, elephants, crocodiles, den lions &amp;#x2013; de national parks protect am. De area sanso be home to many perennial den migratory bird species.  

=== Decline of hippos den tilapia ===
[[File:Lake Edward Katwe landing site.jpg|thumb|Photo of Lake Edward Katwe Landing site]]For de 1970s insyd, Lake Edward hold a population of around 29,000 hippos insyd den around de area of de lake. But sekof an increase for poaching insyd ova de years, der be a 95% decline for de population insyd, plus de population plummeting to only a few hundred by de end of 2006.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Schrank |first=Delphine |date=2009-06-01 |title=As Go the Hippos … |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/06/as-go-the-hippos/307426/ |access-date=2021-11-04 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem conduct a terrestrial census for 2019 insyd wey e assess say de population dey rydee at 1,500 individuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hippopotamus {{!}} Discover Wildlife at Virunga National Park |url=https://virunga.org/wildlife/mammals/hippopotamus/ |access-date=2021-11-04 |website=Virunga National Park |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem often poach hippopotamus give ein large amount of meat as well as de ivory dem find for ein teeth insyd. Fueled by de high prices dat hippo meat den ivory fetch, poachers dey consistently hunt give dem animals, wey e dey cause a negative impact no only for de hippopotamus population top, but de Lake Edward ecosystem den de local fishermen dat dey depend for de lake top give survival.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2006-12-22 |title=Elite rangers take on rebels to end the slaughter of Congo's hippos |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2006/dec/22/congo.conservationandendangeredspecies |access-date=2021-11-04 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De hippopotamus population dey extremely important to de ecosystem of Lake Edward sekof e dey be a keystone species. Hippos dey produce dung, wey feed tilapia, a once abundant fish species dem find for Lake Edward insyd. One hippo fi produce around 25 kilograms anaa 55 pounds of dung per day, wey fi feed thousands of tilapia within de ecosystem.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2018-04-08 |title=Conservation Efforts to Save Hippos May End Ongoing Tilapia Shortage in DRC Lakes |url=https://globalpressjournal.com/africa/democratic-republic-of-congo/conservation-efforts-save-hippos-may-end-ongoing-tilapia-shortage-drc-lakes/ |access-date=2021-11-04 |website=Global Press Journal |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Plus de hippopotamus population wey dey decline sekof poaching, de food dem provide to de tilapia fish start to disappear as well. Dis cause an immense decline for de tilapia population insyd, as de hippo population wey dey decrease no fi support de same amount of de tilapia fish species as e do before, wey e cause a growing problem no only give de ecosystem, but de fishermen within de villages dat dey surround Lake Edward.        
[[File:Fishermen on Lake Edward.jpg|thumb|Fishermen on Lake Edward]]Being so close to Lake Edward, de villages dat dey within de area dey often rely for de fish top, specifically tilapia, to support demma families plus food den money. For de past insyd, Lake Edward fi support de fish demand give de entire eastern DRC. De lake get a production capacity of between 15,000 den 20,000 metric tons of tilapia annually, plus an estimate of around 700 fishing canoes for de lake top. Sekof de decline of hippos for de area insyd sekof poaching, dis impact de amount of tilapia for de lake insyd, wey cause de fishermen for de nearby villages insyd to suffer, as well as de rest of de eastern DRC. Many markets dey unable to sustain demma own fish, rydee dey get to import fish from oda areas to continue plus demma business.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;    

Though, de hippo populations wey dey decline no be de only threat to de tilapia for Lake Edward insyd. Sekof de decrease for tilapia populations insyd, wey dey spawn areas den fisheries give de fish dey off limits to fishermen. But sam rebel groups as well as robbers anaa illegal fishers dey try demma luck at dem areas, wey e often cause even more problems wen dey try to conserve den increase de tilapia population for de area insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Sekof dis, many villages around Lake Edward as well as de ecosystem of Lake Edward dey suffer.        

== 2018 Lake Edward Skirmish ==
For July 6, 2018 top, der be a naval skirmish between de two nations of Uganda den de Democratic Republic of the Congo for Lake Edward top. Dis skirmish begin as a result of Congolese naval vessels wey dem send to investigate reports of de Ugandan navy wey e apprehend several Congolese fishing vessels, den civilians. Dis clash result for de death of one person insyd, den de wounding of three odas.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=July 6, 2018 |title=One killed, three wounded after clashes near Congo-Uganda border |url=https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN1JW1A0-OZATP |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706150504/https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKBN1JW1A0-OZATP |archive-date=July 6, 2018 |website=Reuters}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=July 7, 2018 |title=One killed, three wounded after clashes near Congo-Uganda border |url=http://www.africanews.com/2018/07/07/one-killed-three-wounded-after-clashes-near-congo-uganda-border/ |website=africanews.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Early reports by local Congolese officials dey claim say dem kill seven for de clash insyd, howeva, dis no back up by either national government.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=July 6, 2018 |title=Uganda and DR Congo clash on Lake Edward |url=http://clubofmozambique.com/news/uganda-and-dr-congo-clash-on-lake-edward/ |website=Club of Mozambique |agency=BBC}}&lt;/ref&gt; For July 9 top, North Kivu official Muhindo Kyakwa claim dat dem kill twelve Congolese fishermen for de clashes insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=https://www.dw.com/en/uganda-and-congo-forces-clash-in-lake-edward-dispute/a-44594461|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|quote=&quot;The 12 bodies of our compatriots are still floating on Edward Lake,&quot; said Muhindo Kyakwa, a senior Congolese official of the province of North Kivu.|title=Uganda and Congo forces clash in Lake Edward dispute|date=July 10, 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{commons}}
* Cana, Frank Richardson; Garstin, William Edmund (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Albert_Edward_Nyanza|&quot;Albert Edward Nyanza&quot;]] . ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). p. 502.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080314015746/http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080314015746/http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |date=2008-03-14 }}
* [https://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Lake/AFR-12 World Lake Database]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Edward}}
[[Category:Lake Edward| ]]
[[Category:Lakes of de Great Rift Valley]]
[[Category:Lakes of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Lakes of Uganda]]
[[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Uganda border]]
[[Category:International lakes of Africa]]
[[Category:African Great Lakes]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Lake Kivu</title>
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      <text bytes="30263" sha1="prpxgus0u44271thpfa9otdt77rm4ax" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
'''Lake Kivu''' be one of de [[African Great Lakes]].&lt;ref name=&quot;readersnatural&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche |title=Natural Wonders of the World |publisher=Reader's Digest Association, Inc |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-89577-087-5 |editor-last=Scheffel |editor-first=Richard L. |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturalwondersof00sche/page/206 206]–207 |editor-last2=Wernet |editor-first2=Susan J. |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt; E dey lie for de border between de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] den [[Rwanda]] top, den e dey for de Albertine Rift insyd, de western branch of de East African Rift.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=H.-K. |last2=Herzen |first2=R. P. |date=1974-06-01 |title=A Geophysical Study of Lake Kivu, East Africa |journal=Geophysical Journal International |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=371–389 |bibcode=1974GeoJ...37..371W |doi=10.1111/j.1365-246x.1974.tb04091.x |issn=0956-540X |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Lake Kivu dey empty into de Ruzizi River, wey dey flow southwards into [[Lake Tanganyika]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=The Largest Lakes in Africa |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-largest-lakes-in-africa.html |website=WorldAtlas}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 1894 insyd, German officer den colonial ruler Gustav Adolf von Götzen be de first European wey dem record to visit de lake. 
[[File:Gisenyi (6817417653).jpg|thumb|Kivu lake shoreline at Gisenyi, Rwanda]]For de past insyd, Lake Kivu drain toward de north, wey e contribute to de [[White Nile]]. About 13,000 to 9,000 years ago, volcanic activity block Lake Kivu ein outlet to de watershed of de Nile.&lt;ref name=&quot;Danley&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Danley |first1=Patrick D. |last2=Husemann |first2=Martin |last3=Ding |first3=Baoqing |last4=Dipietro |first4=Lyndsay M. |last5=Beverly |first5=Emily J. |last6=Peppe |first6=Daniel J. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=The Impact of the Geologic History and Paleoclimate on the Diversification of East African Cichlids |journal=International Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=2012 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1155/2012/574851 |pmc=3408716 |pmid=22888465 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; De volcanism produce mountains, wey dey include de Virungas, wey rise between Lake Kivu den [[Lake Edward]], to de north.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Clark |first=J. D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_r08AAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA35 |title=Kalambo Falls Prehistoric Site, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |location=London |page=34 |access-date=16 January 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem then force water from Lake Kivu south down de Ruzizi. Dis, for turn insyd, raise de level of Lake Tanganyika, wey ovaflow down de Lukuga River.&lt;ref name=&quot;Danley&quot; /&gt;

Lake Kivu be one of three lakes for de world insyd, along plus Lake Nyos den Lake Monoun, dat dey undergo limnic eruptions (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)). De lake ein bottom dey sanso contain methane (CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;). If a limnic eruption dey occur, de lives of de two million pippoe wey dey live nearby go be for danger insyd.  

== Geography ==
Lake Kivu dey approximately {{Convert|42|km|abbr=on}} long den {{Convert|50|km|abbr=on}} at ein widest.&lt;ref name=&quot;readersnatural&quot; /&gt; Ein irregular shape dey make measuring ein precise surface area difficult; dem estimate am to cover a total surface area of sam {{convert|2700|km2|sqmi|-1|abbr=on}}, wey e make am Africa ein eighth largest lake.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt; De surface of de lake dey sit at a height of {{convert|1460|m|ft|-1}} above sea level. Dis lake get a chance of suffering a limnic eruption every 1000 years.&lt;ref name=&quot;readersnatural&quot; /&gt; De lake get a maximum depth of {{convert|475|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} den a mean depth of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, wey e make am de world ein twentieth deepest lake by maximum depth, den de thirteenth deepest by mean depth.&lt;ref name=&quot;readersnatural&quot; /&gt;    

De lake bed dey sit upon a rift valley wey dem slowly pull am apart, wey e cause volcanic activity for de area insyd.        

De world ein tenth-largest island for a lake insyd, Idjwi, dey lie for Lake Kivu insyd        

=== Human geography ===
Sam {{convert|1,370|km2|0}} anaa 58 percent of de lake ein waters dey lie within DRC borders.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

Settlements for de lake ein shore top dey include Bukavu, Kabare, Kalehe, Sake den Goma for de Democratic Republic of the Congo insyd, den Gisenyi, Kibuye, den Cyangugu for Rwanda insyd.

For early 2025 insyd, during de M23 campaign, de Rwandan military occupy all settlements for de Congolese side of de lake ein shores insyd den de M23 Movement, plus provincial capital Goma wey dem capture for January insyd den all settlements wey dey under M23 control as of early March.&lt;ref name=&quot;:015&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=14 March 2025 |title=RDC: sur les 8 territoires que compte le Sud-Kivu, 7 sont désormais sous occupation après l'arrivée sans combat des rebelles de l'AFC/M23 au territoire insulaire d'Idjwi |trans-title=DRC: Of the eight territories in South Kivu, seven are now under occupation following the arrival of AFC/M23 rebels in the island territory of Idjwi without a fight |url=https://actualite.cd/index.php/2025/03/14/rdc-sur-les-8-territoires-que-compte-le-sud-kivu-7-sont-desormais-sous-occupation-apres |access-date=14 March 2025 |website=[[Actualite.cd]] |language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 12 March insyd, M23 land for Idjwi island top, wey e occupy am without resistance.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Congo War Security Review, March 4, 2025 |url=https://www.criticalthreats.org/briefs/congo-war-security-review/congo-war-security-review-march-4-2025 |access-date=2025-03-05 |website=Critical Threats}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Chemistry ==
Lake Kivu be a meromictic lake wey dey contain a freshwater surface layer dat dey becam more saline plus depth, plus a salinity wey dey approach 6 g/kg near de bottom.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Sommer |first1=Tobias |last2=Schmid |first2=Martin |last3=Wüest |first3=Alfred |date=2019 |title=The role of double diffusion for the heat and salt balance in Lake Kivu |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/lno.11066 |journal=Limnology and Oceanography |language=en |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=650–660 |bibcode=2019LimOc..64..650S |doi=10.1002/lno.11066 |issn=1939-5590}}&lt;/ref&gt; Along plus Cameroonian Lake Nyos den Lake Monoun, Lake Kivu be one of three dat dem know to undergo limnic eruptions (wey ovaturn of deepwater stratified layers dey release dissolved carbon dioxide). Around de lake, researchers find evidence of massive local extinctions about every thousand years, wey outgassing events presumably cause am. De trigger give lake ovaturns for Lake Kivu insyd, dem no know am, but volcanic activity den changes for climate insyd, dem suspect both.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Fowkes |first1=Neville |url=https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/conferences/misgsa/documents/2018/LakeKivuReportRefereedFinal.pdf |title=Proceedings of the Mathematics in Industry Study Group: Emissions from Lake Kivu |last2=Mason |first2=David |last3=Hutchinson |first3=A.J. |date=2018 |publisher=University of the Witwatersrand |isbn=978-0-9870336-8-0 |pages=27–73 |access-date=11 October 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; De gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes be unique to each lake. For Lake Kivu ein case, e dey include methane (CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) den carbon dioxide (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), as a result of lake water interaction plus volcanic hot springs.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wenz&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Wenz |first1=John |year=2020 |title=The danger lurking in an African lake |journal=Knowable Magazine |doi=10.1146/knowable-100720-1 |s2cid=225118318 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De amount of methane wey dem contain am at de bottom of de lake, dem estimate am to be {{convert|65|km3|0}}. If dem burn am for a modern combined-cycle generating plant insyd, dat amount of methane go generate around 40,000 megawatts give an entire year, wey dey equivalent to de power output equivalent to six times dat of de Grand Coulee Dam at peak springtime power. De lake sanso dey hold an estimated {{convert|256|km3|0}} of carbon dioxide wey, if dem release am for an eruption event insyd, e fi suffocate all of de inhabitants of de lakeshore.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Explosive Hazard Hiding in an African Lake |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/explosive-hazard-hiding-african-lake-180976024/ |work=Smithsonian Magazine}}&lt;/ref&gt; De water temperature be {{convert|24|C}}, den de pH dey about 7 for de anoxic region insyd, den around 9 for de oxygenated waters insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Njala University, Sierra Leone |last2=Olapade |first2=Oj |last3=Omitoyin |first3=Bo |last4=University of Ibadan, Nigeria |date=2012-08-03 |title=Anthropogenic pollution impact on physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, Rwanda |journal=African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development |volume=12 |issue=53 |pages=6517–6536 |doi=10.18697/ajfand.53.9840 |hdl=1807/55851 |s2cid=70874696 |hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem report say microbial reduction of de volcanic produce methane (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nayar |first1=Anjali |year=2009 |title=A lakeful of trouble |journal=Nature |volume=460 |issue=7253 |pages=321–323 |doi=10.1038/460321a |pmid=19606123 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; A future ovaturn den gas release from de deep waters of Lake Kivu go result for catastrophe insyd, wey dey dwarf de historically lake ovaturns dem document at de much smaller Lakes Nyos den Monoun. De lives of de approximately two million pippoe wey live for de lake basin area insyd, dem go threaten am.&lt;ref name=&quot;Wenz&quot; /&gt;

Cores from de Bukavu Bay area of de lake reveal dat de bottom get layered deposits of de rare mineral monohydrocalcite wey dem interlay plus diatoms, for top of sapropelic sediments plus high pyrite content. Dem find'em at three different intervals. Dem believe de sapropelic layers to be related to hydrothermal discharge den de diatoms to a bloom wey reduce de carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitate monohydrocalcite.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;Stoffers, P., and Fischbeck, R. (1974) Monohydrocalcite in the sediments of Lake Kivu (East Africa) ''Sedimentology'', 21, 163–170.&lt;/ref&gt;

Scientists hypothesize dat sufficient volcanic interaction plus de lake ein bottom water dat get high gas concentrations go heat water, force de methane out of de water, spark a methane explosion, den trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide, though de entry of 1 million cubic meters of lava during de January 2002 eruption get no effect.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Seach |first=John |date=January 17–25, 2002 |title=Archived Volcano News - John Seach |url=https://volcanolive.com/news16.html |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=volcanolive.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;solidarites&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Halbwachs |display-authors=etal |date=2002-03-09 |title=Investigations in Lake Kivu (East Central Africa) after the Nyiragongo Eruption of January 2002: Specific study of the impact of the sub-water lava inflow on the lake stability |url=https://www.eawag.ch/forschung/surf/gruppen/kivu/publications/Halbwachs_2002_Investigations_in_Lake_Kivu.pdf |access-date=2012-12-21 |publisher=Solidarities}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040917101646/http://www.eawag.ch/research_e/apec/Scripts/Lorke_publication_lake_kivu_2002.pdf mirror]&lt;/ref&gt; De carbon dioxide go then suffocate large numbers of pippoe for de lake basin insyd as de gases roll off de lake surface. E sanso dey possible say de lake fi spawn lake tsunamis as gas dey explode out of am.&lt;ref name=&quot;Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=November 21, 2015 |title=Rwanda and DRC Sign Agreement Over L. Kivu Methane Gas Exploration |url=https://newsghana.com.gh/rwanda-and-drc-sign-agreement-over-l-kivu-methane-gas-exploration/ |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=newsghana.com.gh |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Killer Lakes&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=April 4, 2002 |title=Killer Lakes - Transcript |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/killerlakestrans.shtml |access-date=2023-02-07 |website=[[BBC]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/ &quot;In the Shadow of Doom&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928142857/http://walrusmagazine.ca/articles/2006.05-field-notes-in-the-shadow-of-doom/|date=2007-09-28}}, ''The Walrus'', May 2006&lt;/ref&gt;

Dem begin to understand de risk wey Lake Kivu pose during de analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Dem originally think Lake Kivu ein methane to be merely a cheap natural resource give export, den give de generation of cheap power. Once de mechanisms wey cause lake ovaturns begin to be understood, so do awareness of de risk de lake pose to de local population.  

Dem install an experimental vent pipe at Lake Nyos for 2001 insyd to remove gas from de deep water, but such a solution give de much larger Lake Kivu go dey considerably more expensive. De approximately {{convert|500|e6LT|e6MT|order=flip}} of carbon dioxide for de lake insyd be a little under 2 percent of de amount wey human fossil fuel burning release am annually. Therefore, de process of releasing am fi potentially get costs beyond simply building den operating de system.    

Dis problem wey dem associate plus de prevalence of methane be dat of mazuku, de Swahili term &quot;evil wind&quot; give de outgassing of methane den carbon dioxide dat dey kill pippoe den animals, den fi even kill vegetation when for high enough concentration insyd.    

=== Methane extraction ===
[[File:Methane extraction platform at Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|A methane extraction platform, Gisenyi, Rwanda.]]Dem recently find Lake Kivu to contain approximately {{convert|55|e9m3|e12cuft|abbr=unit}} of dissolved biogas at a depth of {{convert|300|m|ft|-2}}. Until 2004, dem do extraction of de gas for a small scale top, plus dem use extracted gas to run boilers at de Bralirwa brewery for Gisenyi insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm &quot;Case Studies : Recovery of Gas from Lake Kivu – The Goats of Rwanda&quot;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224004457/http://www.avec.co.za/casestudies/cs_08.htm|date=2006-02-24}}, Added Value Engineering Consultants, accessed 4 May 2007&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;powerhouse&quot;&gt;{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6624395.stm|title=Rwanda's Underwater Powerhouse|date=May 4, 2007|access-date=2008-02-05|author=Adam Mynott|work=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt; As far as large-scale exploitation of dis resource dey concern, de Rwandan government negotiate plus a number of parties to extract methane from de lake.  

== Biology den fisheries ==
[[File:Lake Kivu, boats.jpg|thumb|Fishing boats for Lake Kivu top, 2009]]
[[File:An aerial of Paradis Malahide island in Lake Kivu with the area of 2,700 km². Emmanuel Kwizera.jpg|thumb|Paradis Malahide Island within de lake]]
[[File:View of the sky and its reflection on Lake Kivu.jpg|thumb|De sky wey reflect for Lake Kivu top]]De fish fauna for Lake Kivu insyd be relatively poor plus 28 described species, wey dey include four introduced species.&lt;ref name=&quot;FishSnoeks&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Snoeks |first1=J |last2=De Vos |first2=L. |last3=Thys van den Audenaerde |first3=D. |date=1997 |title=The ichthyogeography of lake Kivu |journal=South African Journal of Science |volume=93 |pages=579–584}}&lt;/ref&gt; De natives be de Lake Rukwa minnow (''Raiamas moorii''), four species of barb (ripon barbel, ''Barbus altianalis'', East African red-finned barb, ''Enteromius apleurogramma'', redspot barb, ''E. kerstenii'' den Pellegrin's barb, ''E. pellegrini''), an ''Amphilius'' catfish, two ''Clarias'' catfish (''C. liocephalus'' den ''C. gariepinus''), Nile tilapia (''Oreochromis niloticus'') den 15 endemic ''Haplochromis'' cichlids.&lt;ref name=&quot;FishSnoeks&quot; /&gt; Another {{circa|20}} possibly undescribed species of cichlids, dem know from de lake.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=J. |year=2013 |title=How many species are there in Lake Kivu? |url=https://www.eawag.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_userprofiles/upload/walkerjo/Bachelor_Thesis_Jonas_Walker_August_2013_Lake_Kivu.pdf |publisher=University of Bern|date=2013|journal=Institute of Ecology and Evolution}}&lt;/ref&gt; De species dem introduce be three cichlids, de longfin tilapia (''Oreochromis macrochir''), blue-spotted tilapia (''O. leucostictus'') den redbreast tilapia (''Coptodon rendalli''), den a clupeid, de Lake Tanganyika sardine (''Limnothrissa miodon'')&lt;ref name=&quot;FishSnoeks&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Collart&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Collart |first=A. |date=1960 |title=L'introduction du 'Stolothrissa tanganicae' (Ndagala) au lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11887 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge |series=Hosted at Agricultural Research Archive for DRC, Rwanda and Burundi, 1885-1960 |language=French |volume=51 |issue=4}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Capart&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Capart |first=A. |date=1959 |title=A propos de l'introduction du Ndakala (Stolothrissa tanganikae) dans le lac Kivu |url=https://ineac.africamuseum.be./catalog/11546 |journal=Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge et du Ruanda-Burundi |language=French |volume=50 |issue=4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem refer sardine to locally as 'Ndagala' anaa 'Isambaza'.&lt;ref name=&quot;Collart 1989&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Collart |first=Alphonse |url=https://www.fao.org/3/AD174F/AD174F00.htm#TOC |title=Compte rendu du seminaire trente ans apres l'introduction de l'Isambaza au lac Kivu (RWA/87/012/DOC/TR/16) |date=June 1989 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations |place=Gisenyi, Rwanda |language=French |chapter=Introduction et acclimatation de l'Isambaza du lac Tanganyika au lac Kivu}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De exploitable stock of de Lake Tanganyika sardine, dem estimate am at {{convert|2000|–|4000|MT|LT}} per year.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Marshall |first=B. E. |year=1991 |title=Seasonal and annual variations in the abundance of the clupeid Limnothrissa miodon in lake Kivu |journal=Journal of Fish Biology |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=641–648 |bibcode=1991JFBio..39..641M |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8649.1991.tb04394.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem introduce am to Lake Kivu for late 1959 insyd by de Belgian agronomist Alphonse Collart.&lt;ref name=&quot;Collart&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Capart&quot; /&gt; An attempt to introduce de similar Lake Tanganyika sprat (''Stolothrissa tanganicae'') at de same time be unsuccessful.&lt;ref name=&quot;Collart 1989&quot; /&gt;     

At present, Lake Kivu be de sole natural lake for wey ''L. miodon'', a sardine dem originally restrict to Lake Tanganyika, dem introduce am initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to de introduction, no planktivorous fish dey present for de pelagic waters of Lake Kivu insyd. For de early 1990s insyd, de number of fishers for de lake top be 6,563, wey 3,027 dey associated plus de pelagic fishery den 3,536 plus de traditional fishery. De widespread armed conflict for de surrounding region insyd from de mid-1990s result for a decline for de fisheries harvest insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=January 2001 |title=INFORMATION ON FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO |url=https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060315065154/https://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM |archive-date=March 15, 2006 |access-date=June 26, 2023 |website=fao.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;        

Following dis introduction, de sardine gain substantial economic den nutritional importance give de lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, de introduction of planktivorous fish fi result for important modifications of plankton community structure insyd. Recent observations show de disappearance during de last decades of a large grazer, ''Daphnia curvirostris'', den de dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: ''Thermocyclops consimilis'', ''Mesocyclops aequatorialis'' den ''Tropocyclops confinis''.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Isumbisho |first=M |title=Zooplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-534-1 |location=Belgium}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Isumbisho |first1=M. |last2=Sarmento |first2=H. |last3=Kaningini |first3=B. |last4=Micha |first4=J.-C. |last5=Descy |first5=J.-P. |date=2006 |title=Zooplankton of Lake Kivu, East Africa, half a century after the Tanganyika sardine introduction |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=11 |pages=971–989 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl032 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312092135/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Isumbisho%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Zooplankton%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-12 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

Dem release first comprehensive phytoplankton survey for 2006 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sarmento 2006&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Sarmento |first=H. |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (Eastern Africa) |publisher=University of Namur |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-87037-532-7 |location=Belgium |access-date=2011-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117042508/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Thesis_Sarmento_Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2016-01-17 |url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Plus an annual average chlorophyll for de mixed layer insyd of 2.2&amp;#x20;mg m&lt;sup&gt;−3&lt;/sup&gt; den low nutrient levels for de euphotic zone insyd, de lake be clearly oligotrophic. Diatoms be de dominant group for de lake insyd, particularly during de dry season episodes of deep mixing. During de rainy season, de stratified water column, plus high light den lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria plus high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.&lt;ref name=&quot;Sarmento 2006&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |author2=Isumbisho, M |author3=Descy, JP |year=2006 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Plankton Research |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=815–829 |doi=10.1093/plankt/fbl017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032642/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202006_JPR_Phytoplankton%20ecology%20of%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Abundance and distribution of picoplankton in tropical, oligotrophic Lake Kivu, eastern Africa |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202008_Freshwater%20Biol_Tropical%20picoplankton.pdf |journal=Freshwater Biology |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=756–771 |bibcode=2008FrBio..53..756S |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01939.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2007 |title=Species diversity of pelagic algae of Lake Kivu (East Africa) |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Cryptogamie-Algologie |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=245:269 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032655/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202007_Cryptogamie%20Algologie_Phyto%20diversity%20Lake%20Kivu.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; De actual primary production be 0.71&amp;#x20;g C m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt; d&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; (≈ 260&amp;#x20;g C m&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt; a&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Sarmento |first=H. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Phytoplankton ecology of Lake Kivu (eastern Africa): biomass, production and elemental ratios |url=http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=International Association of Theoretical and Applied Limnology, Vol 30, Pt 5, Proceedings |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=709–713 |bibcode=2009SILP...30..709S |doi=10.1080/03680770.2009.11902221 |hdl=2268/139009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032734/http://www.icm.csic.es/bio/projects/icmicrobis/fitxes/Personal_webs/Sarmento/pdf/Sarmento%20et%20al%202009_SIL.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2011-04-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;            

A study of evolutionary genetics show dat de cichlids from lakes for northern Virunga insyd (e.g., [[Lake Edward|Edward]], George, [[Lake Victoria|Victoria]]) go fi dey evolve for a &quot;proto-lake Kivu&quot; insyd, much older dan intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) wey cut de connection.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Verheyen |first=E. |year=2003 |title=Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa |journal=Science |volume=300 |issue=5617 |pages=325–329 |bibcode=2003Sci...300..325V |citeseerx=10.1.1.584.2497 |doi=10.1126/science.1080699 |pmid=12649486 |s2cid=84478005}}&lt;/ref&gt; De elevation of de mountains west of de lake (wey currently be de Kahuzi-Biega National Park, one of de largest reserves of eastern lowland (anaa Grauer's) gorillas for de world insyd), wey dem combine plus de elevation of de eastern rift (wey dem locate for eastern Rwanda insyd) go dey responsible give de drainage of water from central Rwanda for de actual Lake Kivu insyd. Lack of consistent geological evidence challenge dis concept of &quot;proto-lake Kivu&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Stager |first=J. C. |year=2003 |title=Comment on &quot;Origin of the Superflock of Cichlid Fishes from Lake Victoria, East Africa&quot; |journal=Science |volume=304 |issue=5673 |pages=963b |doi=10.1126/science.1091978 |pmid=15143263 |doi-access=}}&lt;/ref&gt;, although de cichlid ein molecular clock dey suggest de existence of a lake much older dan de commonly cited 15,000 years.              

Lake Kivu be de home of four species of freshwater crab, wey dey include two non-endemics (''Potamonautes lirrangensis'' den ''P. mutandensis'') den two endemics (''P. bourgaultae'' den ''P. idjwiensis'').&lt;ref name=&quot;crabs&quot;&gt;Cumberlidge, N., and Meyer, K. S. (2011). ''[http://commons.nmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1029&amp;context=facwork_journalarticles A revision of the freshwater crabs of Lake Kivu, East Africa.]'' Journal Articles. Paper 30.&lt;/ref&gt; Among Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tanganyika den Lake Victoria be de only oda plus endemic freshwater crabs.&lt;ref name=&quot;crabs&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Cumberlidge |first1=Neil |last2=Clark |first2=Paul F. |date=2017 |title=Description of three new species of Potamonautes MacLeay, 1838 from the Lake Victoria region in southern Uganda, East Africa (Brachyura: Potamoidea: Potamonautidae) |journal=European Journal of Taxonomy |issue=371 |doi=10.5852/ejt.2017.371 |hdl=10141/622400 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Illegal fishing ===
For 2018 insyd, dem record ova 400 cases of potential illegal fishing for Lake Kivu top. According to de Animal Research den Technology Transfer at de Rwanda Agricultural Board, fish production for Kivu Lake insyd drop from 24,199 tonnes for de 2017–2018 fishing season insyd to 16,194 tonnes for 2019–2020 insyd,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=26 January 2021 |title=Illicit fishing threatens biodiversity in Lake Kivu |url=https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/183562/News/illicit-fishing-threatens-biodiversity-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2023-06-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; wey Deputy Director Solange Uwituze attribute to fishing methods dat dey affect fish reproduction. Between May den July 2020, Rwanda Police Marine Unit operations report 27 cases wey dey include 10 poachers dem arrest give illegal fishing for de lake top.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=ENACTAfrica.org |date=2022-01-31 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ENACT Africa |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=ISSAfrica.org |date=2022-02-02 |title=Tipping the scales of illicit fishing in Lake Kivu |url=https://issafrica.org/iss-today/tipping-the-scales-of-illicit-fishing-in-lake-kivu |access-date=2022-03-24 |website=ISS Africa |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Islands ==

* Idjwi (part of Idjwi Territory, South Kivu Province)
* Nyamunini (dem sanso know am Napoleon Island)
* Amahoro
* Iwawa

== Gallery ==
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;175&quot; heights=&quot;120&quot;&gt;
File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lake_Kivu_2021.jpg| Lake Kivu from Sake, Goma, D R Congo 
File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Goma,_Lake_Kivu,_DRC_(Zaire_-_Congo),_Photo_by_Sascha_Grabow.jpg| Lake Kivu plus Goma for de background insyd, Congo 
File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Img_Lake_Kivu100222_2.jpg| Lake Kivu dey separate Bukavu (For de foreground insyd) den Cyangugu (For de background insyd) as dem see from Tumbimbi. 
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kivu}}
[[Category:Lake Kivu| ]]
[[Category:African Great Lakes]]
[[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Rwanda border]]
[[Category:International lakes of Africa]]
[[Category:Lakes of de Great Rift Valley]]
[[Category:Lakes of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Lakes of Rwanda]]
[[Category:Meromictic lakes]]
[[Category:Limnically active lakes]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd de Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Rwanda]]</text>
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'''Lake Mweru''' (dem sanso spell am ''Mwelu'', ''Mwero'') (French: ''Lac Moero'', Swahili: ''Ziwa Mweru'') be a freshwater lake for de longest arm of [[Africa]] ein second-longest river top, de [[Congo River|Congo]]. Dem locate am for de border between [[Zambia]] den [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] top, e dey make up {{convert|110|km}} of de total length of de Congo, wey dey lie between ein Luapula River (upstream) den Luvua River (downstream) segments.&lt;ref name=&quot;Google&quot;&gt;[[:en:Google_Earth|Google Earth]] accessed 29 March 2007. When in flood [[:en:Lake_Bangweulu|Lake Bangweulu]] and its swamps may temporarily have a larger area, but not a larger volume.&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Mweru''' dey mean 'lake' for a number of Bantu languages, so dem often refer am as just 'Mweru'.&lt;ref name=&quot;Anderson&quot;&gt;The ''[[:en:Northern_Rhodesia_Journal|Northern Rhodesia Journal]]'' online at NZRAM.org: J B W Anderson: &quot;Kilwa Island and the Luapula.&quot; Vol II, No. 3 pp87–88 (1954)&lt;/ref&gt;

== Physical geography ==
De Luapula River mainly feed Mweru, wey dey come for thru swamps from de south insyd, den de Kalungwishi River from de east. At ein north end de Luvua River drain de lake, wey dey flow for a northwesterly direction insyd to join de Lualaba River den then to de Congo. E be de second-largest lake for de Congo ein drainage basin insyd den dem locate am {{convert|150|km}} west of de southern end of de largest, [[Lake Tanganyika]].&lt;ref name=&quot;Google&quot; /&gt;

De Luapula dey form a swampy delta almost as wide as de southern end of de lake. For a number of respects, dem fi treat de lower river den lake as one entity. Give a lake for a region plus pronounced wet den dry seasons insyd, Mweru no change much for level den area insyd. De annual fluctuation for level insyd be {{convert|1.7|m}}, plis seasonal highs for May insyd den lows for January insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;BKZ&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author=AR Bos, CK Kapasa and PAM van Zwieten |year=2006 |title=Update on the bathymetry of Lake Mweru (Zambia), with notes on water level fluctuations |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232322577 |journal=African Journal of Aquatic Science |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.2989/16085910609503882 |s2cid=86387950}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis be partly sekof de Luapula dey drain out of de Bangweulu Swamps den floodplain wey dey tend to regulate de water flow, wey dey absorb de annual flood den dey release am slowly, den partly sekof Mweru ein outlet, de Luvua, dey drop quickly den dey flow swiftly, without vegetation to block am.&lt;ref name=&quot;Google&quot; /&gt; A rise for Mweru insyd be quickly offset by a faster flow down de Luvua.        

Mweru ein average length be {{convert|118|km}} den ein average width be {{convert|45|km}}, plus ein long axis oriented northeast–southwest. Ein elevation be {{convert|917|m}}, quite a bit higher dan Tanganyika ({{convert|763|m}}).&lt;ref name=&quot;Google&quot; /&gt; E be a rift valley lake lying insyd de Lake Mweru-Luapula graben, wich be a branch of de East African Rift.&lt;ref name=&quot;Master&quot;&gt;[http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/metsoc2001/pdf/5182.pdf P Master, P. Dumont and H. Ladmirant: &quot;Age Constraints On The Luizi Structure&quot;]. ''64th Annual Meteoritical Society Meeting''. (2001). Accessed 30 March 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; De western shore of de lake for DR Congo insyd dey exhibit de steep escarpment typical of a rift valley lake, wey dey rise to de Kundelungu Mountains beyond, buh de rift valley escarpment be less pronounced for de eastern shore top.          

Mweru be shallow for de south insyd den deeper for de north insyd, plus two depressions for de north-eastern section insyd plus maximum depths of {{convert|20|and|27|m}}.&lt;ref name=&quot;BKZ&quot; /&gt;           

A smaller very marshy lake wey dem bell am Mweru Wantipa (wey dem sanso know am de Mweru Marshes) dey lie about {{convert|50|km}} to ein east, den north of de Kalungwishi. E be mostly endorheic den actually dey take water from de Kalungwishi thru a dambo most of de time, but for times of high flood insyd e go fi ovaflow into de Kalungwishi den Lake Mweru.&lt;ref&gt;See the [[:en:Lake_Mweru_Wantipa|Lake Mweru Wantipa]] article for references.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Human geography ==

=== Exploration ===
Dem know de lake to Arab den Swahili traders (of ivory, copper den slaves) wey use Kilwa Island for de lake top as a base at one time. Dem use trade routes from Zanzibar for de Indian Ocean top to Ujiji for Lake Tanganyika top to Mweru den then to de Lunda, Luba, Yeke anaa Kazembe kingdoms, de last wey dey be for de southern shores of Mweru top. Western trade routes go from dem kingdoms to de Atlantic, so Mweru dey lay for a transcontinental trade route top.&lt;ref name=&quot;Watson&quot;&gt;[http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V3N1/V3N1.htm The ''Northern Rhodesia Journal'' online at NRZAM.org: Dr Blair Watson: &quot;The Occupation of Kilwa Island - Extracts from District Notebook No. 6&quot;]. Vol III No. 1 pp70-74, (1956).&lt;/ref&gt;

Between 1796 den 1831 Portuguese traders/explorers Pereira, Francisco de Lacerda den odas visit Kazembe from [[Mozambique]] to get treaties to use de trade route between demma territories of Mozambique den [[Angola]]. De Portuguese for know de lake already, den de visitors only get to walk to higher ground about {{convert|5|km}} north of Kazembe ein Kanyembo capital to see de lake {{convert|10|km}} distant. Howeva, dem dey more interested for trade routes insyd dan discovery, dem approach from de south den Mwata Kazembe restrict demma movements, den dem no provide an account of am.&lt;ref name=&quot;Paine&quot;&gt;[http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V1N2/V1N2.htm The ''Northern Rhodesia Journal'' online at NRZAM.org: Denis Paine: &quot;Lake Mweru - Its Fish and Fishing Industry.&quot;] Vol I, No. 2 pp7-13 (1950). Accessed 2 April 2007. &quot;Lacerda was probably the first European to see Lake Mweru,&quot; p7. Greek fishermen: p8.&lt;/ref&gt; Explorer den missionary David Livingstone, wey refer am 'Moero', dem credit am plus ein discovery during ein travels of 1867-'8.&lt;ref&gt;[[David Livingstone]] and [[:en:Horace_Waller_(activist)|Horace Waller]] (ed.): ''The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa from 1865 to his Death''. Two volumes, John Murray, London, 1874.&lt;/ref&gt;

Livingstone witness de devastation den suffering wey de slave trade for de area to de north den east of Mweru insyd cause am, den ein accounts do help rally opposition to am. De last of de slave trading for de area insyd be as late as de 1890s, howeva. Meanwhile, between 1870 den 1891, skirmishes den wars between de Yeke king Msiri den neighbouring chiefs den traders unsettle de area. Few Europeans visit Mweru since Livingstone, until Alfred Sharpe for 1890–1 insyd den de Stairs Expedition for 1892 insyd both pass by for demma way top to seek treaties plus Msiri. De Stairs Expedition kill Msiri den take Katanga give de King Leopold II of Belgium. Sharpe lef one of ein officers to set up de first colonial outpost for de Luapula-Mweru valley insyd, de British boma at Chiengi for 1891 insyd.         

==== Historical development ====
[[File:Mweru-Luapula.jpg|thumb|Lake Mweru den ein main inlets, de lower Luapula River den ein swamps, den de Kalungwishi. Wat dem sanso show be Mweru ein outlet, de Luvua River going for north top to de Lualaba de Congo rivers. Water dey show up as black for dis false-colour NASA satellite image insyd. De solid blue line show de extent of de swamps, den dem show de extent of floodplain as a dotted line. De towns be, for Zambia insyd: 1 Chiengi, 2 Kashikishi, 3 Nchelenge, 4 Mwansabombwe, 5 Mwense; for DR Congo insyd: 6 Pweto, 7 Kilwa, 8 Kasenga. Oda features: 9: Chisenga Island, 10 de largest swamp island (for DR Congo insyd), 11 de main floodplain.]]
De western shore of Luapula-Mweru becam part of de [[Belgian Congo]] den de eastern shore part of Northern Rhodesia, a British protectorate. '''Lake Mweru''' to Tanganyika be an area wey dem expose to European influence at a very early date, wen de lakes be de chief entrance to Northern Rhodesia.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Moore |first=R. J. |date=April 1937 |title=Industry and Trade on the Shores of Lake Mweru |journal=Africa |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=137–158 |doi=10.2307/1155780 |issn=0001-9720 |jstor=1155780 |s2cid=143768444}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although Kilwa Island dey closer to de western shore, dem allocate am to Northern Rhodesia, den consequently Zambia get 58% of de lake waters, den DR Congo 42%.   

Dem set up de first Belgian outposts for de lake top at Lukonzolwa den Pweto wey dey at various times de headquarters of demma administration of Katanga. Dem stamp out de slave trade wey dey go north-east around de lake. Scottish missionary Dan Crawford of de Plymouth Brethren establish de first mission station for de lake top for 1892 insyd at Luanza for de Belgian side of de lake top.    

De British move demma boma from Chiengi to de Kalungwishi, plus one anaa two British officers (such as Blair Watson), den a force of African police. For conjunction insyd plus operations around Abercorn further down de trade route, dis dey enough to end de slave trade wey dey go east from Mweru, but no dey enough to bring Mwata Kazembe under British rule, den dem get to send a military expedition  for 1899 insyd from British Central Africa (Nyasaland) to do dat job (see de article for Alfred Sharpe top give more details).     

De move of de boma from Chiengi to Kalungwishi get de effect of leaving de Belgian boma at Pweto a free rein at de northern end of de lake, wey e lead a hundred years later to about {{convert|33|km2}} of Zambian territory next to Pweto be ceded to de DR Congo (then Zaire). Make you see de Luapula Province border dispute give further details den references.      

After 1900, de Belgian Congo province of Katanga for de western shores of de lake top develop faster dan de Northern Rhodesian side, de Luapula Province den de town of Kasenga a few hours by boat up de Luapula River becam de most developed for de Luapula-Mweru valley insyd, den until de 1960s be de main commercial centre plus better services den infrastructure dan elsewhere. De Elizabethville mines start up more quickly dan those of de Copperbelt, den Kasenga supply ein workforce plus fish. Since 1960, political crises, government neglect den wars for de Congolese side top produce a deterioration for infrastructure insyd, while peace for de Zambian side top produce an increase for population den services insyd, wey e cause de balance to change.        

==== Centres of population ====
Chaw fishing villages dey dot Mweru ein shores. A number be seasonal camps. De main towns for de Zambian side top be Nchelenge, Kashikishi den Chiengi, den for de DR Congo side top, Kilwa (de town wey dey opposite de island), Lukonzolwa den Pweto.  

Besides Kilwa Island, der be two oda inhabited islands for de lake insyd: Zambia ein Isokwe Island of {{convert|3|km2}}, den a {{convert|2|km2}} Congolese island next to de mouth of de Luapula. (Two oda islands for de Luapula swamps insyd get shores for de lake top).  

De Second Congo War of 1999–2003 affect de Congolese side of de lake, from wey e still dey recover. Chaw refugees enter Zambia at Pweto den dem accommodate am for camps insyd for Mporokoso den Kawambwa districts insyd.   

==== Transport ====
De Belgians operate a regular service by a paddle steamer, de ''Charles Lemaire'', between Kasenga for de Luapula den Pweto top at de outlet of de Luvua River, a distance of nearly {{convert|300|km}} if dem include a stop at Kilwa. Boats still dey ply dat route today. Dem use water transport less for de Zambian side top, except to Kilwa Island, Isokwe Island den Chisenga Island (for de Luapula swamps insyd).  

Dem serve de Mweru area only by dirt roads until dem tar de main Luapula Province road for de Zambian side top to Nchelenge for 1987 insyd; de population around de lake grow, much of am dey exploit de rich fishery of de lake. Wen de Copperbelt mines shed workers for de 1980s den 1990s insyd, chaw ex-miners relocate to de lake shores, particularly around Nchelenge-Kashikishi.   

Dem neglect de dirt roads for de Congolese side top den dey for poor condition insyd, den many pippoe cross into Zambia to travel by road. Make you see Congo Pedicle road give more details.    

==== Fishery ====
[[File:Haplochromis moeruensis.gif|thumb|Drawing of a syntype of ''Thoracochromis moeruensis'' (Boulenger, 1899), a haplochromine cichlid from Lake Mweru]]
Dem always note Mweru give ein longfin tilapia, (''Oreochromis macrochir''), dem bell am ''pale'' ('pa-lay') for Chibemba insyd, wey dry traditionally for racks anaa mats top for de sun insyd den pack for baskets insyd give market. (Smoking den salting fish be more recent processes for de area insyd). Catfish (one species of wey dey grow up to 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) for length insyd), a kind of carp, tigerfish, elephantfish den dem sanso catch sardine-like fish.  

Greek fishermen from de Dodecanese islands pioneer commercial fishing for Lake Mweru den de Luapula River top wey settle for Kasenga insyd, DR Congo, for de western bank of de Luapula {{convert|150|km}} upriver from de lake top for de first half of de 19th Century insyd. Dem use boats wey dem build for Greek style insyd wey charcoal-fuelled steam engines power am, wey dem later replace am plus diesel. Dem supply de workforce of de copper mines for Lubumbashi insyd (later de whole Copperbelt) plus fish wey dem pack for ice insyd at Kasenga den dem transport am from der for trucks insyd. Dem estimate am for 1950 insyd der dey 50 Greek boats wey dey catch {{convert|4000|ST|MT}} of fresh fish per year. E go take a week give a boat to do de round trip to de lake den fill ein hold, wey line plus ice wey dem carry for board top.&lt;ref name=&quot;Paine&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Peters&quot;&gt;[http://www.nrzam.org.uk/NRJ/V2N1/V2N1.html The ''Northern Rhodesia Journal'' online at NRZAM.org: D U Peters: &quot;Visit to Kilwa Island and the African Palm&quot;.] Vol II, No. 1 pp 9−23 (1953). Accessed 30 March 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

For recent decades insyd de catch decline sekof ova-fishing den dem estimate am at {{convert|13,000|LT|MT}} tonnes wey dem catch from 4,500 small craft, mainly plank boats. Congolese fishermen dey catch de most despite having a slightly smaller share of de waters.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20080314015746/http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080314015746/http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/COD/BODY.HTM|date=14 March 2008}} accessed 30 March 2007.&lt;/ref&gt; Gill nets catch Tilapia, den no dey reach de size dem once do. Since de 1980s, 'chisense' fishing increase. Dem use dis method to catch small pelagic fish wey dem bell kapenta, originally from beaches but rydee dey use lights for boats top at night to attract de fish wey dem then scoop up for fine nets insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/AD008E/AD008E00.htm#TOC FAO website: Tilleke Kiewied: &quot;Socio-Economic Study of Fishing Communities along Lake Mweru, Luapula Province, Zambia.&quot;] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Harare, 1994. Accessed 30 March 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Mining ====
De Dikulushi Copper Mine be an open-cast mine {{convert|50|km|mi}} north of Kilwa for DR Congo insyd by dirt road, den {{convert|23|km|mi}} west of de lake. Anvil Mining sell de mine to Mawson West, an Australian company, for March 2010 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;BusSpec&quot;&gt;[http://www.businessspectator.com.au/bs.nsf/Article/Anvil-sells-its-90-stake-in-Dikulushi-mine-in-DRC--3574B?OpenDocument Anvil sells its 90% stake in Dikulushi mine in DRC for 28% of MWE in scrip] ''Business Spectator'', published: 1 March 2010, accessed: 29 December 2010&lt;/ref&gt; Wen dem dey operate de mine, heavy trucks wey dey carry concentrate cross Mweru for a large motorised pontoon ferry top from Kilwa to Nchelenge, a distance of {{convert|44|km|mi}}, then drive {{convert|2500|km|mi}} to a copper smelter for Tsumeb, [[Namibia]] insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.anvilmining.com/prj_dikulushi2.shtml Anvil Mining: &quot;Dikulushi Operation&quot;.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928064409/http://www.anvilmining.com/prj_dikulushi2.shtml|date=28 September 2007}} Website accessed 30 March 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Tourism ====
Lake Mweru be undeveloped give tourism despite dem regard am as &quot;truly beautiful&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;Spectrum&quot;&gt;Camerapix: &quot;Spectrum Guide to Zambia.&quot; Camerapix International Publishing, Nairobi, 1996.&lt;/ref&gt; Lack of access for de past insyd, a lack of wildlife conservation, den wars for DR Congo insyd between 1996 den 2003 no help. 60 years ago de western den northern shores of de lake be home to large herds of elephant, de Luapula floodplain support herds of lechwe, den dem note de Lusenga Plain National Park den Mweru Wantipa National Park give Cape buffalo, a great variety of antelope den lion. Hunting, loss of habitat, den poaching reduce most animal populations. For de Zambian side top perhaps only Mweru Wantipa National Park get tourism potential. For de Congolese side top de Parc National de Kundelungu for de mountains {{convert|75|km}} south-west of de lake insyd go dey be for better condition insyd.    

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;'''General references'''
* For area, depth and volume data: [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232322577_Update_on_the_bathymetry_of_Lake_Mweru_with_notes_on_water_level_fluctuations AR Bos, CK Kapasa and PAM van Zwieten: &quot;Update on the bathymetry of Lake Mweru (Zambia), with notes on water level fluctuations&quot;.] ''African Journal of Aquatic Science'', 31 (1) : 145–150 (2006). Accessed 4 March 2007.
* For distances: Google Earth.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070312203551/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/afr/dsafr026.html World Lakes Database entry for Lake Mweru]

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.zambiatourism.com/travel/places/lakmweru.htm Zambia tourism info with picture]
* [https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/a-trans-africa-inland-waterway-system A Trans-Africa Inland Waterway System?]
* [https://dlca.logcluster.org/display/public/DLCA/2.5+Democratic+Republic+of+Congo+Waterways+Assessment Democratic Republic of Congo Waterways Assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720034052/https://dlca.logcluster.org/display/public/DLCA/2.5+Democratic+Republic+of+Congo+Waterways+Assessment |date=20 July 2021 }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mweru}}
[[Category:Lake Mweru| ]]
[[Category:Lakes of de Great Rift Valley]]
[[Category:International lakes of Africa]]
[[Category:Lakes of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Lakes of Zambia]]
[[Category:Congo River]]
[[Category:Miombo]]
[[Category:Geography of Luapula Province]]
[[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo–Zambia border]]</text>
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    <title>Lake Tana</title>
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'''Lake Tana''' (Amharic: ጣና ሐይቅ, romanized: T’ana ḥāyik’i; previously dem transcribe as '''Tsana{{sfn|Garstin|Cana|1911}}''') be de largest lake for [[Ethiopia]] insyd den a source of de [[Blue Nile]]. Wey dem locate am for Amhara Region insyd for de north-western Ethiopian Highlands insyd, de lake be approximately {{convert|84|km|mi|abbr=off}} long den {{convert|66|km|mi|abbr=off}} wide, plus a maximum depth of {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=off}},&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Statistical Abstract of Ethiopia |year=1967–1968}}&lt;/ref&gt; den an elevation of {{convert|1788|m|ft|abbr=off}}.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2004 |title=Lake Tana, source of the Blue Nile |url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Observing_the_Earth/Lake_Tana_source_of_the_Blue_Nile |access-date=4 November 2013 |work=Observing the Earth |publisher=European Space Agency}}&lt;/ref&gt; De Gilgel Abay, Reb den Gumara rivers feed Lake Tana. Ein surface area dey range from {{convert|3000|to|3500|km2|mi2|abbr=off}}, wey dey depend for season den rainfall top. Dem regulate de lake level since de construction of de control weir wey de lake dey discharge into de Blue Nile. Dis dey control de flow to de Blue Nile Falls (Tis Abbai) den hydro-power station.    

For 2015 insyd, dem nominate Lake Tana region as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve wey dey recognize ein national den international natural den cultural importance.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.laketana-biosphere.com/ Homepage of Lake Tana Biosphere Reserve]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Ovaview ==
[[File:Lake Tana, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|Views ova Lake Tana]]
[[File:Island Church (2401612298).jpg|thumb|De Island Church for Lake Tana top]]
[[File:Zege Peninsula Tour Guide.jpg|thumb|A local tour guide dey demonstrate how a stone dey struck to signal meal times at a monastery for Zege Peninsula top]]
[[File:Blue Nile.jpg|thumb|left|Beginning of de [[Blue Nile]] river by ein outlet from Lake Tana]]
[[File:BahirDarResort.jpg|thumb|A resort hotel for Lake Tana top for Bahir Dar insyd]]

Volcanic activity form Lake Tana, wey block de flow of rivers wey dey inflow for de early Pleistocene insyd, about 5 million years ago.&lt;ref name=&quot;springer&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Vijverberg |first1=Jacobus |title=The Nile |last2=Sibbing |first2=Ferdinand A. |last3=Dejen |first3=Eshete |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=163–192 |chapter=Lake Tana: Source of the Blue Nile |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-9726-3_9}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De lake be originally much larger dan e dey today. Seven large permanent rivers dey feed de lake as well as 40 small seasonal rivers. De main tributaries to de lake be Gilgel Abbay (Little Nile River), den de Megech, Gumara, den Rib rivers.&lt;ref name=&quot;springer&quot; /&gt;  

Lake Tana get a number of islands, wey number dey vary plus de lake ein level. E fell about {{convert|6|ft|m}} for de last 400 years insyd. According to Manuel de Almeida, a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] missionary for de early 17th century insyd, der be 21 islands, seven anaa eight of wey get monasteries for dem top &quot;formerly large, but rydee diminish much.&lt;ref name=&quot;Beckham&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Beckham |first1=C. F. |title=Some Records of Ethiopia, 1593-1646 |last2=Huntingford |first2=G. W. B. |publisher=[[Hakluyt Society]] |year=1954 |series=Series 2 |location=London |page=35 and note |number=107}}&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;Wen James Bruce visit de area for 1771 insyd, he note dat de locals wey dem count 45 islands wey dem inhabit, but state he believe dat &quot;de number go fi be about eleven.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Beckham&quot; /&gt; Anton Stecker, for 1881 insyd, make a detailed examination of de lake, wey e enable substantially accurate maps,{{sfn|Garstin|Cana|1911}} den dem count 44 islands.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Hayes |first=A.J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h742AAAAMAAJ&amp;pg=PA73 |title=The Source of the Blue Nile: A Record of a Journey Through the Soudan to Lake Tsana in Western Abyssinia, and of the Return to Egypt by the Valley of the Atbara |publisher=Smith, Elder &amp; Company |year=1905 |page=73 |access-date=28 May 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; A 20th-century geographer name 37 islands, of wey he believe 19 have anaa had monasteries anaa churches for dem top.&lt;ref name=&quot;Beckham&quot; /&gt;       

Dem keep remains of ancient Ethiopian emperors den treasures of Ethiopic Christianity for de isolated island monasteries (wey dey include Kebran Gabriel, Ura Kidane Mehret, Narga Selassie, Daga Estifanos, Medhane Alem of Rema Island, Kota Maryam, den Mertola Maryam). For de island of Tana Qirqos top be a rock wey dem show to Paul B. Henze, for wey dem tell am Mary, mother of Jesus rest for ein journey back from [[Egypt]]; dem sanso tell am say Frumentius, wey introduce Christianity to Ethiopia, be &quot;allegedly buried for Tana Cherqos top.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Henze |first=Paul B. |author-link=Paul B. Henze |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |publisher=Palgrave |year=2000 |isbn=978-0312227197 |location=New York |page=73}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inter de body of Yekuno Amlak for de monastery of St. Stephen insyd for Daga Island top. Emperors wey tombs sanso be for Daga top dey include Dawit I, Zara Yaqob, Za Dengel, den Fasilides. Oda important islands for Lake Tana insyd dey include Dek, Mitraha, Gelila Zakarias, Halimun den Briguida.             

Dem believe dem already build monasteries during de Middle Ages ova earlier religious sites. Dem dey include de fourteenth-century Debre Maryam, den de eighteenth-century Narga Selassie, Tana Qirqos, wey dem say dem already house de Ark of de Covenant before dem move am to Axum, den Ura Kidane Mehret, wey dem know give ein regalia. A ferry service dey link Bahir Dar plus Gorgora via Dek den various lakeshore villages.            

Der sanso be Zege Peninsula for de southwest portion of de lake top. Zege be de site of de Azwa Maryam monastery.             

Lake Tana sanso be a central location of de Beta Israel, wey dey complete plus de only Jewish monasteries for de world insyd,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Kribus |first1=Bar |last2=Krebs |first2=Verena |date=2018 |title=Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jewish) Monastic Sites North of Lake Tana Preliminary Results of an Exploratory Field Trip to Ethiopia in December 2015 |journal=Entangled Religion |volume=6 |pages=309–344 |doi=10.13154/er.v6.2018.309-344}}&lt;/ref&gt; before demma immigration to Israel.             

== Water characteristics den floods ==
Wey dem compare to oda tropical lakes, de waters for Lake Tana insyd dey relatively cold, wey e typically range from about 20 to 27 °C (68–81 °F). De water get a pH wey be neutral to samwat alkaline den ein transparency be quite low.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author1=Vijverberg, J. |title=The Nile |author2=F.A. Sibbing |author3=E. Dejen |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=163–193 |chapter=Lake Tana: Source of the Blue Nile}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Sekof de large seasonal variations for de inflow of ein tributaries, rain den evaporation insyd, de water levels of Lake Tana dey typically vary by 2–2.5 m (6.6–8.2 ft) for a year insyd, wey dey peak for September–October insyd just after de main wet season. Wen de water levels dey high, de plains around de lake often flood den dem connect oda permanent swamps for de region insyd to de lake.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt;

== Fauna ==
[[File:Lily pads, Lake Tana.jpg|thumb|Lily pads dey float near de shore for Lake Tana top]]Since der dey no inflows dat dey link de lake to oda large waterways den de main outflow, de Blue Nile, de Blue Nile Falls obstruct am, de lake dey support a highly distinctive aquatic fauna, wey generally dem relate am to species from de Nile Basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEOW&quot;&gt;{{cite web |year=2008 |title=Lake Tana |url=http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=526 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005203717/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=526 |archive-date=5 October 2011 |access-date=24 January 2012 |website=Freshwater Ecoregions of the World}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lake ein nutrient levels dey low.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt;

=== Fish ===
Der be 27 fish species for Lake Tana insyd den 20 of dem be endemic.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt; Dis dey include one of only two cyprinid species flocks wey dem know (de oda, from Lake Lanao for de Philippines insyd, introduced species already decimate am). E dey consist of 15 relatively large, up to {{convert|1|m|abbr=on}} long, ''Labeobarbus'' barbs dat dem formerly include for ''Barbus'' insyd instead.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEOW&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;barbs1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=de Graaf |first1=Martin |last2=Dejen |first2=Eshete |last3=Sibbing |first3=Ferdinand A. |last4=Osse |first4=Jan W. M. |year=2000 |title=''Barbus tanapelagius'', A New Species from Lake Tana (Ethiopia): its Morphology and Ecology |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |bibcode=2000EnvBF..59....1D |doi=10.1023/A:1007608208630}}&lt;/ref&gt; Among dem, ''L. acutirostris'', ''L. longissimus'', ''L. megastoma'' den ''L. truttiformis'' dey strictly piscivorous, den ''L. dainellii'', ''L. gorguari'', ''L. macrophtalmus'' den ''L. platydorsus'' dey mostly piscivorous.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt; Demma most important prey be de small ''Enteromius'' den ''Garra'' species.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;barbs1&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;barbs2&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=de Graaf |first1=Martin |last2=Megens |first2=Hendrik-Jan |last3=Samallo |first3=Johannis |last4=Sibbing |first4=Ferdinand |year=2007 |title=Evolutionary origin of Lake Tana's (Ethiopia) small Barbus species: indications of rapid ecological divergence and speciation |journal=Animal Biology |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=39–48 |doi=10.1163/157075607780002069}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining ''Labeobarbus'' for Lake Tana insyd get oda specialized feeding habits: ''L. beso'' (non-endemic den dem no closely relate am to de odas) dey feed for algae top, ''L. surkis'' mostly for macrophytes top, ''L. gorgorensis'' for macrophytes top den molluscs, ''L. brevicephalus'' for zooplankton top (howeva, juveniles of all members of de species flock dey feed for zooplankton top), ''L. osseensis'' for macrophytes top den adults insects, den ''L. crassibarbis'', ''L. intermedius'' (non-endemic buh dem closely relate am to de odas), ''L. nedgia'' den ''L. tsanensis'' for benthic invertebrates like chironomid larvae top. Among de endemic ''Labeobarbus'', eight species spawn for de lake ein wetlands insyd den de remaining move seasonally into ein tributaries wey dem spawn.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt;     

For addition to de ''Labeobarbus'' species flock insyd, de endemic species be ''Enteromius pleurogramma'', ''E. tanapelagius'', ''Garra regressus'' den ''Afronemacheilus abyssinicus'' (one of only two African stone loaches). De remaining non-endemic species be Nile tilapia (widespread for Africa insyd, buh plus de endemic subspecies ''tana'' for de lake insyd), ''E. humilis'', ''G. dembecha'', ''G. dembeensis'' den de large African sharptooth catfish.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FEOW&quot; /&gt;

=== Fishing den threats ===
[[File:ET Amhara asv2018-02 img063 Lake Tana at Gorgora.jpg|thumb|Various ''Labeobarbus'' barbs den African sharptooth catfish wey dem catch for de lake insyd]]Lake Tana dey support a large fishing industry, wey mainly dey base for de ''Labeobarbus'' barbs top, Nile tilapia den sharptooth catfish. According to de Ethiopian Department of Fisheries den Aquaculture, dem land 1,454 tons of fish for 2011 insyd at Bahir Dar, wey de department dem estimate am be 15% of ein sustainable amount.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20080228033847/http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/ETH/body.htm &quot;Information on Fisheries Management in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228033847/http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/ETH/body.htm|date=28 February 2008}}, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), January 2003&lt;/ref&gt; Nevertheless, for a review insyd dat compare catches for 2001 insyd to dem ten years earlier, dem find dat typical sizes of both de tilapia den de catfish significantly decrease, den populations of de ''Labeobarbus'' barbs dat dey breed for de tributaries insyd decline significantly.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt; Among de endemic fish, dem consider most threatened (endangered anaa vulnerable) anaa data deficient (available data insufficient give evaluating a status) by de IUCN.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=2019 |title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/ |access-date=18 November 2019 |publisher=IUCN}}&lt;!-- search the individual species name to get the status of each species --&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; For de early 2000s insyd, de local government give de first time introduce a fisheries legislation den dem hope dis go get a positive effect for de fish populations top.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt;

Oda serious threats be habitat destruction den pollution. Bahir Dar becam a large city den e dey rapidly grow; dem generally release ein wastewater directly into de lake.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt; De vegetation for de lake ein wetlands insyd, wey be an important nursery give de ''Labeobarbus'' den oda fish, dem already clear am at a fast pace. A potentially serious threat to de unique ecosystem go be an introduction of a large den efficient predatory species like de Nile perch, wey dem implicate am for numerous extinctions insyd for [[Lake Victoria]] insyd. De piscivorous ''Labeobarbus'' of Lake Tana be relatively inefficient predators dat only fi take fish up to about 15% of de length of de predator einself.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt;

=== Oda fauna ===
[[File:Pelicans on the lake Tana, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|Great white pelicans for Lake Tana top]]Among oda fauna, de lake dey support relatively few invertebrates: Der be fifteen species of mollusks, wey dey include one endemic, den sanso an endemic freshwater sponge.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEOW&quot; /&gt; 

About 230 species of birds, wey dey include more dan 80 wetland birds such as de great white pelican, African darter, hamerkop, storks, African spoonbill, ibis, ducks, kingfishers den African fish eagle, dem know dem from Lake Tana.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt; E be an important resting den feeding ground give many Palearctic migrant waterbirds.&lt;ref name=&quot;FEOW&quot; /&gt;  

Der dey no crocodiles, buh de African softshell turtle den Nile monitor dem already record dem near de Blue Nile outflow from de lake.&lt;ref&gt;Largen and Spawls (2010). ''The Amphibians and Reptiles of Ethiopia and Eritrea.'' {{ISBN|978-3-89973-466-9}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hippos dey present, mostly near de Blue Nile outflow.&lt;ref name=&quot;Vijverberg2009&quot; /&gt;   

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

=== Works cited ===
* Garstin, William Edmund; Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Tsana|&quot;Tsana&quot;]] . In [[:en:Hugh_Chisholm|Chisholm, Hugh]] (ed.). ''[[:en:Encyclopædia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 347–348.

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
*[http://www.laketana-biosphere.com/ Homepage of Lake Tana Biosphere Reserve]
*[https://en.nabu.de/projects/ethiopia/tana/index.html Lake Tana project webpage of De Nature den Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU e.V.)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223747/http://www.aber.ac.uk/en/iges/research-groups/quaternary/palaeoecology-laboratory/lake-tana/ Lake Tana project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223747/http://www.aber.ac.uk/en/iges/research-groups/quaternary/palaeoecology-laboratory/lake-tana/ |date=3 March 2016 }} at Aberystwyth University
*[http://www.galenfrysinger.com/blue_nile_ethiopia.htm Photographs of de lake]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20040913205524/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D2511%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html Unesco plan for Lake T'ana]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090701031152/http://www.impetusinmundum.de/documentation/Album.html?Bildliste=5a0c198f-5a0c19cc&amp;Region=Lake+Tana Pictures from Lake Tana den de Monasteries]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Lake Tana| ]]
[[Category:Lakes of Ethiopia|Tana]]
[[Category:Amhara Region]]
[[Category:Blue Nile]]
[[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]]
[[Category:Mountain lakes|Tana]]
[[Category:Nile basin]]
[[Category:Biosphere reserves of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Freshwater ecoregions of Africa]]
[[Category:Important Bird Areas of Ethiopia]]</text>
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'''Lake Nasser''' (Arabic: بحيرة ناصر ''Boħeiret Nāṣer'', Egyptian Arabic: [boˈħeiɾet ˈnɑːseɾ]) be a large reservoir for southern [[Egypt]] den northern [[Sudan]] insyd. De construction of de Aswan High Dam create am den e be one of de largest man-made lakes for de world insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Aswan High Dam, River Nile, Sudan, Egypt |url=http://www.water-technology.net/projects/aswan-high-dam-nile-sudan-egypt/ |access-date=15 October 2016 |website=Water Technology}}&lt;/ref&gt; Before ein creation, de project face opposition from Sudan as e go encroach for land top for de northern part of de country insyd, wey many Nubian people live wey go get to be resettled.&lt;ref name=&quot;ResettlingNubians&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Scudder |first1=Thayer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fNTMDAAAQBAJ&amp;q=Research+Aswan++Egypt&amp;pg=PA1 |title=Aswan High Dam Resettlement of Egyptian Nubians |date=2 September 2016 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9789811019357 |access-date=18 November 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Sofer |first1=Amon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cpZ2q6e5hJUC&amp;q=lake+nasser&amp;pg=PA36 |title=Rivers of Fire: The Conflict Over Water in the Middle East |date=1999 |publisher=Rowman &amp; Littlefield |isbn=9780847685110 |page=36}}&lt;/ref&gt; For de end insyd Sudan ein land near de area of Lake Nasser mostly flood by de lake.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Governorates of Egypt |url=http://www.statoids.com/ueg.html |access-date=16 October 2016 |website=Statoids Administrative Divisions of Countries (&quot;Statoids&quot;)}}&lt;/ref&gt; De lake becam an important economic resource for Egypt insyd, wey e improve agriculture den touting robust fishing den tourism industries.  

Strictly speaking, ''Lake Nasser'' dey refer only to de much larger portion of de lake dat be for Egyptian territory insyd (83% of de total), plus de Sudanese wey dey prefer to call demma smaller body of water '''''Lake Nubia''''' (Egyptian Arabic: بحيرة النوبية ''Boħēret Nubeya'', [boˈħeːɾet nʊˈbejjæ]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Roest |first1=F.C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xExMDWP_rQcC&amp;q=lake+nubia&amp;pg=PA81 |title=Current Status of Fisheries and Fish Stocks of the Four Largest African Reservoirs: Kainji, Kariba, Nasser/Nubia and Volta |last2=Crul |first2=R. C. M. |date=1995 |publisher=Food &amp; Agriculture Org. |isbn=9789251036839 |page=81}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Physical characteristics ==
[[File:Lakenasser oli 2013-2020 lrg.jpeg|thumb|Satellite image of Lake Nasser]]De lake be sam 479 km (298 mi) long den 16 km (9.9 mi) across at ein widest point, wey dey near de Tropic of Cancer. E dey cover a total surface area of 5,250 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (2,030 sq mi) den get a storage capacity of sam 132 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (32 cu mi) of water.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Muala |first1=Eric |last2=Mohamed |first2=Yasir A. |last3=Duan |first3=Zheng |last4=van der Zaag |first4=Pieter |date=13 August 2014 |title=Estimation of Reservoir Discharges from Lake Nasser and Roseires Reservoir in the Nile Basin Using Satellite Altimetry and Imagery Data |url=https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/object/uuid%3A3113f919-47e7-47b4-bde7-4ec5b9bb523f/datastream/OBJ/download |journal=Remote Sensing |volume=6 |issue=8 |page=7526 |bibcode=2014RemS....6.7522M |doi=10.3390/rs6087522 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== History ==

=== Before de Aswan High Dam den Lake Nasser ===
Before de construction of de Aswan High Dam den de consequent creation of de Lake Nasser, de area dat de lake rydee dey occupy be a significant part of de region of Nubia, home to several pharaohs of Egypt den empires such as dat of de Kush.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2018-10-02 |title=About Nubia |url=https://nubianfoundation.org/about-nubia/ |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=Nubian Foundation |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Construction of de Aswan High Dam 1960-1970 ===
[[File:BarragemAssuão.jpg|thumb|Aswan High Dam]]De construction of de Aswan High Dam begin for 1960 insyd at de behest of Lake Nasser ein namesake den de second presido of Egypt, [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]. E be Presido Anwar Sadat wey inaugurate de lake den dam for 1971 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofar0000lang |title=Encyclopedia of Architectural and Engineering Feats |date=2001 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781576071120 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofar0000lang/page/23 23] |quote=president nasser, high dam project. |url-access=registration}}&lt;/ref&gt; Wey dem finish for 1970 insyd, dem build de Aswan High Dam across de Nile to replace de insufficient Aswan Low Dam wey dem build for 1902 insyd. De goals of de High Dam den de reservoir wey e create, Lake Nasser, wer to create a more stable source of water, to increase agricultural production, den to produce electricity give Egypt.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Aswan Dam Completed |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/aswan-dam-completed |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Controversies ====
De construction of de Aswan High Dam den Nasser Lake be host to several controversies wey relate to ein effects for de environment top den dem pippoe wey dey live for de affected area insyd.

==== Displacement of Nubians ====
As a result of de construction of Aswan High Dam den de subsequent filling of Nasser Lake, dem force tens of thousands of native Nubians to relocate from demma homes den migrate elsewhere.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Beddis |first=R. A. |date=1963 |title=The Aswan High Dam and the Resettlement of the Nubian People |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40565511 |journal=Geography |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=77–80 |issn=0016-7487 |jstor=40565511}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Though sam be already able to resettle for de shores of de new lake top, demma original homes already flood den e lose to de lake.

==== Flooding of ancient ruins den monuments ====
De construction of de Aswan High Dam den Nasser Lake spark an international movement to preserve de history of de region. Sekof de filling of de new Lake Nasser, much of de region go flood den as such, de ancient monuments den artifacts dat lay dey go dey lose already. Sekof dis, dem make an international effort to rescue den relocate many of de ancient sites den artifacts wey dem threaten am wey culminate for de International Campaign to Save de Monuments of Nubia insyd wey [[UNESCO]] lead am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hassan |first=Fekri A. |date=2007 |title=The Aswan High Dam and the International Rescue Nubia Campaign |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40743449 |journal=The African Archaeological Review |volume=24 |issue=3/4 |pages=73–94 |doi=10.1007/s10437-007-9018-5 |issn=0263-0338 |jstor=40743449 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Though dem save den relocate many sites such as de temples of Kalabsha, Wadi es-Sebua, den Amada, sam sites such as de fortress of Buhen wey dem no able to rescue den rydee dey rest underwater for de lake insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Gohary |first=Jocelyn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yWkuAQAAIAAJ&amp;q=Lake+Nasser |title=Guide to the Nubian Monuments on Lake Nasser |date=1998 |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |isbn=978-977-424-462-9 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; De most famous of dem dat dem rescue be temples at Abu Simbel wey dem break down den relocate safely off de coast of Lake Nasser.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Working Together: Abu Simbel |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/story-abu-simbel/ |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|title=Rescuing Abu Simbel|url=http://timesmachine.nytimes.comhttp//timesmachine.content-tagging.us-east-1-01.prd.dvsp.nyt.net/timesmachine/1963/11/04/89571304.html?pdf_redirect=true&amp;site=false|access-date=2024-03-19|work=The New York Times|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Ecological ramifications ====
De damming of de Nile cam plus several ecological consequences as dem interrupt de natural flow den processes of de river. One effect already be de interruption of de flow of sediments downstream of de dam, wey since ancient times provide many of de nutrients wey dem need give agriculture downstream. Consequently, dem already force Egyptian farmers to resort to mineral fertilizers to maintain arable land give growing crops. De habitat of several native animal species past Lake Nasser den de Aswan High Dam, such as dat of de Nile crocodile, dem sanso affect am greatly as de reduction of water levels dat cam plus de construction of de dam render dem habitats uninhabitable.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Bunbury |first1=Judith |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000382778 |title=The Egyptian Nile: human transformation of an ancient river |last2=Cooper |first2=John P. |last3=Hoath |first3=Richard |last4=Ikram |first4=Salima |last5=Johnston |first5=Christine |last6=Schneider |first6=Thomas |date=2023 |website=unesdoc.unesco.org |isbn=978-92-3-100540-4 |pages=43–77 |doi=10.54677/mdjn3102 |hdl=10871/132212 |access-date=2024-03-19}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Ecological impacts ==
By providing a reliable source of water give irrigation den agriculture year-round instead of de seasonal den unpredictable floods of de Nile River, Lake Nasser provide a large boon to de agricultural industry of de Egyptian economy. De agricultural industry dey employ about 25% of Egypt ein population. Plus de creation of a more stable water supply for Lake Nasser insyd, Egypt ein arable land increase by about 30%.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2020-07-08 |title=Fueled by the Nile |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146932/fueled-by-the-nile |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=earthobservatory.nasa.gov |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Being home to 52 different species of fish wey several different species of tilapia dominate am wey dey make up de vast majority of catches,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last1=Crul |first1=R. C. M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xExMDWP_rQcC&amp;q=lake+nubia&amp;pg=PA81 |title=Current Status of Fisheries and Fish Stocks of the Four Largest African Reservoirs: Kainji, Kariba, Nasser/Nubia and Volta |last2=Roest |first2=F. C. |date=1995 |publisher=Food &amp; Agriculture Org. |isbn=978-92-5-103683-9 |pages=81 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as well as de popular Nile perch, Lake Nasser develop a robust fishing industry plus thousands of fishing boats wey dey sail de lake den fish processing facilities dotting ein shores.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://www.fao.org/3/i1969e/i1969e.pdf |title=Review of tropical reservoirs and their fisheries: the cases of Lake Nasser, Lake Volta and Indo-Gangetic Basin reservoir |date=2011 |publisher=FAO |isbn=978-92-5-106741-3 |editor-last=Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture |series=FAO fisheries and aquaculture technical paper |location=Rome |pages=39–84}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Lake Nasser becam a popular tourist destination give recreational fishing, sightseeing cruises, den de many relocated monuments dem save from de initial filling of Lake Nasser, especially examples such as de Abu Simbel temples.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|title=Restored Abu Simbel Keeps Ancient Grandeur|url=http://timesmachine.nytimes.comhttp//timesmachine.content-tagging.us-east-1-01.prd.dvsp.nyt.net/timesmachine/1967/10/10/83635447.html?pageNumber=49|access-date=2024-03-19|work=The New York Times|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De Aswan High Dam wey dey hold Lake Nasser dey produce about 2.1 gigawatts of hydroelectricity, wey dey provide a significant percentage of Egypt ein electricity needs (up to half wen dem plete am for 1970 insyd).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2015-06-08 |title=Aswan High Dam |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/85992/aswan-high-dam#:~:text=Aswan%20High%20Dam%20holds%20back,electricity%20for%20the%20first%20time. |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=earthobservatory.nasa.gov |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Current den future issues ==

=== Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam ===
Plus de beginning of construction of de Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) for 2011 insyd, Egypt dey face de threat of water shortage as de new upstream dam go reduce de amount of water wey dey flow downstream to Lake Nasser. As dis flow of water from de Nile into Egypt den Sudan dey constitute a major part for demma economy insyd, ein reduction sekof de construction of de GERD fi potentially dey devastate give de nations. De project be about 90% wey dem complete by 2023; staged filling of de reservoir begin for 2020 insyd. De GERD already begin dey affect Egypt as e reduce de flow of water down de Nile River den decrease available agricultural land give de country.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=MENAFN |title=Egyptian agriculture crisis worsens, mainly due to lack of water |url=https://menafn.com/1094975988/Egyptian-agriculture-crisis-worsens-mainly-due-to-lack-of-water |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=menafn.com |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; If Egypt, Sudan, den Ethiopia dey unable to work out possible solutions give dis water problem, de GERD fi pose an existential threat to Lake Nasser, wey e get a destabilizing effect for Egypt den Sudan top wey dey rely for am top give many sectors for demma economies insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite report |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep33478 |title=The Political Deadlock on the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam |last1=Attia |first1=Hana |last2=Saleh |first2=Mona |date=2021 |publisher=German Institute of Global and Area Studies (GIGA)}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Gallery ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Lake-nasser.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lake-nasser.jpg|Panoramic view of Lake Nasser
File:14.19_Egipto_Nubia_Lago_Nasser.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:14.19_Egipto_Nubia_Lago_Nasser.jpg|Panoramic view of Lake Nasser at dawn
File:Abu_Simbel_Temple_May_30_2007.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abu_Simbel_Temple_May_30_2007.jpg|View of Abu Simbel from Lake Nasser
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Further reading ==

* [[:en:Helen_Chapin_Metz|Helen Chapin Metz]], ed., ''[http://countrystudies.us/egypt/49.htm Egypt: A Country Study]''. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1990.

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
*[https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Nasser Lake Nasser] at Encyclopædia Britannica
*[http://www.360tourist.net/everything-everywhere/toska-from-the-lake 360 Degree Panorama of Lake Nasser] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201172808/http://www.360tourist.net/everything-everywhere/toska-from-the-lake |date=1 February 2014 }}
*[https://www.livescience.com/37360-abu-simbel.html Abu Simbel: The Temples That Moved]

[[Category:Lake Nasser| ]]
[[Category:Aswan]]
[[Category:Aswan Governorate]]
[[Category:Artificial lakes of Egypt|Nasser]]
[[Category:Artificial lakes of Sudan|Nasser]]
[[Category:Nile]]
[[Category:Reservoirs insyd Egypt|Nasser, Lake]]
[[Category:Reservoirs insyd Sudan|Nubia, Lake]]
[[Category:Egypt–Sudan border crossings]]
[[Category:International lakes of Africa|Nasser]]
[[Category:River regulation insyd Egypt]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions insyd Egypt]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Okavango Delta</title>
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      <text bytes="39653" sha1="0kpojusm5evv2z1daml2olkq8adrz8o" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
[[File:DeltaOkawango.jpg|thumb|Satellite image (SeaWiFS) of Okavango Delta, plus national borders wey dem add]]
[[File:Vista aérea del delta del Okavango, Botsuana, 2018-08-01, DD 32.jpg|thumb|Typical region for de Okavango Delta insyd, plus free canals den lakes, swamps den islands]]
De '''Okavango Delta''' anaa '''Okavango Grassland''' be a vast inland delta for [[Botswana]] insyd wey dem form wey de [[Okavango River]] dey reach a tectonic trough at an elevation of 930–1,000 m (3,050–3,280 ft)&lt;ref name=&quot;ramsar1996&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=1996 |title=Ramsar Information Sheet |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015705/https://rsis.ramsar.org/RISapp/files/RISrep/BW879RISformer.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; for de central part of de endorheic basin of de Kalahari Desert insyd.

E be a [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Site as one of de few interior delta systems dat no dey flow into a sea anaa ocean, plus a wetland system dat be largely intact.&lt;ref name=&quot;unesco&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Twenty six new properties added to World Heritage List at Doha meeting |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234247/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1162 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; Instead, de floodwater dey spread ova sandy floodplains den islands, den a large share dey seep downward into de shallow alluvial aquifer beneath, before plants take am up. Nearly all de water wey dey reach de delta dey ultimately evaporate den transpire.  

Each year, about 11 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.6 cu mi) of water dey spread ova de 6,000–15,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (2,300–5,800 sq mi) area. Sam flood waters dey drain into Lake Ngami. De area be once part of Lake Makgadikgadi, an ancient lake dat de early Holocene already mostly dry up.    

De Moremi Game Reserve dey for de eastern side of de delta top. Dem name de delta one of de Seven Natural Wonders of Africa, wey dem officially declare am for 11 February 2013 top for Arusha, [[Tanzania]] insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Seven Natural Wonders of Africa – Seven Natural Wonders |url=http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ |archive-date=21 December 2015 |access-date=22 March 2013 |website=sevennaturalwonders.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 22 June 2014 top, de Okavango Delta becam de 1000th site wey dem inscribe officially for de UNESCO World Heritage List top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=World Heritage List reaches 1000 sites with inscription of Okavango Delta in Botswana |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234253/http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1159 |archive-date=26 July 2018 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Whc.unesco.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;unesco&quot; /&gt;

== Name ==
Dem derive de name ''Okavango'' from de [[Okavango River]], wey for turn insyd dem derive from ''Kavango,'' wey dey refer to de Kavango pippoe of northern Namibia.

Older English spellings include ''Okovango'', while sam Namibian scholarship dey  prefers ''Kavango'' wen dem dey refer to de Namibian river den region. Historian Andreas Eckl dey note say German colonial reports use ''Okavango'', but dat de initial ''O-'' no dey common for local Kavango languages insyd, den instead dem already attribute am to Herero influence.&lt;ref name=&quot;eckl-2007&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Eckl |first=Andreas |year=2007 |title=Reports from ‘beyond the line’: The accumulation of knowledge of Kavango and its peoples by the German colonial administration 1891–1911 |url=https://welwitschia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/JNS_June2007_7to37.pdf |journal=Journal of Namibian Studies |volume=1 |pages=7–37 |access-date=12 May 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Geography ==

=== Floods ===
Seasonal flooding produce Okavango. De Okavango River dey drain de summer (January–February) rainfall from de [[Angola]] highlands den de surge dey flow 1,200 km (750 mi) for around one month insyd. De waters then dey spread ova de 37,500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (14,500 sq mi) area of de delta ova de next four months (March–June).  

De high temperature of de delta dey cause rapid transpiration den evaporation, wey dey result for three cycles of rising den falling water levels insyd&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author1=C. N. Kurugundla |author2=N. M. Moleele |author3=K.Dikgola |title=Flow Partitioning Within the Okavango Delta –A Pre-requisite for Environmental Flow Assessment for Human Livelihoods and Sustainable Biodiversity Management |url=https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/https://www.water.gov.bw/images/Reports/Okavango_Delta.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=17 January 2021 |publisher=[[University of Botswana]] |pages=8–9}}&lt;/ref&gt; dat dem no fully understand until de early 20th century. De flood dey peak between June den August, during Botswana ein dry winter months, wen de delta dey swell to three times ein permanent size, wey e attract animals from kilometres around den dey create one of Africa ein greatest concentrations of wildlife.    

De delta dey very flat, plus less dan 2 m (7 ft) variation for height insyd across ein 15,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (5,800 sq mi), while de water dey drop about 60 m (200 ft) from Mohembo to Maun.&lt;ref name=&quot;ramsar1996&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Wehberg |first1=Jan |date=31 December 2013 |title=Okavango Basin - Physicogeographical setting |journal=Biodiversity &amp; Ecology |volume=5 |pages=11 |doi=10.7809/b-e.00236 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gumbricht |first1=T. |date=1 September 2001 |title=The topography of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, and its tectonic and sedimentological implications |journal=South African Journal of Geology |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=243–264 |bibcode=2001SAJG..104..243G |doi=10.2113/1040243}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Water flow ====

==== Lagoons ====
[[File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shinde_Lagoon,_Okavango_Delta,_Botswana.jpg|thumb|Shinde Lagoon, wey dem see from de air]]Wen de water levels dey gradually recede, water dey remain for major canals den river beds insyd, for waterholes insyd den for a number of larger lagoons insyd, wey then attract increasing numbers of animals. Photo-safari camps den dem find lodges near sam of dem lagoons. Among de larger lagoons be:  

* Dombo Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|11|58|S|23|38|25|E}}) 
* Gcodikwe Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|14|24|E}})
* Guma Lagoon ({{coord|18|57|52|S|22|22|41|E}})
* Jerejere Lagoon/Hippo Pool ({{coord|19|05|17|S|23|01|12|E}})
* Moanachira Lagoon/Sausage Island ({{coord|19|03|23|S|23|03|44|E}})
* Moanachira Lagoon ({{coord|19|03|45|S|23|05|24|E}})
* Shinde Lagoon ({{coord|19|06|18|S|23|09|18|E}})
* Xakanaxa Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|48|S|23|23|42|E}})
* Xhamu Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|03|S|23|16|12|E}})
* Xhobega Lagoon ({{coord|19|10|39|S|23|12|36|E}})
* Xugana Lagoon ({{coord|19|04|12|S|23|06|00|E}})
* Zibadiania Lagoon ({{coord|18|34|12|S|23|32|06|E}})

==== Salt islands ====
De agglomeration of salt around plant roots dey lead to barren white patches for de centre of many of de thousands of islands insyd, wey e already becam too salty to support plants, aside from de occasional salt-resistant palm tree. Trees den grasses dey grow for de sand insyd around de edges of de islands wey no already becam too salty yet. 

About 70% of de islands begin as termite mounds (often ''Macrotermes'' spp.), wey a tree dey then take root for de mound of soil top.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dunford |first=Chris |title=Nature explored:Moremi/Okavango Delta in August |url=http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055602/http://www.nature-explored.com/moremi-okavango-august.htm |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=29 May 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==== Chief ein Island ====
Chief ein Island ({{coord|19|12|S|22|48|E}}), de largest island for de delta insyd, a fault line form am wey uplift an area ova 70 km long (43 mi) den 15 km wide (9.3 mi). Historically, dem reserve am as an exclusive hunting area give de chief, but rydee be area dem protect give wildlife. Rydee e dey provide de core area give much of de resident wildlife wen de waters dey rise.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Okavango delta Botswana {{!}} Mokoro and boating safaris |url=https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055446/https://okavangosafari.co.bw/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-29 |website=Okavango Safaris |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Climate ==
[[File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Okavango_Delta.jpg|right|thumb|Aerial view of delta as floodwaters dey recede, August 2012]]De Delta ein profuse greenery no be de result of a wet climate; rada, e be an oasis for an arid country insyd. De average annual rainfall be 450 mm (18 in) (approximately one-third dat of ein Angolan catchment area) den most of am dey fall between December den March for de form of heavy afternoon thunderstorms insyd. 

December to February be hot wet months plus daytime temperatures wey dey as high as 40 °C (104 °F), warm nights, den humidity levels wey dey fluctuate between 50 den 80%. From March to May, de temperature dey reduce, plus a maximum of 30 °C (86 °F) during de day den mild to cool nights. De rains dey quickly dry up wey e lead into de dry, cool winter months of June to August. Daytime temperatures at dis time of year be mild to warm, but de temperature dey fall considerably after sunset. Nights fi dey cold for de delta insyd, plus temperatures barely above freezing.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Botswana climate: average weather, temperature, precipitation, best time |url=https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055436/https://www.climatestotravel.com/climate/botswana |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2020-05-15 |website=Climatestotravel.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem see frost sometimes ova de winter.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=A Year in the Okavango Delta |url=https://www.naturalhistoryfilmunit.com/post/a-year-in-the-okavango-delta |website=Naturalhistoryfilmunit.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;      

De September to November span get de heat den atmospheric pressure dey build up once more, as de dry season dey slides into de rainy season. October be de most challenging month give visitors: daytime temperatures dey often surpass 40 °C (104 °F) den a sudden cloudburst break de dryness only occasionally.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Fauna of de delta ==
[[File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cheetah_at_Sunset.jpg|right|thumb|A cheetah wey e silhouette against a sunset for de delta insyd]]De Okavango Delta be both a permanent den seasonal home to a wide variety of wildlife. All of de big five game animals, de lion, leopard, African buffalo, African bush elephant, black den white rhinoceros dey present.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Galpine |first=N. J. |year=2006 |title=Boma management of black and white rhinoceros at Mombo, Okavango Delta — some lessons |url=https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Ecological Journal |volume=7 |pages=55−61 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207165941/https://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/120/1203674763.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Antílopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_aérea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ant%C3%ADlopes_lechwes_(Kobus_leche),_vista_a%C3%A9rea_del_delta_del_Okavango,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_27.jpg|thumb|Small gathering of lechwe antelopes, Okavango Delta]]De most abundant large mammal be de red lechwe, plus estimates wey dey suggest approximately 88,000 individuals.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307968091 |title=Dry Season Aerial Survey of Elephants and Wildlife in Northern Botswana |author=Chase, M. |author2=Schlossberg, S. |author3=Landen, K. |author4=Sutcliffe, R. |author5=Seonyatseng, E. |author6=Keitsile, A. |author7=Flyman, M. |year=2018 |publisher=Elephants Without Borders, the Department of Wildlife and National Parks and the Great Elephant Census |location=Botswana |name-list-style=amp}}&lt;/ref&gt; Oda species dey include de giraffe, blue wildebeest, plains zebra, hippopotamus,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=McCarthy |first1=T. S. |last2=Ellery |first2=W. N. |last3=Bloem |first3=A. |year=1998 |title=Some observations on the geomorphological impact of hippopotamus (''Hippopotamus amphibius'' L.) in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=44−56 |bibcode=1998AfJEc..36...44M |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.89-89089.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; impala, common eland, greater kudu, sable antelope, roan antelope, puku, waterbuck, sitatunga, tsessebe, cheetah,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Klein |first=R. |year=2007 |title=Status report for the cheetah in Botswana |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=13−21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015402/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/Cheetah/Klein_2007_Cheetah_in_Botswana.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |access-date=1 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; African wild dog, spotted hyena, black-backed jackal, caracal, serval, aardvark, aardwolf, bat-eared fox, African savanna hare, honey badger, common warthog, chacma baboon, vervet monkey den Nile crocodile.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=K. M. |last2=Leslie |first2=A. J. |year=2008 |title=Diet of the Nile crocodile (''Crocodylus niloticus'') in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=361−368 |doi=10.1670/07-1071.1 |s2cid=46987629}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De delta dey sanso host ova 400 bird species, wey dey include de helmeted guineafowl, African fish eagle, Pel's fishing owl, Egyptian goose, South African shelduck, African jacana, African skimmer, marabou stork, crested crane, African spoonbill, African darter, southern ground hornbill, wattled crane,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=A rapid biological assessment of the aquatic ecosystems of the Okavango Delta, Botswana: High Water Survey |publisher=Conservation International |year=2003 |isbn=1-881173-70-4 |editor-last=Alonso |editor-first=L. E. |series=RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment |volume=27 |location=Washington, DC |editor2-last=Nordin |editor2-first=L.-A.}}&lt;/ref&gt; lilac-breasted roller, secretary bird den common ostrich.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mbaiwa |first1=J. E. |last2=Mbaiwa |first2=O. I. |year=2006 |title=The effects of veterinary fences on wildlife populations in Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=International Journal of Wilderness |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=17−41 |hdl=10311/28}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Since 2005, dem calready consider de area dem protect a Lion Conservation Unit togeda plus Hwange National Park.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=IUCN Cat Specialist Group |title=Conservation Strategy for the Lion ''Panthera leo'' in Eastern and Southern Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2006 |location=Pretoria, South Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt;

By 2019, about 150 rhinocerosses dey live for de northern Okavango Delta insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|title=Poaching, Natural Causes Decimate Botswana's Rhino Population|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|work=Voa News|access-date=13 July 2023|archive-date=13 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230713113217/https://www.voanews.com/a/poaching-natural-causes-decimate-botswana-s-rhino-population/6972651.html|url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; From 2020 to 2021, poachers kill 92 rhinos for de delta region insyd  wey e lef only 40 individuals, wey e prompt de government to move dem rhinos out of de Okavango Delta.   

=== Fish ===
De Okavango Delta be home to 71 fish species, wey dey include de tigerfish, species of tilapia, den various species of catfish. Fish sizes dey range from de 1.4 m (4.6 ft) African sharptooth catfish to de 3.2 cm (1.3 in) sickle barb. De same species dey occur for de [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]] insyd, wey dey indicate an historic link between de two river systems.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=2007 |title=The Fishes of the Okavango Delta |url=http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162829/http://www.orc.ub.bw/downloads/FS3_fish.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2011 |access-date=2011-02-02 |work=Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre |df=dmy-all}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Flora ==
De Okavango Delta be home to 1068 plants wey dey belong to 134 families den 530 genera.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}&lt;/ref&gt; Der be five important plant communities for de perennial swamp insyd: ''Papyrus cyperus'' for de deeper waters insyd'', Miscanthus'' for de shallowly flooded sites insyd, den ''Phragmites australis'', ''Typha capensis'' den ''Pycreus'' for between insyd. De swamp-dominant species, wey dem usually find for de perennial swamp insyd, sanso dey extend far into de seasonally inundated area.&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=UNEP-WCMC |date=2017-05-22 |title=OKAVANGO DELTA |url=https://www.yichuans.me/datasheet/output/site/okavango-delta/ |access-date=2021-05-17 |website=World Heritage Datasheet |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; ''Papyrus cyperus'' reeds beds dey grow best for slow flowing waters of medium depth insyd den be prominent at de channel sides. For de islands den mainlands edges top above de flooded grasslands, dem find different communities of flora. Dem locate dem species according to demma water preference: for instance ''Philenoptera violacea'' dey require little water, dem find am at de highest elevations for de perennial swamps insyd, den e be common for drier seasonal swamp islands top. Trees wey dem restrict to islands within de perennial swamp be a mixture of de palm ''Hyphaene'' ''petersiana'' den acacias.&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Ramberg |first=Lars |date=2006 |title=Species diversity of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226358917 |journal=Aquatic Sciences |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=316 |bibcode=2006AqSci..68..310R |doi=10.1007/s00027-006-0857-y |via=ResearchGate}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Toerien |first=D. K. |date=1976-08-15 |title=Geologie van die Tsitsikamakusstrook |journal=Koedoe |volume=19 |issue=1 |doi=10.4102/koedoe.v19i1.1179 |issn=2071-0771 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De plants of de delta dey play an important role for preventing erosion insyd. De banks anaa levees of a river normally get a high mud content, den dis dey combine plus de sand for de river ein load insyd to continuously build up de river banks. De river ein load for de delta insyd dey consist almost entirely of sand, sekof de clean waters of de Okavango dey contain little mud. De plants dey capture de sand, wey e act as de glue den dey make up give de lack of mud, den for de process insyd dey create further islands for wey more plants fi take root top.   

Dis process no dey important for de formation of linear islands insyd. Dem be long den thin den often curve like a gently meandering river sekof dem actually be de natural banks of old river channels wey plant growth den sand deposition block am up, wey e result for de river changing course insyd den de old river levees dey becam islands. Sekof de flatness of de delta den de large tonnage of sand wey dey flow into am from de Okavango River, de floor of de delta be slowly but constantly dey rise. Wey channels be today, islands go be tomorrow den new channels go fi wash away dem islands wey dey exist.      

== Pippoe ==
[[File:Travesía_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traves%C3%ADa_del_delta_del_Okavango_en_makoro,_Botsuana,_2018-08-01,_DD_22.jpg|thumb|Hambukushu guide poles ein makoro for delta floodwaters top]]De Okavango Delta pippoe dey consist of five ethnic groups, each plus ein own ethnic identity den language:

* de Hambukushu (wey dem sanso know am as Mbukushu, Bukushu, Bukusu, Mabukuschu, Ghuva, Haghuva),
* de Dceriku (Dxeriku, Diriku, Gciriku, Gceriku, Giriku, Niriku),
* de Wayeyi (Bayei, Bayeyi, Yei),
* de Bugakhwe (Kxoe, Khwe, Kwengo, Barakwena, G|anda)
* de ǁanikhwe (Gxanekwe, ǁtanekwe, River Bushmen, Swamp Bushmen, Gǁani, ǁani, Xanekwe).
De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Wayeyi engage traditionally for mixed economies of millet/sorghum agriculture, fishing, hunting, de collection of wild plant foods, den pastoralism insyd.

De Bugakhwe den ǁanikwhe be Bushmen, wey dem practise fishing, hunting, den de collection of wild plant foods traditonally; Bugakhwe use both forest den riverine resources, while de ǁanikwhe mostly focus for riverine resources top. De Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe dey present along de Okavango River for Angola den for de Caprivi Strip of Namibia insyd, den small nombas of Hambukushu den Bugakhwe dey for Zambia insyd, as well. Within de Okavango Delta, ova de past 150 years anaa so, Hambukushu, Dceriku, den Bugakhwe inhabit de panhandle den de Magwegqana for de northeastern delta insyd. ǁanikwhe inhabit de panhandle den de area wey dey along de Boro River thru de delta, as well as de area wey dey along de Boteti River.     

De Wayeyi&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Wayeyi |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602215842/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/wayeyi/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Minority Rights Group |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; inhabit de area around Seronga as well as de southern delta around Maun, den a few Wayeyi&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Alexander Colin |last2=N’teta |first2=Doreen |date=March 1980 |title=The National Museum and Art Gallery, Gaborone, Botswana |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |url-status=live |journal=Museum International |volume=32 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–66 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |issn=1350-0775 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906044710/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-0033.1980.tb01909.x |archive-date=6 September 2023 |access-date=2 June 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; dey live for demma putative ancestral home for de Caprivi Strip insyd. Within de past 20 years many pippoe from all ova de Okavango migrate to Maun, de late 1960s den early 1970s ova 4,000 Hambukushu refugees from Angola settle for de area insyd around Etsha for de western Panhandle insyd.      

De Okavango Delta already dey under de political control of de Batawana (a Tswana nation) since de late 18th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Segolodi |first=Moanaphuti |date=1940 |title=Ditso Tsa Batawana |url=https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306233801/https://www.academia.edu/12170767 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |access-date=1 May 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt; Wey de house of Mathiba I lead am, de leader of a Bangwato offshoot, de Batawana establish complete control ova de delta for de 1850s insyd as de regional ivory trade explode.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Barry |year=1997 |title=The Hunting Trade and the Reconstruction of Northern Tswana Societies after the Difaqane, 1838–1880 |journal=South African Historical Journal |volume=36 |pages=220–239 |doi=10.1080/02582479708671276}}&lt;/ref&gt; Most Batawana, howeva, traditionally live for de edges of de delta top, sekof de threat dat de tsetse fly dey pose to demma cattle. During a hiatus of sam 40 years, de tsetse fly retreat den most Batawana live for de swamps insyd from 1896 thru de late 1930s. Since then, de edge of de delta increasingly crowd plus ein growing human den livestock populations.         

== Tourism ==
De wilderness of de Okavango Delta den ein wildlife dey attract hundreds of thousands of tourists a year, plus de town of Maun dey serve as a gateway de region.&lt;ref name=&quot;odmp-2021&quot;&gt;{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/document/208817 |title=Okavango Delta Management Plan 2021–2028 |date=July 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, Conservation and Tourism |access-date=12 May 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Modern safari tourism wey dem develop during de late 1960s, wen dem build de first modern safari camps for de delta insyd. Tourism products since dem expand am dey include high-end lodge safaris, mobile safaris, self-drive camping, birdwatching, game drives, scenic flights, guided walks, recreational fishing den mokoro canoe excursions.&lt;ref name=&quot;mbaiwa-2005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Mbaiwa |first=J. E. |year=2005 |title=Enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |url=https://adpbotswana.pbworks.com/f/Enclave%2Btourism%2Band%2Bits%2Bsocio-economic%2Bimpacts.pdf |journal=Tourism Management |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=157–172 |doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.005 |access-date=12 May 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Botswana generally promote a high-cost, low-volume tourism model for de Okavango region insyd, wey dem intend to limit environmental impacts while generating high visitor expenditure. A 2014 UNESCO report find der dey 2,129 tourist beds for de area insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;iucn-2014&quot;&gt;{{cite report |url=https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2014/whc14-38com-inf8B2-en.pdf |title=IUCN Evaluations of Nominations of Natural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List |author=International Union for Conservation of Nature |date=April 2014 |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=12 May 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 2017 insyd de delta receive 52,638 visitors, wey 43,363 be international tourists den 9,275 be locals. Dis be a small fraction of de 1 million international tourists Botswana dey receive annually.&lt;ref name=&quot;statsbots-2023&quot;&gt;{{cite report |url=https://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Tourism%20Statistics%20Annual%20Report%202023.pdf |title=Tourism Statistics Annual Report 2023 |publisher=Statistics Botswana |access-date=12 May 2026}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== ''Molapos'' (water streams) ==
[[File:BundPhoto.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BundPhoto.JPG|thumb|Flood-control bunds give flood recession cropping for de ''molapo'' of de Okavango, Botswana insyd]]After de season wey e dey flood, de waters for de lower parts of de delta insyd, wey dey near de base, dey recede, wey e lef moisture behind for de soil insyd. Dem use dis residual moisture give plant fodder den oda crops wey fi thrive for am top. Dem locally know dis land as ''molapo''.  

During 1974 to 1978, de floods be more intensive dan normal den flood recession cropping no dey possible, so severe food den fodder shortages occur. For response insyd, dem initiate de Molapo Development Project. E protect de ''molapo'' areas plus bunds to control de flooding den prevent severe flooding. Dem provide de bunds plus sluice gates so de water wey dem store dem fi release am den flood recession cropping fi start.&lt;ref&gt;[[File:PD-icon.svg|link=|alt=|15x15px]] {{cite book |last1=Kortenhorst |first1=L. F. |url=https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |title=Development of flood-recession cropping in the molapo's of the Okavango Delta, Botswana |last2=Oosterbaan |first2=R. J. |last3=Sprey |first3=L. H. |publisher=International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement |year=1986 |location=Wageningen, The Netherlands |pages=8–19 |display-authors=1 |access-date=11 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810013033/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf |archive-date=10 August 2017 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Possible threats ==
One possible threat be oil exploration by Canadian company ReconAfrica. Initial exploration for April 2021 insyd reveal oil deposits for sedimentary rock insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Ltd |first=Reconnaissance Energy Africa |title=ReconAfrica's First of Three Wells Confirms a Working Petroleum System in the Kavango Basin, Namibia |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055430/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/reconafrica-s-first-of-three-wells-confirms-a-working-petroleum-system-in-the-kavango-basin-namibia-865139500.html |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Newswire.ca |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Environmentalists dey concern dat de project go get a negative ecological impact den dat dem fi threaten sam of de main bodies of water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=A Big Oil Project in Africa Threatens Fragile Okavango Region |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055427/https://e360.yale.edu/features/a-big-oil-project-in-africa-threatens-the-fragile-okavango-region |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Yale E360 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-03-22 |title=Growing concern over Okavango oil exploration as community alleges shutout |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120055426/https://news.mongabay.com/2021/03/growing-concern-over-okavango-oil-exploration-as-community-alleges-shutout/ |archive-date=20 January 2022 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Mongabay Environmental News |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-03-12 |title=Test drilling for oil in Namibia's Okavango region poses toxic risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143948/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/test-drilling-oil-namibia-poses-water-risk |archive-date=27 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-27 |website=Animals |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;!--ReconAfrica and the Government of Botswana have amended the license to exclude the Tsodilo Hills UNESCO site&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Republic of Botswana and ReconAfrica amend Exploration License to Exclude Entire Tsodilo Hills Area |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/republic-of-botswana-and-reconafrica-amend-exploration-license-to-exclude-entire-tsodilo-hills-area-837436712.html |website=newswire.ca |access-date=30 April 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;&lt; This passage was removed on April 20th 2022 without explanation. Is there a reason it should not be published here. -Yes, it is a separate UNESCO site outside the Okavango Delta. See talk page.--&gt; ReconAfrica state say, &quot;Der go be no damage to de ecosystem from de activities wey dem plan.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions: ReconAfrica Initial Drilling Project |url=https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429185250/https://reconafrica.com/operations/frequently-asked-questions/ |archive-date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |website=reconafrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Wilson-Spath |first=Andreas |date=2020-12-15 |title=OP-ED: Paradise is closing down: The ghastly spectre of oil drilling and fracking in fragile Okavango Delta |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220224/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-12-15-paradise-is-closing-down-the-ghastly-spectre-of-oil-drilling-and-fracking-in-fragile-okavango-delta/ |archive-date=2 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-02 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De Namibian government present plans to build a hydropower station for de Zambezi Region insyd, wey go regulate de Okavango ein flow to sam extent. While proponents dey argue say de effect go dey minimal, environmentalists argue say dis project fi destroy most of de rich animal den plant life for de delta insyd. Oda threats dey include local human encroachment den regional extraction of water for both Angola den Namibia insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Threats - Okavango Delta |url=http://www.okavangodelta.com/about/threats/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222105527/https://www.okavangodelta.com/general-information/threats/ |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=4 April 2018 |website=Okavangodelta.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=11 March 2016 |title=Chinese-Angolan project in Angola harvests over 1,200 tons of rice |url=http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104002158/http://www.macauhub.com.mo/en/2016/03/11/chinese-angolan-project-in-angola-harvests-over-1200-tons-of-rice/ |archive-date=4 November 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |work=Macauhub English}}&lt;/ref&gt;

South African filmmaker den conservationist Rick Lomba warn for de 1980s insyd of de threat of cattle invasion to de area. Ein documentary ''The End of Eden'' portray ein lobbying for behalf of de delta top. 

Dem project de Okavango catchment to experience decreasing annual rainfall as well as increasing temperatures as a result of global warming.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |author=ASSAR |url=http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |title=What global warming of 1.5°C and higher means for Botswana |publisher=Adaptation at Scale in Semi Arid Regions (ASSAR) |year=2019 |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831015657/http://www.assar.uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/138/1point5degrees/ASSAR_Botswana_global_warming.pdf |archive-date=31 August 2021 |url-status=live}}&lt;/ref&gt; De effects of global warming dey likely to result for reductions insyd for de extent of floodplains insyd for de Okavango Delta insyd, wey go get significant impacts for water availability top as well as livestock rearing den agricultural activities for de region insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Murray-Hudson |first1=M. |last2=Wolski |first2=P. |last3=Ringrose |first3=S. |date=2006 |title=Scenarios of the impact of local and upstream changes in climate and water use on hydro-ecology in the Okavango Delta, Botswana |journal=Journal of Hydrology |volume=331 |issue=1 |pages=73–84 |bibcode=2006JHyd..331...73M |doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.041}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Conservation work by Conservation International Botswana for de Okavango Delta region insyd include education den policy engagement as well as research den monitoring such as aerial wildlife surveys den rapid biological appraisal work.&lt;ref name=&quot;CIBotswanaAbout&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=About Conservation International Botswana |url=https://botswana.conservation.org/about-us |website=Conservation International Botswana}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;WBDGFTechNote2003&quot;&gt;{{cite report |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/725891468153271873/pdf/313330Delivering0Global0Public0Goods.pdf |title=Delivering Global Public Goods Locally: Lessons Learned and Successful Approaches |date=February 2003 |publisher=World Bank, Development Grant Facility (DGF) |page=8 |format=PDF}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Make you sanso see ==

* Kalahari Basin

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== Further reading ==

* {{cite book |last=Allison |first=P. |url=https://archive.org/details/whateveryoudodon00alli |title=Whatever You Do, Don't Run: True Tales Of A Botswana Safari Guide |publisher=Globe Pequot |year=2007 |isbn=9780762745654 |url-access=registration}}
* Bock, J. (2002). &quot;Learning, Life History, and Productivity: Children's lives in the Okavango Delta of Botswana&quot;. ''Human Nature''. '''13''' (2): 161–198. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4|10.1007/s12110-002-1007-4]]. [[PMID (identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26192757 26192757]. [[S2CID (identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28985956 28985956].

== External links ==
{{sister project links||d=Q650872|c=Category:Okavango Delta|n=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=Okavango Delta|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml Conservation International] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070408083625/http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/regions/africa/safrica.xml |date=8 April 2007 }}
*[https://www.okavango.com/concessions.php Okavango Delta concession areas]
*[http://flowhoorc.blogspot.com/ Flow : information give Okavango Delta planning be de weblog of de Library of de Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Institute]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160205022203/http://www.ngamitimes.com/ De Ngami Times be Ngamiland ein weekly newspaper]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061006083431/http://www.botswana-tourism.gov.bw/attractions/moremi.html Official Botswana Government site for Moremi Game Reserve top, insyd de Okavango Delta]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000710/http://www.wildentrust.org/ Wild Entrust International]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20151221103510/http://sevennaturalwonders.org/africa/ Seven Natural Wonders of Africa]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120319185832/http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/natures-most-amazing-events/how-stuff-works/kalahari-elephants.html Discovery Channel - Kalahari Flood]
*[http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/molapos.pdf Flood-recession cropping for de molapos of de Okavango Delta insyd]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150401231635/http://www.orc.ub.bw/ Okavango Research Institute]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120807161048/http://168.167.30.198/ori/ Current Okavango water levels, weather data den satellite images] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807161048/http://168.167.30.198/ori/ |date=7 August 2012 }}
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_J-ODVl9Omg/ 1986 Documentary The End of Eden by Rick Lomba]
*[http://www.southern-african-game-reserves.co.za/botswana/okavango-delta/index.html Southern African Game Reserves - Okavango Delta]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:River deltas of Africa]]
[[Category:Wetlands of Botswana]]
[[Category:Swamps of Africa]]
[[Category:Floodplains of Africa]]
[[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Botswana]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Botswana]]
[[Category:Zambezian flooded grasslands]]
[[Category:Kalahari Desert]]
[[Category:First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Sudd</title>
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[[File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sudão_do_Sul.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pantanal_Sudd,_Sud%C3%A3o_do_Sul.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Satellite image of de swamp around de time of de wet season]]De '''Sudd''' (Arabic: السد, &lt;small&gt;romanized&lt;/small&gt;: ''as-Sudd'', Nuer: Baki̱ec, Dinka: Toc) be a vast swamp for [[South Sudan]] insyd, wey de [[White Nile]] ein ''Baḥr al-Jabal'' section form am. Dem derive de Arabic word ''sudd'' from ''sadd'' ({{lang|ar|[[wikt:سد|سد]]}}), wey dey mean &quot;barrier&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Gaudet |first1=John J. |title=Remote sensing for tropical freshwater bodies. The problem of floating islands on Lake Naivasha |last2=Falconer |first2=A. |publisher=Regional Remote Sensing Facility |year=1983 |location=Nairobi, Kenya}}&lt;/ref&gt; anaa &quot;obstruction&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;The ''[[:en:New_Oxford_American_Dictionary|New Oxford American Dictionary]]'' (''NOAD''), 3rd edition.&lt;/ref&gt; De term &quot;the sudd&quot; cam to refer to any large solid floating vegetation island anaa mat. De area wey de swamp dey cover be one of de world ein largest wetlands den de largest freshwater wetland for de Nile Basin insyd.   

Give many centuries de swamp, den especially ein thicket of vegetation, prove an impenetrable barrier to navigation along de Nile. De ancient Egyptians fail to penetrate de Sudd den dey reach de areas south of am.&lt;ref name=&quot;Dumont2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book |title=The Nile Origin, Environments, Limnology and Human Use |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=Dumont |editor-first=Henri J. |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=1–21 |chapter=A Description of the Nile Basin, and a Synopsis of Its History, Ecology, Biogeography, Hydrology, and Natural Resources}}&lt;/ref&gt; For AD 61 insyd, a party of Roman soldiers wey de Emperor Nero send am proceed up de White Nile but e no dey  able to get beyond de Sudd, wey mark de limit of Roman penetration into equatorial Africa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Kirwan |first=L.P. |author-link=L. P. Kirwan |year=1957 |title=Rome beyond The Southern Egyptian Frontier |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790717 |journal=[[Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |bibcode=1957GeogJ.123...13K |doi=10.2307/1790717 |jstor=1790717 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Give de same reasons for later times insyd, de search give de source of de Nile be particularly difficult; e eventually involve ovaland expeditions from de central African coast, so as to avoid having to travel thru de Sudd.      

For 2019 insyd, a study suggest say water flows wey e increase into de Sudd go dey partly cause up to a third of de whole [[West Africa|West African]] rise for atmospheric methane levels insyd ova de previous decade.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Lunt |first1=Mark F. |last2=Palmer |first2=Paul I. |last3=Feng |first3=Liang |last4=Taylor |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Boesch |first5=Hartmut |last6=Parker |first6=Robert J. |display-authors=3 |year=2019 |title=An increase in methane emissions from tropical Africa between 2010 and 2016 inferred from satellite data |journal=[[Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics]] |volume=19 |issue=23 |pages=14721–14740 |bibcode=2019ACP....1914721L |doi=10.5194/acp-19-14721-2019 |hdl=20.500.11820/013be268-2ebf-478a-a9d0-1e80f8c4b888 |s2cid=198448426 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=2019 |title=Climate change: Methane pulse detected from South Sudan wetlands |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-50708544 |publisher=BBC News}}&lt;/ref&gt;      

== Location ==
De Sudd dey stretch from Mongalla to just outside de [[Sobat River]] confluence plus de White Nile just upstream of Malakal as well as westwards along de Bahr el Ghazal. De shallow den flat inland delta dey lie between 5.5 den 9.5 degrees latitude north den dey cover an area of {{convert|500|km|mi}} south to north den {{convert|200|km|mi}} east to west between Mongalla for de south den Malakal insyd for de north insyd.    

Ein size be highly variable, wey dey average ova {{convert|30000|km2|sqmi}}. During de wet season e go fi extend to ova {{convert|130000|km2|sqmi}} wey dey comprise 21% of de country, wey e depend for de inflowing waters top, plus de discharge from [[Lake Victoria]] wey aleady be de main control factor of flood levels den area inundation. Since de Sudd area dey consist of various meandering channels, lagoons, reed den papyrus fields den dey lose half of ein inflowing water thru evapotranspiration for de permanent den seasonal floodplains insyd, de complex hydrology get many primary den secondary effects.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |title=IAHS Special Publication No. 5 |author2=Parks, Y.P. |year=1999 |location=Wallingford, UK}}&lt;/ref&gt; A major feature of de area be de incomplete Jonglei Canal, wey dem plan am to bypass waters from de Sudd to avoid evaporation losses den increase de amount of water wey dem discharge at de outlet of de Sudd.     

From 1961 to 1963, a great increase for de flooded area insyd occur wen de level of [[Lake Victoria]] rise, den de outflow increase. Dem relate de total area of de Sudd to de amount of water wey dey reach Bor from de Albert Nile den from torrents anaa seasonal watercourses dat fi add substantial amounts to de flow for de upstream end of de Sudd insyd. During de 1960s increase for Lake Victoria discharge insyd, wey dey flow at Mongalla roughly doubled, de flows at Malakal at de northern end of de swamps increase by 1.5 times de previous average flow. As a consequence of dem high flows, de areas of permanent swamp den seasonal floodplains wey dem take togeda, increase to 2.5 times demma former size. De swamps increase de most, den de seasonal floodplain be 1.5 times ein previous size.&lt;ref name=&quot;mefit&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Mefit-Babtie Srl |title=Development Studies of the Jonglei Canal Area, Range Ecology Survey, Final Report, Volume 2, Background |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=1983 |location=Khartoum, Sudan}}&lt;/ref&gt;     

From de southern inflow of de Bahr al Jabal (&quot;Sea of de Mountain&quot;) at Mongalla, de riverbed wey dem define successively dey widen into a floodplain, wey de waters flow for meandering river stretches insyd den various channels den lagoons thruout de dry season. Plus rising water levels e dey expand ova de semi-flooded grasslands during de flood season. 

Slightly downstream of Bor, de Bahr el Zeraf (&quot;Sea of de Giraffes&quot;) river dey branch off de Bahr al Jabal to de east, wey e divert part of de flow, den again dey join de Bahr al Jabal just before e reach Malakal. During de course of ein flow, de Bahr al Jabal dey pass Lake No, wey de Bahr el Ghazal (&quot;Sea of de Gazelles&quot;) dey connect to de Bahr al Jabal, wey e contribute an inflow plus seasonal variation. At Malakal, de Sobat River dey join into de system. De flows wey dem combine then dey stream to de north as de White Nile for a defined bed insyd, wey e join plus de Blue Nile waters at Khartoum to form de main Nile.     

Dem designate Sudd as a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance for 2006 insyd. Dem designate an area of {{convert|57000|km2|sqmi}}.  

== Climate ==
Hydrologically de Sudd dey play an important role for dey store floodwaters insyd den dey trap sediments from de Bahr al Jabal. Roughly 55% of water wey dey enter de area, dem lose am to evaporation.&lt;ref name=&quot;baecher&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last=Baecher |first=G. |title=The Nile Basin – Environmental transboundary opportunities and constraint analysis |publisher=USAID PCE-I-00-96-00002-00 |year=2000}}&lt;/ref&gt; Water levels dey fluctuate by up to 1.5 metres, wey e depend for de intensity of seasonal flooding top.&lt;ref name=&quot;mefit&quot; /&gt; De region dey receive less rainfall (typically between 55 den 65 centimetres per year) dan neighbouring areas at de same latitude. Orographic lifting for de eastern den western sides of de Sudd top dey contribute to dat condition.&lt;ref&gt;Zahran, A.B. 1986. Sudan Rainfall Variability – Towards a Drought Assessment Model. Interna. Confer. on water Resources Needs &amp; Planning in Drought Prone Areas, 85–106&lt;/ref&gt;    

== Geomorphology ==
Dem define de morphology of de area by de channel den lagoon system of de permanent Sudd swamps, de adjacent flood plains, den de surrounding flat terrain. De Bahr al Jabal dey run to de north-northwest den therefore for an angle insyd to de gradient of de floodplain, wey dey slope down to de north, while north of Juba de river dey flow for an incised trough insyd. De banks of dis trough dey decrease for height insyd from south to north plus de Bahr al Jabal wey dey approach Bor den dey end for de Sudd flood plain insyd just north of Bor for de eastern bank top den towards Shambe for de western bank top. For de southern part insyd, de river dey meander from side to side for de restraining trough insyd for one anaa more channels insyd, but further north dem no dey limit de swamp by higher ground den de system of river channels dey becam increasingly complex. De characteristics of de river plus ein network of channels den lagoons be distinguishable for satellite imagery den digital elevation models insyd.     

Dem define de geology of de area by heavy clay soils, highly impermeable plus a top layer of &quot;black cotton&quot; vertisol of approximately 500&amp;#x20;mm for average top. Dem find sandy soils only at depths of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} den below, as well drilling profiles determine am.&lt;ref&gt;Peterson, 2008&lt;/ref&gt; Dis dey indicate a very limited groundwater influence for de area ein hydrology top.   

== Population ==
Nuer den Dinka pastoralists dey use de Sudd den de surrounding areas extensively. Livestock den rain-fed agriculture be de dominant means of support give de largely rural population give wey de seasonal flooded grasslands along de Sudd dey provide valuable grazing lands.&lt;ref name=&quot;baecher&quot; /&gt;  

== Vegetation den ecosystem ==
Dem fi classify vegetation cover of de area generally for five categories insyd wey dey depend for de elevation of de area top above river flood level: de lakes den rivers, de plant life of de swamp wey dey float, river-flooded grasslands (Toic), rain-flooded grasslands, den wooded grasslands for de fringes top. Local populations already cultivate grassland den woodland areas. 

De density of de grasslands along de Sudd dey change plus de season, plus tall grass for de rainy season insyd den short dry grass for de dry season insyd, wen frequent fires sanso dey occur. Dem mostly ovagrow fluvial area plus vegetation, plus sam main de side channels as well as lagoons of open water. Dem describe de vegetation distribution for further detail insyd for Sutcliffe (1974) den Petersen (2007) insyd. De main species be:  

* ''Phragmites communis'' (shallow flooded, buried roots)

* ''Echinochloa pyramidalis'' (shallow flooded, buried roots)

* ''Oryza barthii'' (shallow flooded, buried roots)

* ''Echinochloa stagnina'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots)

* ''Vossia cuspidata'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots)

* ''Cyperus papyrus'' (deep flooded, superficial/floating roots)

* ''Typha domingensis''
Dem anchor first three species so dem limit demma distribution to de depth of flooding. Give de last species demma root system dey need to be permanently for water anaa saturated soil insyd, wey be a good indicator of flood patterns. ''P. communis'', ''E. pyramidalis'' den ''O. barthii'' for example dey dominate only for areas insyd wey de depth of flooding no dey exceed 130&amp;#x20;cm ova a period of ten years anaa 118&amp;#x20;cm give one month for de year insyd.   

Floating vegetation of ''C. papyrus'' cause blockages for de Sudd swamps insyd for a number of occasions top between 1879 den 1900, wen inscrease flooding tear out plants. ''C. papyrus'' dey need saturated conditions den fi tolerate flooding dat no dey more dan 150&amp;#x20;cm deep.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |year=1974 |title=A Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile |journal=Hydrological Science Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=237–255 |doi=10.1080/02626667409493903}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

Wen de matted vegetation dey break free of ein moorings, e dey form floating islands of vegetation up to 30&amp;#x20;km for length insyd. Such islands, for varying stages of decomposition insyd, eventually dey break up. 

Historically, de fully floating Nile cabbage (''Pistia stratiotes'') be an important plant for de Sudd insyd, but dem already largely replace am de invasive water hyacinth (''Eichhornia crassipes'').&lt;ref name=&quot;Green2009&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author1=Green, J. |title=The Nile |author2=A.I. El-Moghraby |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=193–204 |chapter=Swamps of the Upper White Nile}}&lt;/ref&gt; De sluggish waters be host to a large population of mosquitoes den parasites dat dey cause waterborne diseases.  

=== Fauna ===
Dey include several diverse aquatic habitats like swamps, lakes, channels den floodplains, de Sudd be rich for fish insyd. Dem already record sam 70 species, den dis dey mostly involve fish dat dem find for much of de Nile system insyd such as marbled lungfish, Senegal bichir, African arowana, ''Mormyrus caschive'', Nile carp, Nile tilapia, mango tilapia, redbelly tilapia, Nile perch, ''Distichodus rostratus'', elongate tigerfish, African tetras, African sharptooth catfish, ''Synodontis frontosus'', ''S. schall'' den odas.&lt;ref name=&quot;Green2009&quot; /&gt; Among de few endemics of de Sudd system be ''Clarias engelseni'', ''Enteromius yeiensis'', ''Nothobranchius nubaensis'', ''N. virgatus'' den two apparently undescribed species of ''Enteromius'', den de fish fauna for significant sections insyd still dem no properly study am.&lt;ref name=&quot;Neumann2016&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |author1=Neumann, D. |author2=H. Obermaier |author3=T. Moritz |year=2016 |title=Annotated checklist for fishes of the Main Nile Basin in the Sudan and Egypt based on recent specimen records (2006–2015) |journal=Cybium |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=287–317 |doi=10.26028/cybium/2016-404-004}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

Dem find ova 400 species of bird for de Sudd insyd, wey dey include shoebills (a stronghold give de species plus several thousand individuals), great white pelicans, den black crowned cranes. De Sudd dey provide food den water to large populations of migrating birds. As de surrounding landscape be a large swath of dry Sahel across Africa, de swamp sanso be a haven give migrating mammals, especially antelopes, such as de bohor reedbuck, sitatunga (de most aquatic antelope of the Sudd, mostly inhabiting permanent swampland), the endangered Nile lechwe (no for permanent swampland insyd, but generally near de water ein edge den often dey walk for shallow water insyd), den de white-eared kob (further away from de permanent swampland).&lt;ref name=&quot;Green2009&quot; /&gt; White-eared kob, tiang den Mongalla gazelle dey take part for one of de largest mammal migrations insyd for Earth top, wey e nomba about 1.2 million individuals for total insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614213924/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html &quot;Massive Animal Herds Flourishing Despite Sudan War, Survey Reveals&quot;]. [[:en:National_Geographic_(magazine)|National Geographic]]. Archived from [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070611-sudan-animals.html the original] on 14 June 2007. January 2007&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Furniss2010&quot;&gt;Furniss, C. (2010) {{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3120/is_4_82/ai_n54800827/?tag=content;col1|title=Draining Africa's Eden.|work=Geographical|year=2010}} Geographical, April 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; Dem frequent de shallow water Nile crocodiles den hippopotamuses. For more upland areas insyd dem know de Sudd as an historic habitat give de endangered painted hunting dog, wey howeva go already exterminate for de region insyd.&lt;ref&gt;C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 ''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993|date=9 December 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;     

== Threats den preservation ==
De long-running civil war in Southern Sudan seriously disrupt conservation efforts for de Sudd insyd, especially as de widespread availability of weapons encourage wildlife poaching, wey dey include of elephants. Der dey three game reserves: Zeraf Island between de Zeraf River den de Nile, Shambe Reserve, den Mongalla Game Reserve.

== Jonglei diversion canal ==
De early explorers wey dey search give de source of de Nile experience considerable difficulties, samtimes taking months to get thru de Sudd. For ein 1972 book insyd ''The White Nile'', Alan Moorehead wey e say of de Sudd, &quot;der dey no more formidable swamp for de world insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Moorehead |first=Alan |title=The White Nile |publisher=Book Club Associates |year=1972 |location=London |page=85}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem sustain de Sudd swamp by de water from de southwestern tributaries (de Bahr el Ghazal system) den dey consume a proportion of de main river thru evaporation den transpiration.    

Sir William Garstin, Undersecretary of State of Public Works of Egypt, create de first detailed proposal give digging a canal east of de Sudd for 1907 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |year=1907 |title=The Egyptian Sudan, its history and monuments |url=https://archive.org/stream/egyptiansudanits02budg#page/484/mode/2up |work=archive.org}}&lt;/ref&gt; By bypassing de swamps, evaporation of de Nile ein water go vastly decrease, wey go allow an increase for de area of cultivatable land insyd for Egypt insyd by {{convert|2000000|acres|km2|abbr=on|order=flip|comma=}}. De Egyptian government for de 1930s insyd propose digging a canal east of de Sudd to divert water from de Bahr al Jabal above de Sudd to a point farther down de White Nile, wey e bypass de swamps den e carry de White Nile ein water directly to de main channel of de river.&lt;ref&gt;[https://books.google.com/books?id=6CcDAAAAMBAJ&amp;dq=motor+gun+boat&amp;pg=PA34 &quot;Big Canal To Change Course of Nile River&quot;], October 1933, ''[[:en:Popular_Science|Popular Science]]'', short article on top-right of page with map&lt;/ref&gt;        

Dem study de Jonglei Canal scheme by de government of Egypt for 1946 insyd, den dem develop plans between 1954 den 1959. Construction work for de canal top begin for 1978 insyd, but de outbreak of political instability for Sudan insyd hold up work give many years. By 1984 wen de Sudan People's Liberation Army bring de works to a halt, dem excavate 240&amp;#x20;km of de canal of a total of 360&amp;#x20;km. De rusting remains of de giant German-built excavation machine—variously dem nickname am either &quot;Sarah&quot; anaa &quot;Lucy&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104133215/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923276-1,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=4 November 2012|magazine=Time|title=Environment: Sarah Digs a Great Canal|date=10 January 1983|access-date=24 May 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;—dey visible for a Google Earth image top at de south end of de canal, wey dem locate am since dem disable am by a missile.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.google.com/maps?q=jonglei+canal&amp;hl=en&amp;ll=6.932647,31.52824&amp;spn=0.009841,0.016512&amp;sll=9.294596,30.168457&amp;sspn=2.504328,4.22699&amp;t=h&amp;hnear=Jonglei+Canal&amp;z=17 Google Earth image]&lt;/ref&gt; Wen dem restore peace for 2000 insyd, speculation grow about a restart of de project. Howeva, for 21 February 2008 top, de Sudanese government say de revival of de project no dey be a priority. Nevertheless, for 2008 insyd, Sudan den Egypt gree to restart de project den finish de canal for 24 years insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ahmad&quot;&gt;Ahmad, A.M. (2008) [http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/20/2/575?rss=1 Post-Jonglei planning in southern Sudan: combining environment with development] Archived 2 February 2013 at [[:en:Archive.today|archive.today]] [[:en:Environment_and_Urbanization|Environment and Urbanization]], October 2008&lt;/ref&gt; South Sudan gain independence for 2011 insyd.        

Dem estimate am dat de Jonglei canal project go produce 3.5–4.8 billion m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; of water per year (equal to a mean annual discharge of 110–152 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (3 883–5 368&amp;#x20;ft&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s), an increase of around 5–7% of Egypt ein current water supply.&lt;ref name=&quot;Furniss2010&quot; /&gt; Dem go share canal ein benefits by Egypt den Sudan, plus de expected damage wey dey fall for South Sudan top.&lt;ref name=&quot;ahmad&quot; /&gt; De complex environmental den social issues wey dem involve, dey include de collapse of fisheries, drying of grazing lands,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|work=Gurtong|title=Jonglei Canal Project Is A Looming Catastrophe|author=Koang Tut Jing|date=8 September 2006|access-date=22 October 2010|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718104443/http://www.gurtong.net/ECM/Editorial/tabid/124/ctl/ArticleView/mid/519/articleId/2718/Jonglei-Canal-Project-is-a-Looming-Catastrophe.aspx|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; a drop of groundwater levels, den a reduction of rainfall for de region insyd,&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:De_Villiers,_Marq|De Villiers, Marq]], 2001. ''Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource''. Mariner Books. {{ISBN|978-0-618-12744-3}}&lt;/ref&gt; wey e limit de practicality of de project. De draining of de Sudd dey likely to have environmental effects comparable to de drying of [[Lake Chad]] anaa de draining of de Aral Sea.   

== Make you sanso see ==

* [[Okavango Delta]]

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

=== Bibliography ===
* Petersen, G., Abya, J. A., Fohrer, N. (2007) [https://www.adv-geosci.net/11/113/2007/adgeo-11-113-2007.pdf Spatio-temporal water body and vegetation changes in the Nile swamps of southern Sudan] ''Advanced Geoscience 11'', 113–116
* Petersen, G., Sutcliffe, J. V., Fohrer, N. (2008) [https://archive.today/20130105072332/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119139558/abstract Morphological analysis of the Sudd region using land survey and remote sensing data] ''[[:en:Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms|Earth Surface Processes and Landforms]]'', 33
* Petersen, G. (2008) [http://eldiss.uni-kiel.de/macau/receive/dissertation_diss_00003028 ''The Hydrology of the Sudd – Hydrologic Investigation and Evaluation of Water Balances in the Sudd Swamps of Southern Sudan''] University of Kiel, Germany
* Sutcliffe, J.V., Parks, Y.P. (1999) ''The Hydrology of the Nile'', IAHS Special Publication No 5. Wallingford. UK

== Read further ==

* {{cite journal |last=Stanton |first=E.A. |year=1903 |title=The Great Marshes of the White Nile |journal=Journal of the Royal African Society |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=375–379 |jstor=715130}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=van den Hurk |first2=B.J.J.M. |last3=Savenije |first3=H.H.G. |last4=Bastiaanssen |first4=W.G.M. |year=2005 |title=Impact of the Sudd wetland on the Nile hydroclimatology |journal=Water Resources Research |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=W08420 |bibcode=2005WRR....41.8420M |doi=10.1029/2004WR003792 |s2cid=128724157}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Mohamed |first1=Y.A. |last2=Savenije |first2=H.H.G. |last3=Bastiaanssen |first3=W.G.M. |last4=van den Hurk |first4=B.J.J.M. |year=2006 |title=New lessons on the Sudd hydrology learned from remote sensing and climate modeling |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=507–518 |bibcode=2006HESS...10..507M |doi=10.5194/hess-10-507-2006 |s2cid=2958658 |doi-access=free}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0905 &quot;Saharan flooded grasslands&quot;]. ''Terrestrial Ecoregions''. World Wildlife Fund.
* [https://www.reuters.com/article/scienceNews/idUSL2827708220070528 Elephant herds wey dem find for isolated south Sudan island top]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110419212058/http://www.hydroc.de/index-Dateien/p3ewhite.htm Current hydrological den ecological research program for de Sudd swamps top]
* [https://maps.google.com/?ll=9.400291,30.500793&amp;spn=1.287076,1.873169&amp;t=k Sudd – for Google Maps top]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Afrotropical ecoregions]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of South Sudan]]
[[Category:Flooded grasslands den savannas]]
[[Category:Grasslands of South Sudan]]
[[Category:Nile]]
[[Category:Swamps of Africa]]
[[Category:Wetlands of South Sudan]]
[[Category:Ramsar sites insyd South Sudan]]
[[Category:Important Bird Areas of South Sudan]]</text>
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    <title>Niger Delta</title>
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[[File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|thumb|384x384px|View of de Niger Delta from space (north/land at top).]]
De '''Niger Delta''' be de delta of de [[Niger River]] wey dey sit directly for de [[Gulf of Guinea]] top for de [[Atlantic Ocean]] top for Nigeria insyd.&lt;ref&gt;C. Michael Hogan, [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166 &quot;Niger River&quot;, in M. McGinley (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Earth''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420075935/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166|date=2013-04-20}}, Washington, DC: National Council for Science and Environment, 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Umoh |first1=Unyime U. |last2=Li |first2=Li |last3=Wang |first3=Junjian |last4=Kauluma |first4=Ndamononghenda |last5=Asuquo |first5=Francis E. |last6=Akpan |first6=Ekom R. |date=August 2022 |title=Glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether signatures in tropical mesotidal estuary sediments of Qua Iboe River, Gulf of Guinea |journal=Organic Geochemistry |volume=170 |bibcode=2022OrGeo.17004461U |doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2022.104461 |s2cid=249615285 |article-number=104461}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem locate am within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, wey dey include: all six states from de South South geopolitical zone, one state (Ondo) from South West geopolitical zone den two states (Abia den Imo) from South East geopolitical zone.

De Niger Delta be a very densely populated region wey dem samtimes bell am de '''Oil Rivers''' sekof e once be a major producer of palm oil.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Otoabasi |first=Akpan |title=The Niger Delta Question and the peace plan |publisher=Spectrum Books |year=2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. 

De delta be a petroleum-rich region den e already get de center of international concern ova extensive pollution wey dem often use am as an example of ecocide.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-04-07 |title='Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/ecocide-movement-pushes-new-international-crime-environmental-destruction-n1263142 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=NBC News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=5 February 2014 |title=Fighting ecocide in Nigeria |url=https://theecologist.org/2014/feb/05/fighting-ecocide-nigeria |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=theecologist.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making? |url=https://unpo.org/article/19131 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=unpo.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|date=2011-08-22|title=How an ecocide law could prevent another Nigerian oil disaster|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/aug/22/ecocide-law-nigerian-oil-disaster|access-date=2023-07-06|issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; De principal cause be major oil spills by multinational corporations of de petroleum industry.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Aghalino |first=S.O |title=Combating the Niger Delta Crisis: an appraisal of Federal Government response to Anti-Oil protect in Niger Delta, 1958-2002. |publisher=Maiduguri journal of Historical studies |year=2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Dakolo |first=Bubaraye |title=The Riddle of the Oil Thief |publisher=Purple Shelves |year=2021 |isbn=978-978-988-990-7 |location=Lagos |pages=117–170}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Geography ==
De Niger Delta, as rydee dem define am officially by de Nigerian government, dey extend ova 70,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (27,000 sq mi) den dey make up 7.5% of Nigeria ein land mass.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Chukwu|first=Ignatius|date=2023-10-01|title=What Nigeria’s independence means for Niger Delta|url=https://businessday.ng/life/article/what-nigerias-independence-means-for-niger-delta/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2025-11-21|newspaper=[[BusinessDay (Nigeria)|BusinessDay]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Historically den cartographically, e dey consist of present-day Bayelsa, Delta, den Rivers States. For 2000 insyd, howeva, Obasanjo ein regime wey e include Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Cross River State, Edo, Imo den Ondo States for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

De Niger Delta den de South-South geopolitical zone (wey dey contain six of de states for de Niger Delta insyd) be two different entities. De Niger Delta dey separate de Bight of Benin from de Bight of Bonny within de larger Gulf of Guinea.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Akpan |first=D. |title=Oil Exploration and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. A paper presented at the first regional conference. |year=2006}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Demographics ==
De political Niger Delta be home to approximately 31 million pippoe from ova 40 ethnic groups, wey dey include de Ijaws—such as de Kalabari, Okrika, Epie-Atissa, Ogbia, Abua, Obolo, Opobo, Ibani, Apoi, Arogbo, Olodiama, Biseni, Akinima, Ibibio, Urhobo, Annang, Oron, Efik, Ogoni, Edo, Esan, Isoko, Igbo den Okpe among odas. Dem communities dey speak around 250 different dialects. De Ijaw be de largest ethnic group for de Niger Delta insyd, plus a widespread presence across six states for de region insyd.

De major language groups wey dem speak for de Niger Delta insyd dey include de Ijaw languages, Ibibio-Efik,&lt;ref name=&quot;nigerdeltabudget.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Niger Delta – Niger Delta Budget Monitoring Group |url=https://www.nigerdeltabudget.org/the-niger-delta/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Edoid languages.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== History ==

=== Colonial period ===
De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De core Niger Delta later becam a part of de eastern region of Nigeria, wey cam into being for 1951 insyd (one of de three regions, den later one of de four regions). De majority of de pippoe be dem pippoe from de colonial Calabar den Ogoja divisions, de present-day Ogoja, Annang, Ibibio, Oron, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoni pippoe. De National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) be de ruling political party of de region. De NCNC later becam de National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decide to separate from Nigeria. De ruling party of eastern Nigeria no seek to preclude de separation den even encourage am. De then Eastern Region get de third, fourth, den fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups for de country, wey be de Igbo, Ijaw den Ibibio.

For 1953 insyd, de Old Eastern region get a major crisis wen dem expel professor Eyo Ita from office by de majority Igbo tribe of de Old Eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar, be one of de pioneer nationalists give Nigerian independence. De non-igbo of den then eastern region, de Ibibio, Annang, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoja, wey dem situate along de southeastern coast den for de delta region insyd den demand a state of demma own, wey dem bell am de Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. De Ibibio pippoe of de present Akwa Ibom State den Cross River State wey dem sanso champion give demma state thru de Ibibio State Union. De struggle give de creation of de COR state continue den be a major issue wey dey concern de status of minorities for Nigeria insyd during debates for Europe insyd for Nigerian independence top. As a result of dis crisis, Professor Eyo Ita lef de NCNC to form a new political party wey dem bell am National Independence Party wey be one of de five Nigerian political parties wey dem represent am at de conferences for Nigerian Constitution den Independence top.&lt;ref name=&quot;nigerdeltabudget.org&quot; /&gt; 

=== Post-colonial period ===
For 1961 insyd, anoda major crisis occur wen de then-eastern region of Nigeria allow present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from de region of wat rydee be Akwa Ibom den Cross River states) thru a plebiscite while de leadership of de Northern Region take de necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon for Nigeria insyd, for present-day Adamawa den Taraba states insyd. De aftermath of de 1961 plebiscite lead to a dispute between Cameroon den Nigeria ova de small territory of Bakassi.

A new phase of de struggle see de declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian presido Ironsi ein administration, just before de Nigerian Civil War.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Writer|first=Guest|date=2018-05-22|title=The revolutionist as the true national knight: Retelling the tale of Isaac Boro 50 years after|url=https://www.thecable.ng/the-revolutionist-as-the-true-national-knight-retelling-major-isaac-boro-fifty-years-after/|access-date=2024-07-04|newspaper=[[TheCable]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sanso just before de Nigerian civil war, dem create Southeastern State of Nigeria (dem sanso know am Southeastern Nigeria anaa Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), wey get de colonial Calabar division, den colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State wey dem sanso create am. Southeastern State den River State becam two states give de minorities of de old eastern region, den de majority Igbo of de old eastern region get a state wey dem bell am East Central State. Dem rename Southeastern State as Cross River State den dem later split am into Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. Dem later divide Rivers State into Rivers State den Bayelsa State. 

=== Nigerian Civil War ===
Niger Delta pippoe suffer heavily plus de great loss of lives den properties, hunger den starvation, den sustain many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War, wey dem sanso know am de Biafran War, for wey de eastern region declare an independent state wey dem name am Biafra wey dem eventually defeat am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970 |date=2015-12-31 |pages=xv–xx |chapter=Chronology of Important Events in the Nigerian Civil War |publisher=Princeton University Press |doi=10.1515/9781400871285-003 |isbn=978-1-4008-7128-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last1=Heerten |first1=Lasse |title=The Nigeria-Biafra War |date=2017-07-06 |work=Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide |pages=3–43 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315229294-1 |isbn=978-1-315-22929-4 |last2=Moses |first2=A. Dirk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Ekwe-Ekwe, Herbert. |title=The Biafra War: Nigeria and the aftermath. |date=1991 |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |isbn=0-88946-235-6 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |oclc=476261625}}&lt;/ref&gt; During dis period, dem shut down schools completely, den gunfire becam a daily occurrence. 

=== Non-violent resistance ===
Following de civil war, local communities increasingly social den environmental justice wey dem demand from de federal government, plus Ken Saro Wiwa den de Ogoni tribe as de lead figures give dis phase of de struggle. Cohesive oil protests becam most pronounced for 1990 insyd plus de publication of de Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous pippoe protest against de lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, den hospitals, for de region insyd, despite all de oil wealth wey dem create. Dem sanso complain about environmental pollution den de destruction of demma land den rivers by foreign oil companies. Dem arrest den kill Ken Saro Wiwa den nine oda oil activists from Movement give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe (MOSOP) under Sani Abacha for 1995 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;Strutton, Laine (2014). ''The New Mobilization from Below: Women's Oil Protests in the Niger Delta, Nigeria'' (Thesis). [[:en:ProQuest|ProQuest]] [https://www.proquest.com/docview/1666393541 1666393541].&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Recent armed conflict ===
Wen long-held dey concern about loss of control ova resources to de oil companies wey de Ijaw pippoe voice am for de Kaiama Declaration insyd for 1998 insyd, de Nigerian government send troops to occupy de Bayelsa den Delta states. Soldiers open fire plus rifles, machine guns, den tear gas, wey e kill at least three protesters den dey arrest twenty-five more.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=1998-12-30 |title=State of Emergency Declared in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805220129/http://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |archive-date=2012-08-05 |access-date=2018-01-19 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since then, local Indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries den pipelines for de region insyd increase for frequency den militancy insyd. Recently foreign employees of Shell, de primary corporation wey dey operate for de region insyd, dem take hostage by local pippoe. Such activities sanso result for greater governmental intervention insyd for de area insyd den de mobilization of de Nigerian Army den State Security Service into de region, wey e result for violence den human rights abuses insyd. For April 2006 insyd, a bomb explode near an oil refinery for de Niger Delta region insyd, a warning against Chinese expansion for de region insyd. De Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) state: &quot;We wish to warn de Chinese government den ein oil companies to steer well clear of de Niger Delta. De Chinese government, by investing for stolen crude insyd, dey places ein citizens for our line of fire insyd.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ian Taylor, [http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa &quot;China's environmental footprint in Africa&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223061935/http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa|date=2007-02-23}}, ''China Dialogue'', 2 February 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

Government den private initiatives to develop de Niger Delta region, dem already introduce dem recently. Dem dey include de Niger Delta Development Commission, a government initiative, den de Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization wey dey base for Port Harcourt insyd. Uz den Uz Transnational, a company plus a strong commitment to de Niger Delta, wey introduce ways of developing de poor for de Niger Delta insyd, especially for Rivers State insyd. For September 2008 insyd, MEND release a statement wey dey proclaim dat demma militants launch an &quot;oil war&quot; thruout de Niger Delta against both, pipelines den oil-production facilities, den de Nigerian soldiers dat dey protect dem. Both MEND den de Nigerian Government dey claim to have inflicted heavy casualties for one anoda top.&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm &quot;Nigeria militants warn of oil war&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915064938/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm|date=2008-09-15}}, BBC News, 14 September 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2009 insyd, de Nigerian government grant amnesty to de militants; many militants subsequently surrender demma weapons for exchange give a presidential pardon insyd, rehabilitation programme, den education. 

== Sub-regions ==
'''Western Niger Delta''' dey consist of de western section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Delta, den de southernmost parts of Edo, den Ondo States. De western (anaa Northern) Niger Delta be a heterogeneous society plus several ethnic groups wey dey include de Urhobo, De Western Igbos; Ika pippoe, Aniocha Pippoe, Isoko, Ijaw (anaa Izon) den Ukwuani, Itsekiri de Bini, Esan, Auchi, Esako, oral, den Afenmai for Edo State insyd; den de Ilaje Yoruba for Ondo State insyd. Demma livelihoods be primarily dey base for fishing den farming top. History get am say de Kings of de four primary ethnic groups control Western Niger de Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, den, Itsekiri plus wey de British government get to sign separate &quot;Treaties of Protection&quot; for demma formation of &quot;Protectorates&quot; insyd dat later becam southern Nigeria. 

'''Central Niger Delta''' dey consist of de central section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia, den Imo States. De Central Niger Delta region get de Ijaw (wey dey include de Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari pippoe, Ibani of Opobo &amp; Bonny, Abua, Okrika, Engenni den Andoni clans), de Ogoni pippoe (Khana, Gokana, Tai den Eleme), De Igbos (de Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye den Ndoki) for Rivers State insyd.

'''Eastern Niger Delta''' dey consist of Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. E get de homogeneous Annang, Efik, Ibibio den Oron pippoe, Ogoja (dat dey include Ekoi den Bekwara). 

== Nigerian oil ==
Nigeria becam West Africa ein biggest producer of petroleum. Dem extract sam 2 million barrels (320,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) per day for de Niger Delta insyd, plus an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Isumonah |first=V. Adelfemi |year=2013 |title=Armed Society in the Niger Delta |journal=Armed Forces &amp; Society |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=331–358 |doi=10.1177/0095327x12446925 |s2cid=110566551}}&lt;/ref&gt; De first oil operations for de region insyd begin for de 1950s insyd den dem undertake am by multinational corporations, wey provide Nigeria plus necessary technological den financial resources to extract oil.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Scott R. |title=Petroleum and the Nigerian Economy |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-8047-0749-9 |location=Stanford |page=13}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since 1975, de region account give more dan 75% of Nigeria ein export earnings.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Akpeninor |first=James Ohwofasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESk7b8iKIU0C&amp;pg=PA576 |title=Giant in the Sun: Echoes of Looming Revolution? |date=2012-08-28 |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4772-1868-6 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Togeda oil den natural gas extraction dey comprise &quot;97 percent of Nigeria ein foreign exchange revenues&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;''Nigeria: Petroleum Pollution and Poverty in the Niger Delta''. United Kingdom: Amnesty International Publications International Secretariat, 2009, p. 10.&lt;/ref&gt; More dan 70% of de natural gas wey dem extract for oil wells insyd for de delta insyd, dem immediately burn, anaa flared, into de air at a rate of approximately 70 million m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per day.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |date=July 4, 2024 |title=A review of the effects of gas flaring on the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233298409_A_review_of_the_effects_of_gas_flaring_on_the_Niger_Delta_environment |journal=ResearchGate}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis be equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption den dey form de largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions for de planet top. For 2003 insyd, dem flare about 99% of excess gas for de Niger Delta insyd, &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=Nov 2003 |title=Nigeria's First National Communication Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115182631/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=UNFCC}}&lt;/ref&gt; although dis value fall to 11% for 2010 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html Global Gas Flaring reduction, The World Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301124210/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html|date=2012-03-01}}, &quot;Estimated Flared Volumes from Satellite Data, 2006–2010.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; (Make you sanso see [[:en:Gas_flaring#Volume|gas flaring volumes]]). De biggest gas flaring company be de Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture dat be majority-owned by de Nigerian government. For Nigeria insyd, &quot;...despite regulations wey dem introduce 20 years ago to outlaw de practice, dem flare most associated gas, wey e cause local pollution den dey contribute to climate change.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=October 2004 |title=Gas Flaring in Nigeria |url=http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225211133/http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=Friends of the Earth}}&lt;/ref&gt; De environmental devastation wey dem associate plus de industry den de lack of distribution of oil wealth already be de source den/anaa key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements den inter-ethnic conflicts for de region insyd, wey dey include recent guerrilla activity by MEND.

For September 2012 insyd Eland Oil &amp; Gas purchase a 45% interest for OML 40 insyd, plus ein partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from de Shell Group. Dem intend to recommission de existing infrastructure den restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) of oil per day plus a target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) of oil per day within four years.

=== Oil revenue derivation ===
Oil revenue allocation already be de subject of much contention well before Nigeria gain ein independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, wey e owe to de First Republic ein high degree of regional autonomy, den as low as 10% during de military dictatorships.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Oil revenue sharing formula
!Year
!Federal
!State*
!Local
!Special Projects
!Derivation Formula**
|-
|1958
|40%
|60%
|0%
|0%
|50%
|-
|1968
|80%
|20%
|0%
|0%
|10%
|-
|1977
|75%
|22%
|3%
|0%
|10%
|-
|1982
|55%
|32.5%
|10%
|2.5%
|10%
|-
|1989
|50%
|24%
|15%
|11%
|10%
|-
|1995
|48.5%
|24%
|20%
|7.5%
|13%
|-
|2001
|48.5%
|24%
|20%
|7.5%
|13%
|}
''* State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation.''

''**The derivation formula refers to the percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state.'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20160921053829/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm World Bank Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921053829/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm|date=2016-09-21}} 

== Media ==
De documentary film ''Sweet Crude'', wey dem premier April 2009 at de Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, dey tell de story of Nigeria ein Niger Delta.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sweet Crude: A New Documentary on the Niger Delta by Sandy Cioffi |url=http://www.sweetcrudemovie.com/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=www.sweetcrudemovie.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental issues ==
De Niger Delta be a region of unparalleled ecological richness, wey ein intricate network of waterways characterize am, lush mangrove forests, den diverse ecosystems. Howeva, dem damage de serene beauty of dis landscape by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Ova de years, de Niger Delta experience a series of devastating oil spills, wey industrial activities wey relate to de extraction den transportation of oil den gas primarily cause am. Sekof dis high amount of spills, dem consider de Niger Delta as one of de most polluted areas for Earth top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Anejionu |first1=Obinna Chukwubuikem Diony |last2=Blackburn |first2=George Alan |last3=Whyatt |first3=J. Duncan |date=4 March 2014 |title=Satellite survey of gas flares: development and application of a Landsat-based technique in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=1900–1925 |bibcode=2014IJRS...35.1900A |doi=10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |s2cid=53705868 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem spills inflict severe den continuous damage for de delicate balance of de region ein ecosystems top. Dem impact both de environment den de livelihoods of de communities dat dey depend for ein resources top. 

Two spills for 2008 den 2009 insyd already be de largest den most harmful by far, collectively dey last give almost 150 days den dey cause flora death thruout 393 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. De extensive network of tidal rivers den mangrove swamps dey make am even easier give de oil to spread quickly, den de delta dey becam a sink, wey e trap de oil dat dem no remove am.&lt;ref name=&quot;sciencedirect.com&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Obida |first1=Christopher B. |last2=Blackburn |first2=George A. |last3=Whyatt |first3=James D. |last4=Semple |first4=Kirk T. |date=25 June 2021 |title=Counting the cost of the Niger Delta's largest oil spills: Satellite remote sensing reveals extensive environmental damage with &gt;1million people in the impact zone |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721009219 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=775 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.775n5854O |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145854 |s2cid=233538622 |url-access=subscription |article-number=145854}}&lt;/ref&gt; De spills cam from a pipeline wey Shell Petroleum Development Company operate am. For addition to smaller spills insyd dat take place ova de years 2006–2019, dem estimate am dat dem release a total of 92,479,170 liters (anaa 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil into de area wey dem study.&lt;ref name=&quot;sciencedirect.com&quot; /&gt;

Since then, following spills continue to exacerbate de ecological damage. De exact impact of spills like dem be hard to know sekof traditional field studies dey nearly impossible for dis region. Howeva, techniques such as de normalized difference vegetation index already be successful for measuring de impact of oil spills insyd for de river ein plant health top. Additionally, field samples wey dem independently collect am, dem confirm de presence of hydrocarbon pollutants for high concentrations insyd for de impacted areas insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;sciencedirect.com&quot; /&gt;

Oil den gas pollution/spills dey greatly increase de possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil be particularly concerning sekof demma link to de health problems wey exposure cause am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ugochukwu |first1=Uzochukwu C. |last2=Ochonogor |first2=Alfred |last3=Jidere |first3=Chika M. |last4=Agu |first4=Chizoba |last5=Nkoloagu |first5=Frida |last6=Ewoh |first6=John |last7=Okwu-Delunzu |first7=Virginia U. |date=1 June 2018 |title=Exposure risks to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by humans and livestock (cattle) due to hydrocarbon spill from petroleum products in Niger-delta wetland |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016041201732158X |journal=Environment International |volume=115 |pages=38–47 |bibcode=2018EnInt.115...38U |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.010 |pmid=29547867 |s2cid=3902367 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis dey include organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene den xylene,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Philibert |first1=Danielle A. |last2=Lyons |first2=Danielle |last3=Philibert |first3=Clara |last4=Tierney |first4=Keith B. |date=10 January 2019 |title=Field-collected crude oil, weathered oil and dispersants differentially affect the early life stages of freshwater and saltwater fishes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718330213 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=647 |pages=1148–1157 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.647.1148P |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.052 |pmid=30180323 |s2cid=52156999 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium den cadmium. In fact, according to de Scientific Committee for Health, Environmental den Emerging Risks top, dem fi put more dan 1300 different chemicals into de environment as a result of oil den gas exploration.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bertollini |first1=Roberto |last2=Teresa |first2=Borges |last3=Pim |first3=deVoogt |last4=Peter |first4=Hoet |date=30 November 2018 |title=OPINION ON the public health impacts and risks resulting from onshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation in the EU |journal=Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks SCHEER}}&lt;/ref&gt; Then, humans cam for contact insyd plus dem harmful substances thru eating contaminated food as well as breathing for de air pollution insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;The human health risk estimation of&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Afshar-Mohajer |first1=Nima |last2=Fox |first2=Mary A. |last3=Koehler |first3=Kirsten |date=1 March 2019 |title=The human health risk estimation of inhaled oil spill emissions with and without adding dispersant |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718344656 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=654 |pages=924–932 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.654..924A |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.110 |pmid=30453262 |s2cid=53946118 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons be especially concerning sekof demma persistence for de environment insyd. Even for low amounts insyd, prolonged exposure fi cause serious health issues such as cancer den oda chronic illnesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;The human health risk estimation of&quot; /&gt; For general insyd, de harmful pollutants wey dem emit from oil spills den oda pollution dey include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, den infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;The human health risk estimation of&quot; /&gt; Less deadly, but still serious, health problems dey include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes for face den neck top, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, den diarrhea be common issues wey oil spills cause am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nriagu |first1=Jerome |last2=Udofia |first2=Emilia A. |last3=Ekong |first3=Ibanga |last4=Ebuk |first4=Godwin |date=March 2016 |title=Health Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=13 |issue=3 |page=346 |doi=10.3390/ijerph13030346 |pmc=4809009 |pmid=27007391 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Collectively, more dan 1 million pippoe dey live for de area insyd dat oil/gas pollution already contaminate am. Dis population be especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses sekof demma pre-existing low life expectancy den large ratio of young pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;sciencedirect.com&quot; /&gt; Additionally, a 2006 report wey de United Nations Development Programme do am dey say &quot;De Niger Delta be a region wey dey suffer from administrative neglect, wey dey crumble social infrastructure den services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth den squalor, den endemic conflict,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author1=United Nations |date=1 January 2006 |title=Human Development Report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report#:~:text=%22The%20Niger%20Delta%20is%20a,conflict%2C%22%20says%20the%20report. |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Dem factors dey make am increasingly harder give de local communities to deal plus de negative effects wey foreign oil exploration cause am.

De pippoe wey oil spills affect am for de Niger Delta insyd be diverse communities wey dey reside for de region insyd. Dem intricately connect demma lives to de natural environment. Dem communities, often make up of indigenous groups, dey rely for de Niger Delta ein resources top give demma food, water, livelihoods, den cultural practices. De impact of oil spills for dem communities top be multi-faceted den dey extend beyond health problems. Fishing den agriculture be central to de livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills dey contaminate water sources den farmlands, wey e severely affect fish stocks den crops. Dis disruption fi lead to food shortages den economic hardship give dem dependent for dem activities top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Osuagwu |first1=Eze Simpson |last2=Olaifa |first2=Eseoghene |date=25 October 2018 |title=Effects of oil spills on fish production in the Niger Delta |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=13 |issue=10 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1305114O |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0205114 |pmc=6201865 |pmid=30359365 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0205114}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Anoda facet of de pippoe ein livelihoods be demma culture. De Niger Delta ein pippoe get strong spiritual den cultural ties to demma environment. De harm inflict for demma land top den waterways wey oil spills cause am dey deeply disrupt sacred sites den dey interfere plus demma cultural practices. De loss of dem cultural elements dey contribute to a sense of displacement den identity crisis among de affected groups/communities.&lt;ref name=&quot;soa&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Aghalino |first=S.O. |date=February 2011 |title=Oil and Cultural Crisis: The Case of the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301637735 |journal=Africana |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=15 |access-date=December 14, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Additionally, wen communities fight back against de oil industries as an act of protest, violence be often perpetuated. Since de 1990s der already be continuous violence for an effort insyd to give local communities control of de oil for de delta insyd. Dem acts of violence dey include de kidnapping of foreign oil workers den dey hold dem give ransom, vandalization, den even de blowing up of oil installations.&lt;ref name=&quot;soa&quot; /&gt;

== Notes ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== References ==

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174150/http://nigerdeltavine.com/ Niger Delta-Archive of News, Interviews, Articles, Analysis from 1999 to Present]
* ''Proceedings of the Ibibio Union 1928–1937''. Edited by Monday Efiong Noah. Modern Business Press Ltd, Uyo.
* Urhobo Historical Society (4 August 2003). Urhobo Historical Society Responds to Itsekiri Claims on Warri City and Western Niger Delta.
* [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/30/oil-spills-nigeria-niger-delta-shell/ &quot;Nigeria's agony dwarfs the Gulf oil spill. The US and Europe ignore it&quot;]

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080826021356/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text National Geographic Magazine: &quot;Curse of the Black Gold, Hope, and betrayal on the Niger Delta&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080826021356/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text |date=2008-08-26 }} — ''February 2007 issue''.
* [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, Nigerdeltaforum.com: forum on the Niger Delta and its people]
* Niger-Delta Development Commission, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051025160835/http://www.nddconline.org/The_Niger_Delta/ Niger Delta: A Brief History]
* American Association for the Advancement of Science, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051119105233/http://www.aaas.org/international/ssd/nigerdelta/ Niger Delta]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050810081722/http://www.eraction.org/ Environmental Rights Action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050810081722/http://www.eraction.org/ |date=2005-08-10 }}
* [http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta News on the Niger Delta]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Niger River Delta| ]]
[[Category:Niger River|*Delta]]
[[Category:Gulf of Guinea]]
[[Category:River deltas of Africa|Niger]]
[[Category:Landforms of Nigeria]]
[[Category:Freshwater ecoregions of Africa]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of Nigeria]]
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[[File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nigerdelta_NASA.jpg|thumb|384x384px|View of de Niger Delta from space (north/land at top).]]
De '''Niger Delta''' be de delta of de [[Niger River]] wey dey sit directly for de [[Gulf of Guinea]] top for de [[Atlantic Ocean]] top for Nigeria insyd.&lt;ref&gt;C. Michael Hogan, [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166 &quot;Niger River&quot;, in M. McGinley (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of Earth''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420075935/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Niger_River?topic=78166|date=2013-04-20}}, Washington, DC: National Council for Science and Environment, 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Umoh |first1=Unyime U. |last2=Li |first2=Li |last3=Wang |first3=Junjian |last4=Kauluma |first4=Ndamononghenda |last5=Asuquo |first5=Francis E. |last6=Akpan |first6=Ekom R. |date=August 2022 |title=Glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether signatures in tropical mesotidal estuary sediments of Qua Iboe River, Gulf of Guinea |journal=Organic Geochemistry |volume=170 |bibcode=2022OrGeo.17004461U |doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2022.104461 |s2cid=249615285 |article-number=104461}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem locate am within nine coastal southern Nigerian states, wey dey include: all six states from de South South geopolitical zone, one state (Ondo) from South West geopolitical zone den two states (Abia den Imo) from South East geopolitical zone.

De Niger Delta be a very densely populated region wey dem samtimes bell am de '''Oil Rivers''' sekof e once be a major producer of palm oil.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Otoabasi |first=Akpan |title=The Niger Delta Question and the peace plan |publisher=Spectrum Books |year=2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. 

De delta be a petroleum-rich region den e already get de center of international concern ova extensive pollution wey dem often use am as an example of ecocide.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-04-07 |title='Ecocide' movement pushes for a new international crime: Environmental destruction |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/ecocide-movement-pushes-new-international-crime-environmental-destruction-n1263142 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=NBC News |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=5 February 2014 |title=Fighting ecocide in Nigeria |url=https://theecologist.org/2014/feb/05/fighting-ecocide-nigeria |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=theecologist.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:4&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=UNPO: Ogoni: An Ecocide in the Making? |url=https://unpo.org/article/19131 |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=unpo.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:5&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|date=2011-08-22|title=How an ecocide law could prevent another Nigerian oil disaster|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/aug/22/ecocide-law-nigerian-oil-disaster|access-date=2023-07-06|issn=0261-3077}}&lt;/ref&gt; De principal cause be major oil spills by multinational corporations of de petroleum industry.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Aghalino |first=S.O |title=Combating the Niger Delta Crisis: an appraisal of Federal Government response to Anti-Oil protect in Niger Delta, 1958-2002. |publisher=Maiduguri journal of Historical studies |year=2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Dakolo |first=Bubaraye |title=The Riddle of the Oil Thief |publisher=Purple Shelves |year=2021 |isbn=978-978-988-990-7 |location=Lagos |pages=117–170}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Geography ==
De Niger Delta, as rydee dem define am officially by de Nigerian government, dey extend ova 70,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (27,000 sq mi) den dey make up 7.5% of Nigeria ein land mass.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Chukwu|first=Ignatius|date=2023-10-01|title=What Nigeria’s independence means for Niger Delta|url=https://businessday.ng/life/article/what-nigerias-independence-means-for-niger-delta/|location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=2025-11-21|newspaper=[[BusinessDay (Nigeria)|BusinessDay]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Historically den cartographically, e dey consist of present-day Bayelsa, Delta, den Rivers States. For 2000 insyd, howeva, Obasanjo ein regime wey e include Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Cross River State, Edo, Imo den Ondo States for de region insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

De Niger Delta den de South-South geopolitical zone (wey dey contain six of de states for de Niger Delta insyd) be two different entities. De Niger Delta dey separate de Bight of Benin from de Bight of Bonny within de larger Gulf of Guinea.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Akpan |first=D. |title=Oil Exploration and environmental degradation in the Niger Delta. A paper presented at the first regional conference. |year=2006}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Demographics ==
De political Niger Delta be home to approximately 31 million pippoe from ova 40 ethnic groups, wey dey include de Ijaws—such as de Kalabari, Okrika, Epie-Atissa, Ogbia, Abua, Obolo, Opobo, Ibani, Apoi, Arogbo, Olodiama, Biseni, Akinima, Ibibio, Urhobo, Annang, Oron, Efik, Ogoni, Edo, Esan, Isoko, Igbo den Okpe among odas. Dem communities dey speak around 250 different dialects. De Ijaw be de largest ethnic group for de Niger Delta insyd, plus a widespread presence across six states for de region insyd.

De major language groups wey dem speak for de Niger Delta insyd dey include de Ijaw languages, Ibibio-Efik,&lt;ref name=&quot;nigerdeltabudget.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=The Niger Delta – Niger Delta Budget Monitoring Group |url=https://www.nigerdeltabudget.org/the-niger-delta/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Edoid languages.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

== History ==

=== Colonial period ===
De area be de British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 wen dem expand am den becam de Niger Coast Protectorate. De core Niger Delta later becam a part of de eastern region of Nigeria, wey cam into being for 1951 insyd (one of de three regions, den later one of de four regions). De majority of de pippoe be dem pippoe from de colonial Calabar den Ogoja divisions, de present-day Ogoja, Annang, Ibibio, Oron, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoni pippoe. De National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) be de ruling political party of de region. De NCNC later becam de National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decide to separate from Nigeria. De ruling party of eastern Nigeria no seek to preclude de separation den even encourage am. De then Eastern Region get de third, fourth, den fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups for de country, wey be de Igbo, Ijaw den Ibibio.

For 1953 insyd, de Old Eastern region get a major crisis wen dem expel professor Eyo Ita from office by de majority Igbo tribe of de Old Eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar, be one of de pioneer nationalists give Nigerian independence. De non-igbo of den then eastern region, de Ibibio, Annang, Efik, Ijaw den Ogoja, wey dem situate along de southeastern coast den for de delta region insyd den demand a state of demma own, wey dem bell am de Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. De Ibibio pippoe of de present Akwa Ibom State den Cross River State wey dem sanso champion give demma state thru de Ibibio State Union. De struggle give de creation of de COR state continue den be a major issue wey dey concern de status of minorities for Nigeria insyd during debates for Europe insyd for Nigerian independence top. As a result of dis crisis, Professor Eyo Ita lef de NCNC to form a new political party wey dem bell am National Independence Party wey be one of de five Nigerian political parties wey dem represent am at de conferences for Nigerian Constitution den Independence top.&lt;ref name=&quot;nigerdeltabudget.org&quot; /&gt; 

=== Post-colonial period ===
For 1961 insyd, anoda major crisis occur wen de then-eastern region of Nigeria allow present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from de region of wat rydee be Akwa Ibom den Cross River states) thru a plebiscite while de leadership of de Northern Region take de necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon for Nigeria insyd, for present-day Adamawa den Taraba states insyd. De aftermath of de 1961 plebiscite lead to a dispute between Cameroon den Nigeria ova de small territory of Bakassi.

A new phase of de struggle see de declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian presido Ironsi ein administration, just before de Nigerian Civil War.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|last=Writer|first=Guest|date=2018-05-22|title=The revolutionist as the true national knight: Retelling the tale of Isaac Boro 50 years after|url=https://www.thecable.ng/the-revolutionist-as-the-true-national-knight-retelling-major-isaac-boro-fifty-years-after/|access-date=2024-07-04|newspaper=[[TheCable]]|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Sanso just before de Nigerian civil war, dem create Southeastern State of Nigeria (dem sanso know am Southeastern Nigeria anaa Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), wey get de colonial Calabar division, den colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State wey dem sanso create am. Southeastern State den River State becam two states give de minorities of de old eastern region, den de majority Igbo of de old eastern region get a state wey dem bell am East Central State. Dem rename Southeastern State as Cross River State den dem later split am into Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. Dem later divide Rivers State into Rivers State den Bayelsa State. 

=== Nigerian Civil War ===
Niger Delta pippoe suffer heavily plus de great loss of lives den properties, hunger den starvation, den sustain many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War, wey dem sanso know am de Biafran War, for wey de eastern region declare an independent state wey dem name am Biafra wey dem eventually defeat am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |title=The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970 |date=2015-12-31 |pages=xv–xx |chapter=Chronology of Important Events in the Nigerian Civil War |publisher=Princeton University Press |doi=10.1515/9781400871285-003 |isbn=978-1-4008-7128-5}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Citation |last1=Heerten |first1=Lasse |title=The Nigeria-Biafra War |date=2017-07-06 |work=Postcolonial Conflict and the Question of Genocide |pages=3–43 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315229294-1 |isbn=978-1-315-22929-4 |last2=Moses |first2=A. Dirk}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Ekwe-Ekwe, Herbert. |title=The Biafra War: Nigeria and the aftermath. |date=1991 |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |isbn=0-88946-235-6 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |oclc=476261625}}&lt;/ref&gt; During dis period, dem shut down schools completely, den gunfire becam a daily occurrence. 

=== Non-violent resistance ===
Following de civil war, local communities increasingly social den environmental justice wey dem demand from de federal government, plus Ken Saro Wiwa den de Ogoni tribe as de lead figures give dis phase of de struggle. Cohesive oil protests becam most pronounced for 1990 insyd plus de publication of de Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous pippoe protest against de lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, den hospitals, for de region insyd, despite all de oil wealth wey dem create. Dem sanso complain about environmental pollution den de destruction of demma land den rivers by foreign oil companies. Dem arrest den kill Ken Saro Wiwa den nine oda oil activists from Movement give de Survival of de Ogoni Pippoe (MOSOP) under Sani Abacha for 1995 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;Strutton, Laine (2014). ''The New Mobilization from Below: Women's Oil Protests in the Niger Delta, Nigeria'' (Thesis). [[:en:ProQuest|ProQuest]] [https://www.proquest.com/docview/1666393541 1666393541].&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Recent armed conflict ===
Wen long-held dey concern about loss of control ova resources to de oil companies wey de Ijaw pippoe voice am for de Kaiama Declaration insyd for 1998 insyd, de Nigerian government send troops to occupy de Bayelsa den Delta states. Soldiers open fire plus rifles, machine guns, den tear gas, wey e kill at least three protesters den dey arrest twenty-five more.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=1998-12-30 |title=State of Emergency Declared in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805220129/http://www.hrw.org/news/1998/12/31/state-emergency-declared-niger-delta |archive-date=2012-08-05 |access-date=2018-01-19 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since then, local Indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries den pipelines for de region insyd increase for frequency den militancy insyd. Recently foreign employees of Shell, de primary corporation wey dey operate for de region insyd, dem take hostage by local pippoe. Such activities sanso result for greater governmental intervention insyd for de area insyd den de mobilization of de Nigerian Army den State Security Service into de region, wey e result for violence den human rights abuses insyd. For April 2006 insyd, a bomb explode near an oil refinery for de Niger Delta region insyd, a warning against Chinese expansion for de region insyd. De Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) state: &quot;We wish to warn de Chinese government den ein oil companies to steer well clear of de Niger Delta. De Chinese government, by investing for stolen crude insyd, dey places ein citizens for our line of fire insyd.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ian Taylor, [http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa &quot;China's environmental footprint in Africa&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070223061935/http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/741-China-s-environmental-footprint-in-Africa|date=2007-02-23}}, ''China Dialogue'', 2 February 2007.&lt;/ref&gt;

Government den private initiatives to develop de Niger Delta region, dem already introduce dem recently. Dem dey include de Niger Delta Development Commission, a government initiative, den de Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization wey dey base for Port Harcourt insyd. Uz den Uz Transnational, a company plus a strong commitment to de Niger Delta, wey introduce ways of developing de poor for de Niger Delta insyd, especially for Rivers State insyd. For September 2008 insyd, MEND release a statement wey dey proclaim dat demma militants launch an &quot;oil war&quot; thruout de Niger Delta against both, pipelines den oil-production facilities, den de Nigerian soldiers dat dey protect dem. Both MEND den de Nigerian Government dey claim to have inflicted heavy casualties for one anoda top.&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm &quot;Nigeria militants warn of oil war&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915064938/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7615498.stm|date=2008-09-15}}, BBC News, 14 September 2008.&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2009 insyd, de Nigerian government grant amnesty to de militants; many militants subsequently surrender demma weapons for exchange give a presidential pardon insyd, rehabilitation programme, den education. 

== Sub-regions ==
'''Western Niger Delta''' dey consist of de western section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Delta, den de southernmost parts of Edo, den Ondo States. De western (anaa Northern) Niger Delta be a heterogeneous society plus several ethnic groups wey dey include de Urhobo, De Western Igbos; Ika pippoe, Aniocha Pippoe, Isoko, Ijaw (anaa Izon) den Ukwuani, Itsekiri de Bini, Esan, Auchi, Esako, oral, den Afenmai for Edo State insyd; den de Ilaje Yoruba for Ondo State insyd. Demma livelihoods be primarily dey base for fishing den farming top. History get am say de Kings of de four primary ethnic groups control Western Niger de Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, den, Itsekiri plus wey de British government get to sign separate &quot;Treaties of Protection&quot; for demma formation of &quot;Protectorates&quot; insyd dat later becam southern Nigeria. 

'''Central Niger Delta''' dey consist of de central section of coastal South-South Nigeria wey dey include Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia, den Imo States. De Central Niger Delta region get de Ijaw (wey dey include de Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari pippoe, Ibani of Opobo &amp; Bonny, Abua, Okrika, Engenni den Andoni clans), de Ogoni pippoe (Khana, Gokana, Tai den Eleme), De Igbos (de Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye den Ndoki) for Rivers State insyd.

'''Eastern Niger Delta''' dey consist of Cross River State den Akwa Ibom State. E get de homogeneous Annang, Efik, Ibibio den Oron pippoe, Ogoja (dat dey include Ekoi den Bekwara). 

== Nigerian oil ==
Nigeria becam West Africa ein biggest producer of petroleum. Dem extract sam 2 million barrels (320,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) per day for de Niger Delta insyd, plus an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Isumonah |first=V. Adelfemi |year=2013 |title=Armed Society in the Niger Delta |journal=Armed Forces &amp; Society |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=331–358 |doi=10.1177/0095327x12446925 |s2cid=110566551}}&lt;/ref&gt; De first oil operations for de region insyd begin for de 1950s insyd den dem undertake am by multinational corporations, wey provide Nigeria plus necessary technological den financial resources to extract oil.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Scott R. |title=Petroleum and the Nigerian Economy |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1970 |isbn=0-8047-0749-9 |location=Stanford |page=13}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since 1975, de region account give more dan 75% of Nigeria ein export earnings.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Akpeninor |first=James Ohwofasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESk7b8iKIU0C&amp;pg=PA576 |title=Giant in the Sun: Echoes of Looming Revolution? |date=2012-08-28 |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4772-1868-6 |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Togeda oil den natural gas extraction dey comprise &quot;97 percent of Nigeria ein foreign exchange revenues&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;''Nigeria: Petroleum Pollution and Poverty in the Niger Delta''. United Kingdom: Amnesty International Publications International Secretariat, 2009, p. 10.&lt;/ref&gt; More dan 70% of de natural gas wey dem extract for oil wells insyd for de delta insyd, dem immediately burn, anaa flared, into de air at a rate of approximately 70 million m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per day.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |date=July 4, 2024 |title=A review of the effects of gas flaring on the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233298409_A_review_of_the_effects_of_gas_flaring_on_the_Niger_Delta_environment |journal=ResearchGate}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis be equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption den dey form de largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions for de planet top. For 2003 insyd, dem flare about 99% of excess gas for de Niger Delta insyd, &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=Nov 2003 |title=Nigeria's First National Communication Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115182631/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/niganc1.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=UNFCC}}&lt;/ref&gt; although dis value fall to 11% for 2010 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html Global Gas Flaring reduction, The World Bank] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301124210/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTOGMC/EXTGGFR/0,,contentMDK:22137498~pagePK:64168445~piPK:64168309~theSitePK:578069,00.html|date=2012-03-01}}, &quot;Estimated Flared Volumes from Satellite Data, 2006–2010.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; (Make you sanso see [[:en:Gas_flaring#Volume|gas flaring volumes]]). De biggest gas flaring company be de Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture dat be majority-owned by de Nigerian government. For Nigeria insyd, &quot;...despite regulations wey dem introduce 20 years ago to outlaw de practice, dem flare most associated gas, wey e cause local pollution den dey contribute to climate change.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=October 2004 |title=Gas Flaring in Nigeria |url=http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225211133/http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/media_briefing/gasflaringinnigeria.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2009 |access-date=24 January 2009 |work=Friends of the Earth}}&lt;/ref&gt; De environmental devastation wey dem associate plus de industry den de lack of distribution of oil wealth already be de source den/anaa key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements den inter-ethnic conflicts for de region insyd, wey dey include recent guerrilla activity by MEND.

For September 2012 insyd Eland Oil &amp; Gas purchase a 45% interest for OML 40 insyd, plus ein partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from de Shell Group. Dem intend to recommission de existing infrastructure den restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) of oil per day plus a target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) of oil per day within four years.

=== Oil revenue derivation ===
Oil revenue allocation already be de subject of much contention well before Nigeria gain ein independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, wey e owe to de First Republic ein high degree of regional autonomy, den as low as 10% during de military dictatorships.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Oil revenue sharing formula
!Year
!Federal
!State*
!Local
!Special Projects
!Derivation Formula**
|-
|1958
|40%
|60%
|0%
|0%
|50%
|-
|1968
|80%
|20%
|0%
|0%
|10%
|-
|1977
|75%
|22%
|3%
|0%
|10%
|-
|1982
|55%
|32.5%
|10%
|2.5%
|10%
|-
|1989
|50%
|24%
|15%
|11%
|10%
|-
|1995
|48.5%
|24%
|20%
|7.5%
|13%
|-
|2001
|48.5%
|24%
|20%
|7.5%
|13%
|}
''* State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation.''

''**The derivation formula refers to the percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state.'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20160921053829/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm World Bank Report] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921053829/http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/5783/State_and_Governance_Nigeria.htm|date=2016-09-21}} 

== Media ==
De documentary film ''Sweet Crude'', wey dem premier April 2009 at de Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, dey tell de story of Nigeria ein Niger Delta.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sweet Crude: A New Documentary on the Niger Delta by Sandy Cioffi |url=http://www.sweetcrudemovie.com/ |access-date=2023-05-24 |website=www.sweetcrudemovie.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental issues ==
De Niger Delta be a region of unparalleled ecological richness, wey ein intricate network of waterways characterize am, lush mangrove forests, den diverse ecosystems. Howeva, dem damage de serene beauty of dis landscape by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Ova de years, de Niger Delta experience a series of devastating oil spills, wey industrial activities wey relate to de extraction den transportation of oil den gas primarily cause am. Sekof dis high amount of spills, dem consider de Niger Delta as one of de most polluted areas for Earth top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Anejionu |first1=Obinna Chukwubuikem Diony |last2=Blackburn |first2=George Alan |last3=Whyatt |first3=J. Duncan |date=4 March 2014 |title=Satellite survey of gas flares: development and application of a Landsat-based technique in the Niger Delta |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |journal=International Journal of Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=1900–1925 |bibcode=2014IJRS...35.1900A |doi=10.1080/01431161.2013.879351 |s2cid=53705868 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem spills inflict severe den continuous damage for de delicate balance of de region ein ecosystems top. Dem impact both de environment den de livelihoods of de communities dat dey depend for ein resources top. 

Two spills for 2008 den 2009 insyd already be de largest den most harmful by far, collectively dey last give almost 150 days den dey cause flora death thruout 393 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. De extensive network of tidal rivers den mangrove swamps dey make am even easier give de oil to spread quickly, den de delta dey becam a sink, wey e trap de oil dat dem no remove am.&lt;ref name=&quot;sciencedirect.com&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Obida |first1=Christopher B. |last2=Blackburn |first2=George A. |last3=Whyatt |first3=James D. |last4=Semple |first4=Kirk T. |date=25 June 2021 |title=Counting the cost of the Niger Delta's largest oil spills: Satellite remote sensing reveals extensive environmental damage with &gt;1million people in the impact zone |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721009219 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=775 |bibcode=2021ScTEn.775n5854O |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145854 |s2cid=233538622 |url-access=subscription |article-number=145854}}&lt;/ref&gt; De spills cam from a pipeline wey Shell Petroleum Development Company operate am. For addition to smaller spills insyd dat take place ova de years 2006–2019, dem estimate am dat dem release a total of 92,479,170 liters (anaa 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil into de area wey dem study.&lt;ref name=&quot;sciencedirect.com&quot; /&gt;

Since then, following spills continue to exacerbate de ecological damage. De exact impact of spills like dem be hard to know sekof traditional field studies dey nearly impossible for dis region. Howeva, techniques such as de normalized difference vegetation index already be successful for measuring de impact of oil spills insyd for de river ein plant health top. Additionally, field samples wey dem independently collect am, dem confirm de presence of hydrocarbon pollutants for high concentrations insyd for de impacted areas insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;sciencedirect.com&quot; /&gt;

Oil den gas pollution/spills dey greatly increase de possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil be particularly concerning sekof demma link to de health problems wey exposure cause am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Ugochukwu |first1=Uzochukwu C. |last2=Ochonogor |first2=Alfred |last3=Jidere |first3=Chika M. |last4=Agu |first4=Chizoba |last5=Nkoloagu |first5=Frida |last6=Ewoh |first6=John |last7=Okwu-Delunzu |first7=Virginia U. |date=1 June 2018 |title=Exposure risks to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by humans and livestock (cattle) due to hydrocarbon spill from petroleum products in Niger-delta wetland |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016041201732158X |journal=Environment International |volume=115 |pages=38–47 |bibcode=2018EnInt.115...38U |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2018.03.010 |pmid=29547867 |s2cid=3902367 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dis dey include organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene den xylene,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Philibert |first1=Danielle A. |last2=Lyons |first2=Danielle |last3=Philibert |first3=Clara |last4=Tierney |first4=Keith B. |date=10 January 2019 |title=Field-collected crude oil, weathered oil and dispersants differentially affect the early life stages of freshwater and saltwater fishes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718330213 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=647 |pages=1148–1157 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.647.1148P |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.052 |pmid=30180323 |s2cid=52156999 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium den cadmium. In fact, according to de Scientific Committee for Health, Environmental den Emerging Risks top, dem fi put more dan 1300 different chemicals into de environment as a result of oil den gas exploration.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Bertollini |first1=Roberto |last2=Teresa |first2=Borges |last3=Pim |first3=deVoogt |last4=Peter |first4=Hoet |date=30 November 2018 |title=OPINION ON the public health impacts and risks resulting from onshore oil and gas exploration and exploitation in the EU |journal=Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks SCHEER}}&lt;/ref&gt; Then, humans cam for contact insyd plus dem harmful substances thru eating contaminated food as well as breathing for de air pollution insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;The human health risk estimation of&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Afshar-Mohajer |first1=Nima |last2=Fox |first2=Mary A. |last3=Koehler |first3=Kirsten |date=1 March 2019 |title=The human health risk estimation of inhaled oil spill emissions with and without adding dispersant |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718344656 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=654 |pages=924–932 |bibcode=2019ScTEn.654..924A |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.110 |pmid=30453262 |s2cid=53946118 |url-access=subscription}}&lt;/ref&gt; Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons be especially concerning sekof demma persistence for de environment insyd. Even for low amounts insyd, prolonged exposure fi cause serious health issues such as cancer den oda chronic illnesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;The human health risk estimation of&quot; /&gt; For general insyd, de harmful pollutants wey dem emit from oil spills den oda pollution dey include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, den infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;The human health risk estimation of&quot; /&gt; Less deadly, but still serious, health problems dey include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes for face den neck top, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, den diarrhea be common issues wey oil spills cause am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nriagu |first1=Jerome |last2=Udofia |first2=Emilia A. |last3=Ekong |first3=Ibanga |last4=Ebuk |first4=Godwin |date=March 2016 |title=Health Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=13 |issue=3 |page=346 |doi=10.3390/ijerph13030346 |pmc=4809009 |pmid=27007391 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Collectively, more dan 1 million pippoe dey live for de area insyd dat oil/gas pollution already contaminate am. Dis population be especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses sekof demma pre-existing low life expectancy den large ratio of young pippoe.&lt;ref name=&quot;sciencedirect.com&quot; /&gt; Additionally, a 2006 report wey de United Nations Development Programme do am dey say &quot;De Niger Delta be a region wey dey suffer from administrative neglect, wey dey crumble social infrastructure den services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth den squalor, den endemic conflict,&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |author1=United Nations |date=1 January 2006 |title=Human Development Report |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report#:~:text=%22The%20Niger%20Delta%20is%20a,conflict%2C%22%20says%20the%20report. |publisher=United Nations |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Dem factors dey make am increasingly harder give de local communities to deal plus de negative effects wey foreign oil exploration cause am.

De pippoe wey oil spills affect am for de Niger Delta insyd be diverse communities wey dey reside for de region insyd. Dem intricately connect demma lives to de natural environment. Dem communities, often make up of indigenous groups, dey rely for de Niger Delta ein resources top give demma food, water, livelihoods, den cultural practices. De impact of oil spills for dem communities top be multi-faceted den dey extend beyond health problems. Fishing den agriculture be central to de livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills dey contaminate water sources den farmlands, wey e severely affect fish stocks den crops. Dis disruption fi lead to food shortages den economic hardship give dem dependent for dem activities top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Osuagwu |first1=Eze Simpson |last2=Olaifa |first2=Eseoghene |date=25 October 2018 |title=Effects of oil spills on fish production in the Niger Delta |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=13 |issue=10 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1305114O |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0205114 |pmc=6201865 |pmid=30359365 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0205114}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Anoda facet of de pippoe ein livelihoods be demma culture. De Niger Delta ein pippoe get strong spiritual den cultural ties to demma environment. De harm inflict for demma land top den waterways wey oil spills cause am dey deeply disrupt sacred sites den dey interfere plus demma cultural practices. De loss of dem cultural elements dey contribute to a sense of displacement den identity crisis among de affected groups/communities.&lt;ref name=&quot;soa&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Aghalino |first=S.O. |date=February 2011 |title=Oil and Cultural Crisis: The Case of the Niger Delta |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301637735 |journal=Africana |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=15 |access-date=December 14, 2023}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Additionally, wen communities fight back against de oil industries as an act of protest, violence be often perpetuated. Since de 1990s der already be continuous violence for an effort insyd to give local communities control of de oil for de delta insyd. Dem acts of violence dey include de kidnapping of foreign oil workers den dey hold dem give ransom, vandalization, den even de blowing up of oil installations.&lt;ref name=&quot;soa&quot; /&gt;

== Notes ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== References ==

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090805174150/http://nigerdeltavine.com/ Niger Delta-Archive of News, Interviews, Articles, Analysis from 1999 to Present]
* ''Proceedings of the Ibibio Union 1928–1937''. Edited by Monday Efiong Noah. Modern Business Press Ltd, Uyo.
* Urhobo Historical Society (4 August 2003). Urhobo Historical Society Responds to Itsekiri Claims on Warri City and Western Niger Delta.
* [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/30/oil-spills-nigeria-niger-delta-shell/ &quot;Nigeria's agony dwarfs the Gulf oil spill. The US and Europe ignore it&quot;]

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080826021356/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text National Geographic Magazine: &quot;Curse of the Black Gold, Hope, and betrayal on the Niger Delta&quot;] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080826021356/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/02/nigerian-oil/oneill-text |date=2008-08-26 }} — ''February 2007 issue''.
* [http://nigerdeltaforum.com/index.php/topic,158.0.html, Nigerdeltaforum.com: forum for de Niger Delta top den ein pippoe]
* Niger-Delta Development Commission, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051025160835/http://www.nddconline.org/The_Niger_Delta/ Niger Delta: A Brief History]
* American Association give de Advancement of Science, [https://web.archive.org/web/20051119105233/http://www.aaas.org/international/ssd/nigerdelta/ Niger Delta]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050810081722/http://www.eraction.org/ Environmental Rights Action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050810081722/http://www.eraction.org/ |date=2005-08-10 }}
* [http://www.my-nigeria.com/?tag=niger-delta News for de Niger Delta top]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Niger River Delta| ]]
[[Category:Niger River|*Delta]]
[[Category:Gulf of Guinea]]
[[Category:River deltas of Africa|Niger]]
[[Category:Landforms of Nigeria]]
[[Category:Freshwater ecoregions of Africa]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of Nigeria]]
[[Category:Afrotropical ecoregions]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Kafue Flats</title>
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De '''Kafue Flats''' (wey dem locally bell am '''Butwa&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Sorensen |first1=Carol |date=1995 |title=Controls and Sanctions over the Use of Resources In the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Presented at the International Association for the Study of Common Property Fifth Common Property Conference 24–28 May 1995 at Bode, Norway}}&lt;/ref&gt;''') be a vast area of swamp, open lagoon den seasonally inundated flood-plain for de [[Kafue River]] top for de Southern insyd, Central den Lusaka provinces of [[Zambia]]. Dem be a shallow flood plain 240 km (150 mi) long den about 50 km (31 mi) wide,&lt;ref name=&quot;Google&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2026 |title=Kafue Flats |url=https://earth.google.com/web/ |access-date=2026-06-24 |website=earth.google.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; wey flood to a depth of less dan a meter for de rainy season insyd (deeper for sam lagoons den permanently swampy areas insyd), den e dry out to a clayey black soil for de dry season season.

== Geography ==
De Kafue Flats dey stretch give approximately 240 km (150 mi) east to west along de [[Kafue River]] from below de Itezhi-Tezhi gap, site of de Itezhi-Tezhi Dam, to  Kafue town den de start of de Kafue Gorge. At demma widest point dem be 50 km (31 mi) wide, den demma total area dey around 6,500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (2,500 sq mi). De elevation of de Kafue River dey fall 40 m (130 ft) along de flats from 1,030 m (3,380 ft) at Itezhi-Tezhi to 990 m (3,250 ft) at Kafue town.  

De town of Mazabuka den de Nakambala sugar estate dey lie for de southeast edge top den dem situate de small town of Namwala at de southwest edge of de flats.  
[[File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kafue_Flats_in_flood_and_the_Itezhi-Tezhi_dam_14_February_2008.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|False colour NASA MODIS image of de Kafue Flats for flood insyd den de Itezhi-Tezhi dam - 14 February 2008.]]De Kafue Flats dey fall within parts of de Itezhi-Tezhi den Mumbwa Districts forCentral Province, Kafue District insyd for Lusaka Province insyd den Monze, Namwala den Mazabuka districts for Southern Province insyd.

== Pippoe ==
Dem think de Batwa (anaa Twa) already to get de first inhabitants of de Kafue Flats area but rydee be a small minority population wey settle for higher ground top around de Kafue River channel wey dem support demselves thru fishing. Dem generally consider de Batwa to be de surviving remnants of nomadic Bushmen wey inhabit Zambia long before de Bantu pippoe begin to arrive from de Congo Basin to de north.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |title=Language in Zambia |date=1978 |publisher=International African Institute |isbn=0-85302-054-X |editor-last1=Kashoki |editor-first1=Mubanga E. |location=London |editor2=Sirarpi Ohannessian}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Dem rydee dominate de area by Ila den Balundwe (anaa Lundwe, anaa Plateau Tonga) farmers den cattle herders, for at least 21 chieftaincies insyd,&lt;ref name=&quot;world_fish&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Lungu |first1=A |title=Field study: assessing migration and mobility patterns, access to health services and vulnerabilities of female fish traders in the Kafue Flats fishery, Zambia: research design report |last2=Husken |first2=S.M.C. |date=2008 |publisher=World Fish Center}}&lt;/ref&gt; wey cam to de area between 200 den 300 years ago. Dem depend for farming, fishing, cattle rearing den wildlife top, wey dey often move between a fixed settlement for de woodlands insyd den cattle camps for de flats insyd after de floods recede. In addition to de settled community dem sanso be a seasonal influx of fishing communities from oda parts of de country. Dem immigrants mostly be Bemba from de north of de country den de Copperbelt area, den Lozi from de Western Province.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Merten |first1=Sonja |last2=Haller |first2=Tobias |date=2008 |title=Property rights, food security and child growth: Dynamics of insecurity in the Kafue Flats of Zambia |journal=Food Policy |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=434–443 |doi=10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.01.004}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De population increase significantly since de 1970s den by 2004 der at least 11 major permanent fishing camps for de flats top each of wey dem occupy am by at least 500 fishermen. In addition, der dey a large number of temporary fishing camps wey dem establish during de dry season.&lt;ref name=&quot;chabwela&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Chabwela |first1=Harry |last2=Haller |first2=Tobias |date=2010 |title=Governance issues, potentials and failures of participatory collective action in the Kafue Flats, Zambia |url=http://www.thecommonsjournal.org/index.php/ijc/article/view/189/158 |journal=International Journal of the Commons |volume=4 |issue=2 |page=621 |doi=10.18352/ijc.189 |hdl=10535/1439 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717003343/http://www.thecommonsjournal.org/index.php/ijc/article/view/189/158 |archive-date=2015-07-17 |access-date=2015-07-16 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For sam cases insyd, dem marginalise de Batwa from oda ethnic groups, particularly de Bemba den de Lozi fishermen wey consider dem inferior. By contrast dem hold de Ila for high regard insyd by oda groups sekof demma history of being one of de richest cattle-owning groups for de region insyd, although fishing den hunting dey play an equally significant role for demma culture insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;chabwela&quot; /&gt;

== Hydrology den dams ==
Dem already alter de hydrology of de Kafue River den Kafue Flats have significantly by de construction for de 1970s insyd of two dams, firstly at Kafue Gorge downstream of de flats den at Itezhi-Tezhi upstream of de flats as parts of a scheme to generate hydroelectric power.

De Kafue Gorge Dam, plus 600MW of hydroelectric power generation, dem plete am for 1972 insyd wey e create a reservoir downstream of de Kafue Flats plus a storage capacity of 785 million m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;. To enable more power generation (up to 900 MW) anoda 65m high dam at Itezhi-Tezhi, upstream of de Kafue Flats, wey dem plete am for 1976 insyd. De reservoir dey store 5,700 million m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; of water den dey cover a 370 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (140 sq mi) area of de Kafue River den ein tributary de Musa River.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Obrdlik |first1=P |last2=Mumeka |first2=A |last3=Kasonde |first3=J.M. |date=1989 |title=Regulated Rivers in Zambia - The Case Study of the Kafue River |journal=Regulated Rivers: Research and Management |volume=3 |pages=371–380 |doi=10.1002/rrr.3450030135}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

De Itezhi-Tezhi Dam dey store water during de wet season wey e then release give de turbines at de Kafue Gorge Dam den power station during de dry season. Water dey take approximately eight weeks to travel between Itezhi-tezhi den Kafue Gorge.   

Prior to construction of de dam at Itezhi-Tezhi, flooding of de Kafue Flats be de result of high flows within de Kafue River wey e begin to rise wey e follow de onset of de rains for November to December insyd den plus de peak flood wey e occur samtime between April den May. De flats do subsequently slowly drain plus very little surface water wey e remain by October to November de following year.&lt;ref name=&quot;mumba&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Mumba |first1=M |last2=Thompson |first2=J.R. |date=2005 |title=Hydrological and ecological impacts of dams on the Kafue Flats floodplain system, southern Zambia |journal=Physics and Chemistry of the Earth |volume=30 |issue=6–7 |pages=442–447 |bibcode=2005PCE....30..442M |doi=10.1016/j.pce.2005.06.009}}&lt;/ref&gt;     

Releases from Itezhi-Tezhi dam dey very different to de historical flows wey dem experience within de Kafue River plus de smooth annual rise den fall for discharge insyd wey dem already replace am by sudden increases as dem release large volumes of water from de dam. A substantial discharge rydee dem maintain am thruout de dry season whereas naturally dem associate dis period plus lower river flows. Although dem go fi already reduce maximum floods as a result of de dam, de almost year-round dey release means dat parts of de flats, for instance Chunga Lagoon, rydee e remain permanently flooded. In addition, de Kafue Gorge Dam create a large reservoir wey e back up into de eastern end of de flats wey e lead to areas of permanent inundation.&lt;ref name=&quot;mumba&quot; /&gt;

== Protected areas ==
De Kafue Flats dey include two national parks (IUCN Category II protected areas), de Lochinvar den Blue Lagoon National Parks. Dem establish both parks for de 1970s insyd for land wey dem formerly use give cattle ranching top. De 428 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (165 sq mi) Lochinvar National Park, famous give large nombas of Kafue lechwe, wey dey sit south of de Kafue River den e be accessible from de Lusaka-Livingstone road at Monze.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Lochinvar National Park |url=http://www.zambiatourism.com/destinations/national-parks/lochinvar-national-park |access-date=30 August 2014 |website=zambiatourism.com |publisher=Zambia Tourism}}&lt;/ref&gt; Lochinvar National Park get one of de highest nombas of vulnerable wattled crane for Africa insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ramsar_info&quot;&gt;{{Cite report |url=http://sites.wetlands.org/reports/ris/1ZM001RIS_2007.pdf |title=Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands - Fafue Flats |author=Zambia Wildlife Authority |date=2006 |publisher=Ramsar |access-date=2015-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003321/http://sites.wetlands.org/reports/ris/1ZM001RIS_2007.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-04}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Blue Lagoon National Park, north of de Kafue, dem fi access am from de Lusaka-Mongu road west of Lusaka. De 500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (190 sq mi) park be home to a large abundance den variety of waterbirds as well as lechwe, sitatunga, zebra den African buffalo.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Blue Lagoon National Park |url=http://www.zambiatourism.com/destinations/national-parks/blue-lagoon-national-park |access-date=30 August 2014 |website=zambiatourism.com |publisher=Zambia Tourism}}&lt;/ref&gt;

{{convert|6000|km2}} of de Kafue Flats outsyd of dem cover de two national parks by de Kafue Flats Game Management Area (GMA) (IUCN Category VI protected area). De GMA dey afford protection to de environment den wildlife whilst still e dey allow give de sustainable use of natural resources.    

Dem enter de Kafue Flats onto de Ramsar list of Wetlands of International Importance for 1991 insyd wey e cover an area of 6,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (2,300 sq mi) coincident plus de Kafue Flats GMA.&lt;ref name=&quot;ramsar_zambia&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=The Annotated Ramsar List: Zambia |url=http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-documents-list-anno-zambia/main/ramsar/1-31-218%5E15789_4000_0__ |access-date=23 August 2014 |website=ramsar.org |publisher=The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[File:Protected_areas_of_the_Kafue_Flats.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Protected_areas_of_the_Kafue_Flats.jpg|center|thumb|600x600px|De Kafue Flats, Blue Lagoon National Park, Lochinvar National Park den Kafue Flats Game Management Area (GMA).]]

== Agriculture ==
De land around de Kafue Flats be an important agricultural area for Zambia insyd. As well as supporting a large number of subsistence den small-scale farmers, de flats sanso be a source of irrigation water give three large commercial farming operations wey concentrate around de eastern end of de flats. 

De oldest commercial farming operation for de Kafue Flats top be de Nakambala Sugar Estate wey dem locate am for de southern edge of de flats top at Mazabuka. De Nakambala estate, wey Zambia Sugar Plc a subsidiary of South African company Illovo Sugar own am, along plus outgrowers den smallholder farmers be de largest sugar producer for Zambia insyd den dem operate am for approximately 20,000 hectares of irrigated farmland top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite report |url=http://www.luse.co.zm/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Zambia-Sugar-Plc_Annual-Report-2014-prt-1.pdf |title=Zambia Sugar Plc Annual Report 2014 |date=2014 |publisher=Zambia Sugar Plc |access-date=2015-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033749/http://www.luse.co.zm/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/Zambia-Sugar-Plc_Annual-Report-2014-prt-1.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-04}}&lt;/ref&gt;

North of de Kafue Flats, Consolidated Farming Ltd., a Zambian company, dey produce sugar under de Kafue Sugar brand from a 9,000-hectare estate pumping water from de Kafue Flats.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Commercial Farming |url=http://www.sabletransport.com/farming.html |website=sabletransport.com |publisher=Sable Transport}}&lt;/ref&gt; To de east of Consolidated Farming, de Chiansi irrigation scheme dey grow wheat den oda irrigated crops for 200 hectares top plus plans to expand to 2,500 hectares.  

== Ecology ==
De Kafue Flats dey consist of a complex pattern of floodplain, lagoons, ox-bow lakes, wey dey abandon river channels, marshes den levees wey grasslands den woodlands surround am.

De flats dey comprise two ecoregions. De central seasonally- den permanently flooded areas be part of de Zambezian flooded grasslands ecoregion, den de surrounding grasslands de woodlands be for de Zambezian den mopane woodlands ecoregion insyd. 

De soils of de flats dey heavy for texture insyd den dey tend to crack widely wen dry, wey e becam very sticky den plastic wen wet. Dem soils be mainly black anaa dark gray den produce an irregular surface relief known as gilgai wey e consist of a series of small ridges wey dey stand 20–60&amp;#x20;cm above circular depressions about 2–7 meters for diameter insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;ramsar_info&quot; /&gt; 

=== Vegetation ===
De main vegetation types of de Kafue Flats be woodland (miombo, mopane, Acacia, den ''Combretum''), termitaria grassland, flooded grasslands, permanent swamps den levees den lagoons.

=== Wildlife ===
[[File:Wattled_Crane_1400.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wattled_Crane_1400.jpg|right|thumb|Wattled crane.]]De Kafue lechwe (''Kobus leche kafuensis''), an antelope wey dem specialise give dey live for de marshy conditions of de flats insyd, be endemic to de area. Dem estimate dem to be 250,000 lechwe wey dey live for de Kafue Flats for 1931 insyd, one of de highest animals wey dey carry capacities for de world insyd at 11,000 kg/km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (63,000 lb/sq mi).&lt;ref name=&quot;Schuster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Schuster |first1=Richard |date=1980 |title=Will the Kafue Lechwe Survive the Kafue Dams? |journal=Oryx |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=476–489 |doi=10.1017/s0030605300029203 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

By 2005 dem estimate de nomba of lechwe to already fall to 38,000, a nomba wey remain mostly stable until de next census wey dem plete am for 2009 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lechwe_Population&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Chansa |first1=Wilbroad |last2=Kampamba |first2=George |date=2010 |title=The population status of the Kafue lechwe in the Kafue Flats, Zambia |journal=African Journal of Ecology |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=837–840 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01188.x}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem already attribute de declining nombas of Kafue lechwe to de building of de Itezhi-Tezhi Dam den subsequent change for intensity den timing of flooding insyd as well as illegal poaching den de pressures of rising nombas of pippoe den cattle.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lechwe_Population&quot; /&gt;  

Along plus lechwe, Grant's zebras be de dominant species of large mammal wey dem find for de flats insyd. Blue wildebeest, Cape buffalo, roan, greater kudu, hippo dey present for limited nombas insyd particularly for den around de Lochinvar insyd den Blue Lagoon National Parks.&lt;ref name=&quot;ramsar_info&quot; /&gt;

=== Birds ===
De Kafue Flats area dey support more dan 450 species of threatened, endangered den migratory bird species&lt;ref name=&quot;ramsar_info&quot; /&gt; den dem designate de area an Important Bird den Biodiversity Area (IBA) by Birdlife International.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Important Bird Areas factsheet: Kafue Flats |url=https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/kafue-flats-iba-zambia |access-date=9 January 2024 |website=birdlife.org |publisher=Birdlife International}}&lt;/ref&gt; De flats be home to large concentrations of resident den migratory waterbirds wey dey include significant breeding colonies deep within de swamps. De flats sanso dey host a high diversity den density of breeding raptors particularly vultures.&lt;ref name=&quot;ibas&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Leonard |first1=Peter |title=Important bird areas in Zambia: priority sites for conservation |date=2005 |publisher=Zambian Ornithological Society |isbn=9982-811-01-0 |location=Lusaka}}&lt;/ref&gt;  

De flats be an extremely important habitat give de wattled crane (''Bugeranus carunculatus'') wey dem list am for de IUCN Red List insyd as vulnerable.&lt;ref name=&quot;iucn&quot;&gt;[[:en:BirdLife_International|BirdLife International]] (2018). [https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22692129/129880815 &quot;''Bugeranus carunculatus''&quot;]. ''[[:en:IUCN_Red_List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]]''. '''2018''' e.T22692129A129880815. doi:[[doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22692129A129880815.en|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22692129A129880815.en]]. Retrieved 9 January 2024.&lt;/ref&gt; Nombas of wattled crane for de flats insyd drop from between 2000 den 3000 for de 1970s insyd to less dan 1000 by 2002.&lt;ref name=&quot;ibas&quot; /&gt; Oda important species wey dem find for de Kafue Flats dey include de crowned crane, slaty egret, lappet faced vulture, lesser kestrel den corn crake.&lt;ref name=&quot;ibas&quot; /&gt;    

Threats to de bird life of de Kafue Flats dey include changes to de intensity den timing of floods wey de dam upstream at Itezhi-Tezhi cause am, de spread of invasive weed species den de impact of increasing human populations.&lt;ref name=&quot;ibas&quot; /&gt;    

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}

[[Category:Flooded grasslands den savannas]]
[[Category:Kafue River]]
[[Category:Floodplains of Africa]]
[[Category:Geography of Southern Province, Zambia]]
[[Category:Swamps of Africa]]
[[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Zambia]]
[[Category:Zambezian flooded grasslands]]</text>
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    <title>Ancient Egyptian agriculture</title>
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Na de civilization of ancient Egypt be indebted to de [[Nile|Nile River]] den ein dependable seasonal flooding. Thus, dey relying on de Nile River for ein periodic flooding. De river ein predictability den fertile soil allow de indigenous Egyptians to build an empire on de basis of great agricultural wealth. Egyptians be credited as dem be one of de first groups of people to practice agriculture on a large scale. Na dis be possible secof de ingenuity of de Egyptians as dem develop basin irrigation.&lt;ref name= &quot;book&quot;&gt;Kees,Herman.  &quot;Ancient Egypt: A Cultural Topography.&quot;  Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961.  Print.&lt;/ref&gt; Dema farming practices allow dem to grow staple food crops, especially grains such as wheat den barley, den industrial crops, such as flax den papyrus.&lt;ref name=&quot;Origins2&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Janick |first=Jules |date=June 2002 |title=Ancient Egyptian Agriculture and the Origins of Horticulture |journal=Acta Horticulturae |issue=583 |pages=23–39 |citeseerx=10.1.1.693.7643 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2002.582.1}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* Jared Diamond, ''Guns, germs and steel. A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years'', 1997.

[[Category:Agriculture by culture|Egypt]]
[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:History of agriculture]]
[[Category:Agriculture insyd Egypt]]</text>
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    <title>Zeyi River</title>
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De '''Zeyi''' be a river of de [[Nile]] basin. E dey rise insyd de mountains of Dogu'a Tembien insyd northern [[Ethiopia]], e dey flow southward to empty insyd de Giba River.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapmap&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues |title=Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Characteristics ==
De Zeyi be a confined ephemeral river, a bedrock river, plus an average slope gradient of 68 metres per kilometre. Plus ein tributaries, de river cut a deep gorge.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapriver&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Amanuel Zenebe |first1=and colleagues |title= The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14 |s2cid=199099067 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Flash floods den flood buffering ==
Runoff mostly dey occur insyd de form of high runoff discharge events wey occur insyd a very short period (dem call flash floods). Dese be related to de steep topography, often little vegetation cover den intense convective rainfall. De peaks of such flash floods often get a 50 to 100 times larger discharge dan de preceding baseflow.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapriver&quot;/&gt; De magnitude of floods insyd dis river however be decreased secof interventions insyd de catchment.

At Ziban Dake den on oda steep slopes, exclosures been established; de dense vegetation largely dey contribute to enhanced infiltration, less flooding den better baseflow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia. |journal= Journal of Hydrology |date=2006 |volume=331 |issue=1–2 |pages=219–241 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl= 1854/LU-378900 |hdl-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt; Physical conservation structures such as stone bunds&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Nyssen|first1= Jan|last2= Poesen|first2= Jean|last3= Gebremichael|first3= Desta|last4= Vancampenhout|first4= Karen|last5= d'Aes|first5= Margo|last6= Yihdego|first6= Gebremedhin|last7= Govers|first7= Gerard|last8= Leirs|first8= Herwig|last9= Moeyersons|first9= Jan|last10= Naudts|first10= Jozef|last11= Haregeweyn|first11= Nigussie|last12= Haile|first12= Mitiku|last13= Deckers|first13= Jozef|title= Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Soil and Tillage Research |date=2007 |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=151–163 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|hdl= 1854/LU-378900|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl-access= free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Gebeyehu Taye and colleagues| title= Evolution of the effectiveness of stone bunds and trenches in reducing runoff and soil loss in the semi-arid Ethiopian highlands. |journal= Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie|date=2015 |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=477–493 |doi= 10.1127/zfg/2015/0166| bibcode= 2015ZGm....59..477T |url= https://research.wur.nl/en/publications/evolution-of-the-effectiveness-of-stone-bunds-and-trenches-in-red |url-access=  }}&lt;/ref&gt; den check dams dey intercept runoff.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Nyssen|first1= J.|last2= Veyret-Picot|first2= M.|last3= Poesen|first3= J.|last4= Moeyersons|first4= J.|last5= Haile|first5= Mitiku|last6= Deckers|first6= J.|last7= Govers|first7= G.|title= The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Soil Use and Management |date=2004 |volume=20 |pages=55–64 |doi= 10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Etefa Guyassa and colleagues|title= Effects of check dams on runoff characteristics along gully reaches, the case of Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Journal of Hydrology |date=2017 |volume=545 |issue=1 |pages=299–309 |doi= 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019|bibcode= 2017JHyd..545..299G |url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8518957 |hdl= 1854/LU-8518957 |hdl-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Transhumance towards de gorge ==
Transhumance dey take place insyd de summer rainy season, wen de lands near de villages be occupied by crops. Young shepherds go take de village cattle down to de gorge den overnight insyd small caves. De gorges be particularly attractive as a transhumance destination zone, secof der be water den good growth of semi-natural vegetation.&lt;ref name=&quot;trans&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Descheemaeker |first2=Katrien |last3=Zenebe |first3=Amanuel |last4=Poesen |first4=Jean |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |last6=Haile |first6=Mitiku |date=2009 |title=Transhumance in the Tigray highlands (Ethiopia) |url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/854326 |journal=Mountain Research and Development |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=255–264 |doi=10.1659/mrd.00033 |hdl=1854/LU-854326 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

==External links==</text>
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De '''Zeyi''' be a river of de [[Nile]] basin. E dey rise insyd de mountains of Dogu'a Tembien insyd northern [[Ethiopia]], e dey flow southward to empty insyd de Giba River.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapmap&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues |title=Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Characteristics ==
De Zeyi be a confined ephemeral river, a bedrock river, plus an average slope gradient of 68 metres per kilometre. Plus ein tributaries, de river cut a deep gorge.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapriver&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Amanuel Zenebe |first1=and colleagues |title= The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14 |s2cid=199099067 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Flash floods den flood buffering ==
Runoff mostly dey occur insyd de form of high runoff discharge events wey occur insyd a very short period (dem call flash floods). Dese be related to de steep topography, often little vegetation cover den intense convective rainfall. De peaks of such flash floods often get a 50 to 100 times larger discharge dan de preceding baseflow.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapriver&quot;/&gt; De magnitude of floods insyd dis river however be decreased secof interventions insyd de catchment.

At Ziban Dake den on oda steep slopes, exclosures been established; de dense vegetation largely dey contribute to enhanced infiltration, less flooding den better baseflow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia. |journal= Journal of Hydrology |date=2006 |volume=331 |issue=1–2 |pages=219–241 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl= 1854/LU-378900 |hdl-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt; Physical conservation structures such as stone bunds&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Nyssen|first1= Jan|last2= Poesen|first2= Jean|last3= Gebremichael|first3= Desta|last4= Vancampenhout|first4= Karen|last5= d'Aes|first5= Margo|last6= Yihdego|first6= Gebremedhin|last7= Govers|first7= Gerard|last8= Leirs|first8= Herwig|last9= Moeyersons|first9= Jan|last10= Naudts|first10= Jozef|last11= Haregeweyn|first11= Nigussie|last12= Haile|first12= Mitiku|last13= Deckers|first13= Jozef|title= Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Soil and Tillage Research |date=2007 |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=151–163 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|hdl= 1854/LU-378900|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl-access= free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Gebeyehu Taye and colleagues| title= Evolution of the effectiveness of stone bunds and trenches in reducing runoff and soil loss in the semi-arid Ethiopian highlands. |journal= Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie|date=2015 |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=477–493 |doi= 10.1127/zfg/2015/0166| bibcode= 2015ZGm....59..477T |url= https://research.wur.nl/en/publications/evolution-of-the-effectiveness-of-stone-bunds-and-trenches-in-red |url-access=  }}&lt;/ref&gt; den check dams dey intercept runoff.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Nyssen|first1= J.|last2= Veyret-Picot|first2= M.|last3= Poesen|first3= J.|last4= Moeyersons|first4= J.|last5= Haile|first5= Mitiku|last6= Deckers|first6= J.|last7= Govers|first7= G.|title= The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Soil Use and Management |date=2004 |volume=20 |pages=55–64 |doi= 10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Etefa Guyassa and colleagues|title= Effects of check dams on runoff characteristics along gully reaches, the case of Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Journal of Hydrology |date=2017 |volume=545 |issue=1 |pages=299–309 |doi= 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019|bibcode= 2017JHyd..545..299G |url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8518957 |hdl= 1854/LU-8518957 |hdl-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Transhumance towards de gorge ==
Transhumance dey take place insyd de summer rainy season, wen de lands near de villages be occupied by crops. Young shepherds go take de village cattle down to de gorge den overnight insyd small caves. De gorges be particularly attractive as a transhumance destination zone, secof der be water den good growth of semi-natural vegetation.&lt;ref name=&quot;trans&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Descheemaeker |first2=Katrien |last3=Zenebe |first3=Amanuel |last4=Poesen |first4=Jean |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |last6=Haile |first6=Mitiku |date=2009 |title=Transhumance in the Tigray highlands (Ethiopia) |url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/854326 |journal=Mountain Research and Development |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=255–264 |doi=10.1659/mrd.00033 |hdl=1854/LU-854326 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Boulders den pebbles insyd de river bed==
From upstream to downstream, de following lithological units dey occur insyd de catchment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Sembroni |first1=A. |last2=Molin |first2=P. |last3=Dramis |first3=F. |title=Regional geology of the Dogu'a Tembien massif. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains — The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Upper basalt
* Interbedded lacustrine deposits
* Lower basalt
* Amba Aradam Formation
* Antalo Limestone
* Quaternary freshwater tufa&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Moeyersons |first1=J. and colleagues |title=Age and backfill/overfill stratigraphy of two tufa dams, Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia: Evidence for Late Pleistocene and Holocene wet conditions. |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |date=2006 |volume=230 |issue=1–2 |pages=162–178 |bibcode=2006PPP...230..165M |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Adigrat Sandstone

==Natural boundary==
During ein course, dis river dey pass thru three municipalities den constitutes dema borders.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapmap&quot;/&gt; On de various parts:
* Walta to de east
* Seret to de northwest
* Simret to de west den southwest

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
==External links==</text>
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De '''Zeyi''' be a river of de [[Nile]] basin. E dey rise insyd de mountains of Dogu'a Tembien insyd northern [[Ethiopia]], e dey flow southward to empty insyd de Giba River.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapmap&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Jacob |first1=M. and colleagues |title=Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Characteristics ==
De Zeyi be a confined ephemeral river, a bedrock river, plus an average slope gradient of 68 metres per kilometre. Plus ein tributaries, de river cut a deep gorge.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapriver&quot;&gt;{{cite book |last1=Amanuel Zenebe |first1=and colleagues |title= The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14 |s2cid=199099067 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Flash floods den flood buffering ==
Runoff mostly dey occur insyd de form of high runoff discharge events wey occur insyd a very short period (dem call flash floods). Dese be related to de steep topography, often little vegetation cover den intense convective rainfall. De peaks of such flash floods often get a 50 to 100 times larger discharge dan de preceding baseflow.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapriver&quot;/&gt; De magnitude of floods insyd dis river however be decreased secof interventions insyd de catchment.

At Ziban Dake den on oda steep slopes, exclosures been established; de dense vegetation largely dey contribute to enhanced infiltration, less flooding den better baseflow.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Descheemaeker|first1= K. and colleagues| title= Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia. |journal= Journal of Hydrology |date=2006 |volume=331 |issue=1–2 |pages=219–241 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl= 1854/LU-378900 |hdl-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt; Physical conservation structures such as stone bunds&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Nyssen|first1= Jan|last2= Poesen|first2= Jean|last3= Gebremichael|first3= Desta|last4= Vancampenhout|first4= Karen|last5= d'Aes|first5= Margo|last6= Yihdego|first6= Gebremedhin|last7= Govers|first7= Gerard|last8= Leirs|first8= Herwig|last9= Moeyersons|first9= Jan|last10= Naudts|first10= Jozef|last11= Haregeweyn|first11= Nigussie|last12= Haile|first12= Mitiku|last13= Deckers|first13= Jozef|title= Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Soil and Tillage Research |date=2007 |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=151–163 |doi= 10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|hdl= 1854/LU-378900|url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900|hdl-access= free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Gebeyehu Taye and colleagues| title= Evolution of the effectiveness of stone bunds and trenches in reducing runoff and soil loss in the semi-arid Ethiopian highlands. |journal= Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie|date=2015 |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=477–493 |doi= 10.1127/zfg/2015/0166| bibcode= 2015ZGm....59..477T |url= https://research.wur.nl/en/publications/evolution-of-the-effectiveness-of-stone-bunds-and-trenches-in-red |url-access=  }}&lt;/ref&gt; den check dams dey intercept runoff.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Nyssen|first1= J.|last2= Veyret-Picot|first2= M.|last3= Poesen|first3= J.|last4= Moeyersons|first4= J.|last5= Haile|first5= Mitiku|last6= Deckers|first6= J.|last7= Govers|first7= G.|title= The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Soil Use and Management |date=2004 |volume=20 |pages=55–64 |doi= 10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1= Etefa Guyassa and colleagues|title= Effects of check dams on runoff characteristics along gully reaches, the case of Northern Ethiopia. |journal= Journal of Hydrology |date=2017 |volume=545 |issue=1 |pages=299–309 |doi= 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019|bibcode= 2017JHyd..545..299G |url= https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8518957 |hdl= 1854/LU-8518957 |hdl-access= free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Transhumance towards de gorge ==
Transhumance dey take place insyd de summer rainy season, wen de lands near de villages be occupied by crops. Young shepherds go take de village cattle down to de gorge den overnight insyd small caves. De gorges be particularly attractive as a transhumance destination zone, secof der be water den good growth of semi-natural vegetation.&lt;ref name=&quot;trans&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nyssen |first1=Jan |last2=Descheemaeker |first2=Katrien |last3=Zenebe |first3=Amanuel |last4=Poesen |first4=Jean |last5=Deckers |first5=Jozef |last6=Haile |first6=Mitiku |date=2009 |title=Transhumance in the Tigray highlands (Ethiopia) |url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/854326 |journal=Mountain Research and Development |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=255–264 |doi=10.1659/mrd.00033 |hdl=1854/LU-854326 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Boulders den pebbles insyd de river bed==
From upstream to downstream, de following lithological units dey occur insyd de catchment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |last1=Sembroni |first1=A. |last2=Molin |first2=P. |last3=Dramis |first3=F. |title=Regional geology of the Dogu'a Tembien massif. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains — The Dogu'a Tembien District |date=2019 |publisher=SpringerNature |isbn=978-3-030-04954-6 |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Upper basalt
* Interbedded lacustrine deposits
* Lower basalt
* Amba Aradam Formation
* Antalo Limestone
* Quaternary freshwater tufa&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Moeyersons |first1=J. and colleagues |title=Age and backfill/overfill stratigraphy of two tufa dams, Tigray Highlands, Ethiopia: Evidence for Late Pleistocene and Holocene wet conditions. |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |date=2006 |volume=230 |issue=1–2 |pages=162–178 |bibcode=2006PPP...230..165M |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2005.07.013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
* Adigrat Sandstone

==Natural boundary==
During ein course, dis river dey pass thru three municipalities den constitutes dema borders.&lt;ref name=&quot;chapmap&quot;/&gt; On de various parts:
* Walta to de east
* Seret to de northwest
* Simret to de west den southwest

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
==External links==
{{Commons}}
[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Dogu'a Tembien]]
[[Category:Rivers of Tigray Region]]
[[Category:Nile basin]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa by country]]</text>
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    <title>Omo River</title>
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De '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, &lt;small&gt;romanized:&lt;/small&gt; ''Omo Wenz''; dem sanso call Omo-Bottego) insyd southern Ethiopia be de largest Ethiopian river outsyd de [[Nile|Nile Basin]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia, wey e dey empty into [[Lake Turkana]] on de border plus Kenya. De river be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin, de Turkana Basin.

De river basin be famous for ein large number of early hominid fossils den archeological findings such as early stone tools, wey dey lead to ein inclusion on de [[UNESCO]] World Heritage List insyd 1980.&lt;ref name = &quot;unesco&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 |title = Lower Valley of the Omo |website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 18 September 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Geography ==
De Omo River dey form wen de Gibe River wey be de biggest tributary join wit de Gojeb River, one large right-bank tributary.&lt;ref&gt;[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content &quot;Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)&quot;]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; Secof de size, length den de way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo den Gibe rivers as de same river buh plus different names. Dat be why sometimes dem dey call de whole basin de Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western Oromia Region den middle of de Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region.&lt;ref&gt;Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 &quot;New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data&quot;]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]&lt;/ref&gt;

De Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e san turn back south reach 5° 30' N. From der e make one big S-bend, then continue ein southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency, de Omo-Bottego River length be about 760 kilometres (470 miles).&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&amp;view=doc&amp;id=184&amp;format=raw&amp;Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)&quot;,] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)&lt;/ref&gt;

De Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from wer Gibe den Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Secof dis fall, de river dey rush fast for de upper side, wit Kokobi den oda waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of de Gregory Rift lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say de river dey popular for white-water rafting around September den October, wen rain season still make de water high.&lt;ref&gt;Camerapix (2000), p. 262&lt;/ref&gt; De most important tributary be de Gibe River; smaller tributaries be Wabi, Denchya, Gojeb, Mui den Usno rivers.

De Omo-Bottego River form de eastern boundary for de old kingdoms of Janjero den Garo. De river sanso dey pass near Mago den Omo National Parks wey people hnow secof de plenty wildlife.&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Chaw animals dey live for de river side den insyd am, like hippopotamus, crocodile den puff adder snake.

== Archaeological findings ==
De whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology den archaeology. Dem identify over 50,000 fossils from de lower valley, den insyd dem about 230 be hominid fossils wey date back to de Pliocene den Pleistocene times.&lt;ref&gt;Alemseged, Z (April 2003). &quot;An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution&quot;. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]&lt;/ref&gt; Fossils from Australopithecus den Homo genera show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. De oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Lower Valley of the Omo |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; When dem first discover am, people think say e be part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say de rough look of de tools be secof de raw materials no good, den de techniques plus de shapes fit make dem belong to de Oldowan industry.

De archaeological discoveries for de area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 den 1975, one international archaeological team make de most important finds.&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Dem locate different items, wey dey include jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old.&lt;ref&gt;Crandall (2007)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3&lt;/ref&gt; Archeologists sanso find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit sam later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for de riverbanks.&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French den American team.&lt;ref&gt;Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). &quot;[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia&quot;]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]&lt;/ref&gt;

Apart from early hominid fossils, dem sanso find plenty mammal&lt;ref&gt;Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|&quot;Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]&quot;. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]&lt;/ref&gt; fossils den fish&lt;ref&gt;Trapani, Josh (September 2008). &quot;Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia&quot;. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]&lt;/ref&gt; fossils insyd de Omo Valley.

== Human impact ==
De lower valley of de Omo today dem believed by some people say e be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures den ethnic groups dey migrate around de region. Na why dem find plenty hominid fossils for der.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Lower Valley of the Omo |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Up till now, de people wey dey live for de Lower Valley of Omo like de Mursi, Suri, Nyangatom, Dizi den Me'en dem study secof dema diversity.&lt;ref&gt;Hurd (2006)&lt;/ref&gt;

Italian explorer Vittorio Bottego first reach de Omo River on 29 June 1896 during ein second African expedition (1895–97), buh he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Insyd ein honour dem rename de river Omo-Bottego. Herbert Henry Austin den ein men later reach de Omo delta on 12 September 1898, wey dem discover say Ethiopian expedition wey Ras Wolda Giyorgis lead already plant Ethiopian flags for de northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant Alexander Bulatovich lead anoda Ethiopian expedition wey reach de lake on 21 August 1899, wey e sanso cause destruction. Even plus all dis, de Frenchmen insyd de group manage map chaw of de Omo River delta bends for de first time. Dat version of de river map dem use til 1930s wen Italian colonial cartographers draw new den more correct map of de river den ein delta.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf &quot;Local History in Ethiopia]&quot; (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)&lt;/ref&gt;

== Hydroelectric power stations ==
For de Omo River basin, e get several power stations den dams wey dem name after de Gilgel Gibe River den Gibe River, wey be tributaries of de Omo River. Even though de names fi confuse person, all de stations den dams dey actually sit down for de Omo River einself.

== 2006 floods ==
For 2006, heavy rain fall cause de Omo River to flood ein lower course. De flood drown at least 456 people wey e lef more dan 20,000 people stranded for five days wey end on 16 August. Even though heavy rain dey normal for dat area, people blame overgrazing den deforestation for de tragedy. World Food Programme spokeswoman Paulette Jones talk say: “De rivers for Ethiopia no fit hold water like before, secof silt dey fill dem. So e no need heavy rain again before river overflow.”&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.zeenews.com/znnew/articles.asp?rep=2&amp;aid=315920&amp;sid=wor More than 700 killed or missing in Ethiopian floods&quot;,] Zeenews.com 16 August 2006; [http://home.eircom.net/content/reuters/worldnews/8695698?view=Eircomnet &quot;Ethiopian floods feared to have killed 870&quot; by Tsegaye Tadesse] [https://web.archive.org/web/20070312013509/http://home.eircom.net/content/reuters/worldnews/8695698?view=Eircomnet Archived] 2007-03-12 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]], Eircom net, 16 August 2006&lt;/ref&gt; De seasonal flood of Omo River dey very important for de indigenous groups wey dey live along am. De flood dey bring fertile silt den water wey make river bank farming possible. De diverse peoples for de lower Omo like Turkana, Dassanach, Hamer, Nyangatom, Karo, Kwegu, Mursi, Bodi, den Me’en dey get plenty of dema food supply from flood retreat cultivation.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf &quot;Ethiopia's Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict&quot;] (PDF). Archived from [http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2009-09-02. Retrieved 2009-10-17&lt;/ref&gt;

De big destructive flood of 2006 be de only one wey happen for de past fifty years. Buh de recent drop in Lake Turkana water level wey dey get about 90% of ein water from Omo River inflow already cause salinity level to rise.

== References ==

&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==</text>
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De '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, &lt;small&gt;romanized:&lt;/small&gt; ''Omo Wenz''; dem sanso call Omo-Bottego) insyd southern Ethiopia be de largest Ethiopian river outsyd de [[Nile|Nile Basin]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia, wey e dey empty into [[Lake Turkana]] on de border plus Kenya. De river be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin, de Turkana Basin.

De river basin be famous for ein large number of early hominid fossils den archeological findings such as early stone tools, wey dey lead to ein inclusion on de [[UNESCO]] World Heritage List insyd 1980.&lt;ref name = &quot;unesco&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 |title = Lower Valley of the Omo |website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 18 September 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Geography ==
De Omo River dey form wen de Gibe River wey be de biggest tributary join wit de Gojeb River, one large right-bank tributary.&lt;ref&gt;[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content &quot;Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)&quot;]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; Secof de size, length den de way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo den Gibe rivers as de same river buh plus different names. Dat be why sometimes dem dey call de whole basin de Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western Oromia Region den middle of de Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region.&lt;ref&gt;Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 &quot;New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data&quot;]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]&lt;/ref&gt;

De Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e san turn back south reach 5° 30' N. From der e make one big S-bend, then continue ein southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency, de Omo-Bottego River length be about 760 kilometres (470 miles).&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&amp;view=doc&amp;id=184&amp;format=raw&amp;Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)&quot;,] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)&lt;/ref&gt;

De Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from wer Gibe den Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Secof dis fall, de river dey rush fast for de upper side, wit Kokobi den oda waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of de Gregory Rift lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say de river dey popular for white-water rafting around September den October, wen rain season still make de water high.&lt;ref&gt;Camerapix (2000), p. 262&lt;/ref&gt; De most important tributary be de Gibe River; smaller tributaries be Wabi, Denchya, Gojeb, Mui den Usno rivers.

De Omo-Bottego River form de eastern boundary for de old kingdoms of Janjero den Garo. De river sanso dey pass near Mago den Omo National Parks wey people hnow secof de plenty wildlife.&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Chaw animals dey live for de river side den insyd am, like hippopotamus, crocodile den puff adder snake.

== Archaeological findings ==
De whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology den archaeology. Dem identify over 50,000 fossils from de lower valley, den insyd dem about 230 be hominid fossils wey date back to de Pliocene den Pleistocene times.&lt;ref&gt;Alemseged, Z (April 2003). &quot;An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution&quot;. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]&lt;/ref&gt; Fossils from Australopithecus den Homo genera show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. De oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Lower Valley of the Omo |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; When dem first discover am, people think say e be part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say de rough look of de tools be secof de raw materials no good, den de techniques plus de shapes fit make dem belong to de Oldowan industry.

De archaeological discoveries for de area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 den 1975, one international archaeological team make de most important finds.&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Dem locate different items, wey dey include jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old.&lt;ref&gt;Crandall (2007)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3&lt;/ref&gt; Archeologists sanso find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit sam later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for de riverbanks.&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French den American team.&lt;ref&gt;Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). &quot;[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia&quot;]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]&lt;/ref&gt;

Apart from early hominid fossils, dem sanso find plenty mammal&lt;ref&gt;Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|&quot;Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]&quot;. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]&lt;/ref&gt; fossils den fish&lt;ref&gt;Trapani, Josh (September 2008). &quot;Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia&quot;. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]&lt;/ref&gt; fossils insyd de Omo Valley.

== Human impact ==
De lower valley of de Omo today dem believed by some people say e be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures den ethnic groups dey migrate around de region. Na why dem find plenty hominid fossils for der.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Lower Valley of the Omo |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Up till now, de people wey dey live for de Lower Valley of Omo like de Mursi, Suri, Nyangatom, Dizi den Me'en dem study secof dema diversity.&lt;ref&gt;Hurd (2006)&lt;/ref&gt;

Italian explorer Vittorio Bottego first reach de Omo River on 29 June 1896 during ein second African expedition (1895–97), buh he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Insyd ein honour dem rename de river Omo-Bottego. Herbert Henry Austin den ein men later reach de Omo delta on 12 September 1898, wey dem discover say Ethiopian expedition wey Ras Wolda Giyorgis lead already plant Ethiopian flags for de northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant Alexander Bulatovich lead anoda Ethiopian expedition wey reach de lake on 21 August 1899, wey e sanso cause destruction. Even plus all dis, de Frenchmen insyd de group manage map chaw of de Omo River delta bends for de first time. Dat version of de river map dem use til 1930s wen Italian colonial cartographers draw new den more correct map of de river den ein delta.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf &quot;Local History in Ethiopia]&quot; (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)&lt;/ref&gt;

== Hydroelectric power stations ==
For de Omo River basin, e get several power stations den dams wey dem name after de Gilgel Gibe River den Gibe River, wey be tributaries of de Omo River. Even though de names fi confuse person, all de stations den dams dey actually sit down for de Omo River einself.

== 2006 floods ==
For 2006, heavy rain fall cause de Omo River to flood ein lower course. De flood drown at least 456 people wey e lef more dan 20,000 people stranded for five days wey end on 16 August. Even though heavy rain dey normal for dat area, people blame overgrazing den deforestation for de tragedy. World Food Programme spokeswoman Paulette Jones talk say: “De rivers for Ethiopia no fit hold water like before, secof silt dey fill dem. So e no need heavy rain again before river overflow.”&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.zeenews.com/znnew/articles.asp?rep=2&amp;aid=315920&amp;sid=wor More than 700 killed or missing in Ethiopian floods&quot;,] Zeenews.com 16 August 2006; [http://home.eircom.net/content/reuters/worldnews/8695698?view=Eircomnet &quot;Ethiopian floods feared to have killed 870&quot; by Tsegaye Tadesse] [https://web.archive.org/web/20070312013509/http://home.eircom.net/content/reuters/worldnews/8695698?view=Eircomnet Archived] 2007-03-12 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]], Eircom net, 16 August 2006&lt;/ref&gt; De seasonal flood of Omo River dey very important for de indigenous groups wey dey live along am. De flood dey bring fertile silt den water wey make river bank farming possible. De diverse peoples for de lower Omo like Turkana, Dassanach, Hamer, Nyangatom, Karo, Kwegu, Mursi, Bodi, den Me’en dey get plenty of dema food supply from flood retreat cultivation.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf &quot;Ethiopia's Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict&quot;] (PDF). Archived from [http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2009-09-02. Retrieved 2009-10-17&lt;/ref&gt;

De big destructive flood of 2006 be de only one wey happen for de past fifty years. Buh de recent drop in Lake Turkana water level wey dey get about 90% of ein water from Omo River inflow already cause salinity level to rise.

== References ==

&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
*[http://www.selamta.net/omo_park.htm Omo National Park]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160307222523/http://www.slidespost.com/zoom.php?id=2326  The African Tribes of OMO]
*[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ Africa Resources Working Group Gibe III Dam Omo River]
*https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9PUSPE_7ek8&amp;t=4s Walking With The Mursi is an adventure/travel documentary spanning four continents as David Willing hikes 500km across Ethiopia's remote Omo Valley, home of the fascinating Mursi tribes.
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Archaeological sites insyd Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Omo River (Ethiopia)| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Eastern Africa]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa by country]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa]]</text>
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De '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, &lt;small&gt;romanized:&lt;/small&gt; ''Omo Wenz''; dem sanso call Omo-Bottego) insyd southern Ethiopia be de largest Ethiopian river outsyd de [[Nile|Nile Basin]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia, wey e dey empty into [[Lake Turkana]] on de border plus Kenya. De river be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin, de Turkana Basin.

De river basin be famous for ein large number of early hominid fossils den archeological findings such as early stone tools, wey dey lead to ein inclusion on de [[UNESCO]] World Heritage List insyd 1980.&lt;ref name = &quot;unesco&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 |title = Lower Valley of the Omo |website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 18 September 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Geography ==
De Omo River dey form wen de Gibe River wey be de biggest tributary join wit de Gojeb River, one large right-bank tributary.&lt;ref&gt;[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content &quot;Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)&quot;]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; Secof de size, length den de way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo den Gibe rivers as de same river buh plus different names. Dat be why sometimes dem dey call de whole basin de Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western Oromia Region den middle of de Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region.&lt;ref&gt;Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 &quot;New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data&quot;]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]&lt;/ref&gt;

De Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e san turn back south reach 5° 30' N. From der e make one big S-bend, then continue ein southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency, de Omo-Bottego River length be about 760 kilometres (470 miles).&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&amp;view=doc&amp;id=184&amp;format=raw&amp;Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)&quot;,] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)&lt;/ref&gt;

De Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from wer Gibe den Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Secof dis fall, de river dey rush fast for de upper side, wit Kokobi den oda waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of de Gregory Rift lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say de river dey popular for white-water rafting around September den October, wen rain season still make de water high.&lt;ref&gt;Camerapix (2000), p. 262&lt;/ref&gt; De most important tributary be de Gibe River; smaller tributaries be Wabi, Denchya, Gojeb, Mui den Usno rivers.

De Omo-Bottego River form de eastern boundary for de old kingdoms of Janjero den Garo. De river sanso dey pass near Mago den Omo National Parks wey people hnow secof de plenty wildlife.&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Chaw animals dey live for de river side den insyd am, like hippopotamus, crocodile den puff adder snake.

== Archaeological findings ==
De whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology den archaeology. Dem identify over 50,000 fossils from de lower valley, den insyd dem about 230 be hominid fossils wey date back to de Pliocene den Pleistocene times.&lt;ref&gt;Alemseged, Z (April 2003). &quot;An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution&quot;. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]&lt;/ref&gt; Fossils from Australopithecus den Homo genera show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. De oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Lower Valley of the Omo |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; When dem first discover am, people think say e be part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say de rough look of de tools be secof de raw materials no good, den de techniques plus de shapes fit make dem belong to de Oldowan industry.

De archaeological discoveries for de area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 den 1975, one international archaeological team make de most important finds.&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Dem locate different items, wey dey include jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old.&lt;ref&gt;Crandall (2007)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3&lt;/ref&gt; Archeologists sanso find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit sam later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for de riverbanks.&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French den American team.&lt;ref&gt;Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). &quot;[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia&quot;]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]&lt;/ref&gt;

Apart from early hominid fossils, dem sanso find plenty mammal&lt;ref&gt;Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|&quot;Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]&quot;. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]&lt;/ref&gt; fossils den fish&lt;ref&gt;Trapani, Josh (September 2008). &quot;Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia&quot;. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]&lt;/ref&gt; fossils insyd de Omo Valley.

== Human impact ==
De lower valley of de Omo today dem believed by some people say e be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures den ethnic groups dey migrate around de region. Na why dem find plenty hominid fossils for der.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Lower Valley of the Omo |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Up till now, de people wey dey live for de Lower Valley of Omo like de Mursi, Suri, Nyangatom, Dizi den Me'en dem study secof dema diversity.&lt;ref&gt;Hurd (2006)&lt;/ref&gt;

Italian explorer Vittorio Bottego first reach de Omo River on 29 June 1896 during ein second African expedition (1895–97), buh he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Insyd ein honour dem rename de river Omo-Bottego. Herbert Henry Austin den ein men later reach de Omo delta on 12 September 1898, wey dem discover say Ethiopian expedition wey Ras Wolda Giyorgis lead already plant Ethiopian flags for de northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant Alexander Bulatovich lead anoda Ethiopian expedition wey reach de lake on 21 August 1899, wey e sanso cause destruction. Even plus all dis, de Frenchmen insyd de group manage map chaw of de Omo River delta bends for de first time. Dat version of de river map dem use til 1930s wen Italian colonial cartographers draw new den more correct map of de river den ein delta.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf &quot;Local History in Ethiopia]&quot; (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)&lt;/ref&gt;

== Hydroelectric power stations ==
For de Omo River basin, e get several power stations den dams wey dem name after de Gilgel Gibe River den Gibe River, wey be tributaries of de Omo River. Even though de names fi confuse person, all de stations den dams dey actually sit down for de Omo River einself.

== 2006 floods ==
For 2006, heavy rain fall cause de Omo River to flood ein lower course. De flood drown at least 456 people wey e lef more dan 20,000 people stranded for five days wey end on 16 August. Even though heavy rain dey normal for dat area, people blame overgrazing den deforestation for de tragedy. World Food Programme spokeswoman Paulette Jones talk say: “De rivers for Ethiopia no fit hold water like before, secof silt dey fill dem. So e no need heavy rain again before river overflow.”&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.zeenews.com/znnew/articles.asp?rep=2&amp;aid=315920&amp;sid=wor More than 700 killed or missing in Ethiopian floods&quot;,] Zeenews.com 16 August 2006; [http://home.eircom.net/content/reuters/worldnews/8695698?view=Eircomnet &quot;Ethiopian floods feared to have killed 870&quot; by Tsegaye Tadesse] [https://web.archive.org/web/20070312013509/http://home.eircom.net/content/reuters/worldnews/8695698?view=Eircomnet Archived] 2007-03-12 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]], Eircom net, 16 August 2006&lt;/ref&gt; De seasonal flood of Omo River dey very important for de indigenous groups wey dey live along am. De flood dey bring fertile silt den water wey make river bank farming possible. De diverse peoples for de lower Omo like Turkana, Dassanach, Hamer, Nyangatom, Karo, Kwegu, Mursi, Bodi, den Me’en dey get plenty of dema food supply from flood retreat cultivation.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf &quot;Ethiopia's Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict&quot;] (PDF). Archived from [http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2009-09-02. Retrieved 2009-10-17&lt;/ref&gt;

De big destructive flood of 2006 be de only one wey happen for de past fifty years. Buh de recent drop in Lake Turkana water level wey dey get about 90% of ein water from Omo River inflow already cause salinity level to rise.

== References ==

&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
*[http://www.selamta.net/omo_park.htm Omo National Park]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160307222523/http://www.slidespost.com/zoom.php?id=2326  The African Tribes of OMO]
*[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ Africa Resources Working Group Gibe III Dam Omo River]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9PUSPE_7ek8&amp;t=4s Walking With The Mursi is an adventure/travel documentary spanning four continents as David Willing hikes 500km across Ethiopia's remote Omo Valley, home of the fascinating Mursi tribes.]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Archaeological sites insyd Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Omo River (Ethiopia)| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Eastern Africa]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa by country]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa]]</text>
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De '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, &lt;small&gt;romanized:&lt;/small&gt; ''Omo Wenz''; dem sanso call Omo-Bottego) insyd southern Ethiopia be de largest Ethiopian river outsyd de [[Nile|Nile Basin]]. Ein course be entirely contained within de boundaries of Ethiopia, wey e dey empty into [[Lake Turkana]] on de border plus Kenya. De river be de principal stream of an endorheic drainage basin, de Turkana Basin.

De river basin be famous for ein large number of early hominid fossils den archeological findings such as early stone tools, wey dey lead to ein inclusion on de [[UNESCO]] World Heritage List insyd 1980.&lt;ref name = &quot;unesco&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 |title = Lower Valley of the Omo |website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 18 September 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Geography ==
De Omo River dey form wen de Gibe River wey be de biggest tributary join wit de Gojeb River, one large right-bank tributary.&lt;ref&gt;[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content &quot;Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)&quot;]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.&lt;/ref&gt; Secof de size, length den de way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo den Gibe rivers as de same river buh plus different names. Dat be why sometimes dem dey call de whole basin de Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western Oromia Region den middle of de Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region.&lt;ref&gt;Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 &quot;New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data&quot;]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]&lt;/ref&gt;

De Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e san turn back south reach 5° 30' N. From der e make one big S-bend, then continue ein southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency, de Omo-Bottego River length be about 760 kilometres (470 miles).&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[https://web.archive.org/web/20101113215000/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&amp;view=doc&amp;id=184&amp;format=raw&amp;Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)&quot;,] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)&lt;/ref&gt;

De Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from wer Gibe den Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Secof dis fall, de river dey rush fast for de upper side, wit Kokobi den oda waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of de Gregory Rift lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say de river dey popular for white-water rafting around September den October, wen rain season still make de water high.&lt;ref&gt;Camerapix (2000), p. 262&lt;/ref&gt; De most important tributary be de Gibe River; smaller tributaries be Wabi, Denchya, Gojeb, Mui den Usno rivers.

De Omo-Bottego River form de eastern boundary for de old kingdoms of Janjero den Garo. De river sanso dey pass near Mago den Omo National Parks wey people hnow secof de plenty wildlife.&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Chaw animals dey live for de river side den insyd am, like hippopotamus, crocodile den puff adder snake.

== Archaeological findings ==
De whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology den archaeology. Dem identify over 50,000 fossils from de lower valley, den insyd dem about 230 be hominid fossils wey date back to de Pliocene den Pleistocene times.&lt;ref&gt;Alemseged, Z (April 2003). &quot;An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution&quot;. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]&lt;/ref&gt; Fossils from Australopithecus den Homo genera show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. De oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Lower Valley of the Omo |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; When dem first discover am, people think say e be part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say de rough look of de tools be secof de raw materials no good, den de techniques plus de shapes fit make dem belong to de Oldowan industry.

De archaeological discoveries for de area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 den 1975, one international archaeological team make de most important finds.&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Dem locate different items, wey dey include jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old.&lt;ref&gt;Crandall (2007)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3&lt;/ref&gt; Archeologists sanso find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit sam later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for de riverbanks.&lt;ref&gt;Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] &lt;bdi&gt;[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]&lt;/bdi&gt;.&lt;/ref&gt; Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French den American team.&lt;ref&gt;Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). &quot;[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia&quot;]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]&lt;/ref&gt;

Apart from early hominid fossils, dem sanso find plenty mammal&lt;ref&gt;Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|&quot;Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]&quot;. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]&lt;/ref&gt; fossils den fish&lt;ref&gt;Trapani, Josh (September 2008). &quot;Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia&quot;. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]&lt;/ref&gt; fossils insyd de Omo Valley.

== Human impact ==
De lower valley of de Omo today dem believed by some people say e be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures den ethnic groups dey migrate around de region. Na why dem find plenty hominid fossils for der.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Lower Valley of the Omo |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Up till now, de people wey dey live for de Lower Valley of Omo like de Mursi, Suri, Nyangatom, Dizi den Me'en dem study secof dema diversity.&lt;ref&gt;Hurd (2006)&lt;/ref&gt;

Italian explorer Vittorio Bottego first reach de Omo River on 29 June 1896 during ein second African expedition (1895–97), buh he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Insyd ein honour dem rename de river Omo-Bottego. Herbert Henry Austin den ein men later reach de Omo delta on 12 September 1898, wey dem discover say Ethiopian expedition wey Ras Wolda Giyorgis lead already plant Ethiopian flags for de northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant Alexander Bulatovich lead anoda Ethiopian expedition wey reach de lake on 21 August 1899, wey e sanso cause destruction. Even plus all dis, de Frenchmen insyd de group manage map chaw of de Omo River delta bends for de first time. Dat version of de river map dem use til 1930s wen Italian colonial cartographers draw new den more correct map of de river den ein delta.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf &quot;Local History in Ethiopia]&quot; (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)&lt;/ref&gt;

== Hydroelectric power stations ==
For de Omo River basin, e get several power stations den dams wey dem name after de Gilgel Gibe River den Gibe River, wey be tributaries of de Omo River. Even though de names fi confuse person, all de stations den dams dey actually sit down for de Omo River einself.

== 2006 floods ==
For 2006, heavy rain fall cause de Omo River to flood ein lower course. De flood drown at least 456 people wey e lef more dan 20,000 people stranded for five days wey end on 16 August. Even though heavy rain dey normal for dat area, people blame overgrazing den deforestation for de tragedy. World Food Programme spokeswoman Paulette Jones talk say: “De rivers for Ethiopia no fit hold water like before, secof silt dey fill dem. So e no need heavy rain again before river overflow.”&lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.zeenews.com/znnew/articles.asp?rep=2&amp;aid=315920&amp;sid=wor More than 700 killed or missing in Ethiopian floods&quot;,] Zeenews.com 16 August 2006; [http://home.eircom.net/content/reuters/worldnews/8695698?view=Eircomnet &quot;Ethiopian floods feared to have killed 870&quot; by Tsegaye Tadesse] [https://web.archive.org/web/20070312013509/http://home.eircom.net/content/reuters/worldnews/8695698?view=Eircomnet Archived] 2007-03-12 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]], Eircom net, 16 August 2006&lt;/ref&gt; De seasonal flood of Omo River dey very important for de indigenous groups wey dey live along am. De flood dey bring fertile silt den water wey make river bank farming possible. De diverse peoples for de lower Omo like Turkana, Dassanach, Hamer, Nyangatom, Karo, Kwegu, Mursi, Bodi, den Me’en dey get plenty of dema food supply from flood retreat cultivation.&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf &quot;Ethiopia's Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict&quot;] (PDF). Archived from [http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2009-09-02. Retrieved 2009-10-17&lt;/ref&gt;

De big destructive flood of 2006 be de only one wey happen for de past fifty years. Buh de recent drop in Lake Turkana water level wey dey get about 90% of ein water from Omo River inflow already cause salinity level to rise.

== References ==

&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
*[http://www.selamta.net/omo_park.htm Omo National Park]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160307222523/http://www.slidespost.com/zoom.php?id=2326  The African Tribes of OMO]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20210216203655/http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ Africa Resources Working Group Gibe III Dam Omo River]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9PUSPE_7ek8&amp;t=4s Walking With The Mursi is an adventure/travel documentary spanning four continents as David Willing hikes 500km across Ethiopia's remote Omo Valley, home of the fascinating Mursi tribes.]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Archaeological sites insyd Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Omo River (Ethiopia)| ]]
[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Eastern Africa]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa by country]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa]]</text>
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De '''Merowe Dam''', wey dem sanso know am as '''Merowe High Dam''', '''Merowe Multi-Purpose Hydro Project''' anaa '''Hamdab Dam''', be a large dam wey dey near Merowe Town for northern [[Sudan]] insyd, about {{Convert|350|km}} north of de capital Khartoum. Ein dimensions dey make am de largest contemporary hydropower project for [[Africa]] insyd. Dem situate am for de river [[Nile]] top, close to den dey inundate de 4th Cataract wey de river dey divide into multiple smaller branches plus large islands in between. Merowe be a city about 40 kilometres (25 mi) downstream from de construction site at Hamdab. De main purpose give build de dam be de generation of electricity.&lt;ref&gt;[https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=46505&amp;src=eorss-iotd Merowe Dam, Nile River, Republic of Sudan], NASA Earth Observatory&lt;/ref&gt;

== Technical details ==
De dam get a length of about   den a crest height of up to {{Convert|67|m}}. E dey consist of concrete-faced rockfill dams for each river bank top (de right bank dam be de largest part of de project, 4.3 km long den 53m high; de left bank be 1590 metres long den 50 metres high), an  -long  -high earth-core rockfill dam (de 'main dam') for de left river channel insyd, den a live water section for de right river channel insyd (sluices, spillway den a 300-metre power intake dam plus turbine housings).&lt;ref name=&quot;structure&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Merowe Dam: Structure |url=http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/structure.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306175208/http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/structure.html |archive-date=2017-03-06 |access-date=2012-11-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; E dey contain a reservoir of {{Convert|12.5|km3|acre.ft}}, anaa about 15% of de Nile ein annual flow of {{Convert|84|km3|acre.ft}}; de intended reservoir level be 300 metres above sea level, plus de Nile level downstream of de dam wey dey be about 265 metres. Dem plan to extend de reservoir lake to {{Convert|174|km}} upstream.

== Powerhouse ==
Dem equip de powerhouse plus ten {{convert|125|MW}} Francis turbines, dem design each one give a nominal discharge rate of 300 cubic metres per second, den each one dey drive a {{nowrap|150 MVA}}, {{nowrap|15 kV}} synchronous generator. De planners dey expect an annual electricity yield of {{convert|5.5|TWh}}, wey e correspond to an average load of {{convert|625|MW}}, anaa 50% of de load dem rate. To utilize de extra generation capacity, dem go upgrade den extend de Sudanese power grid as part of de project, plus about {{Convert|500|km}} of new {{nowrap|500 kV}} aerial transmission line across de Bayudah Desert to Atbara, wey e continue to Omdurman/Khartoum, as well as about Atbara of {{nowrap|220 kV}}  lines eastwards to Port Sudan den westwards along de Nile, wey dey connect to Merowe, Dabba den Dongola.

== Planning den construction ==
[[File:Merowe_Dam,_Nile_River,_Republic_of_the_Sudan.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Merowe_Dam,_Nile_River,_Republic_of_the_Sudan.JPG|left|thumb|Astronaut photograph of Merowe Dam]]
De idea of a Nile dam at de 4th cataract be quite old. De authorities of de Anglo-Egyptian Sudan propose am several times during de first half of de 20th century. Dem suppose am to equalize de large annual Nile flow fluctuations, create de possibility of growing cotton den dey provide flood protection give de lower Nile valley. After Sudan achieve independence for 1956 insyd, [[Egypt]] decide to control de flow of Nile water dat reach ein own territory by building a dam den creating a reservoir —de Aswan Dam den [[Lake Nasser|Nasser Lake]].

De Sudan military government under Presido Nimeiri revive de plan for 1979 insyd, rydee plus de intention of producing hydroelectricity give Sudan ein rising demand. De following decade see international industry den planning offices busy, wey dey produce a total of four feasibility studies [1 - Coyne et Bellier, 1979 / Gibb, Merz &amp; McLellan, GB, 1983 / Sweco, SE, 1984 / Monenco Consultants Ltd., CA, 1989]. Howeva, insufficient funding den lack of investor interest effectively stall de project at de planning stage.

Dis dey appear to change fundamentally since de country start dey export oil for commercial quantities insyd for de years 1999/2000 insyd. A greatly improved creditworthiness bring an influx of foreign investment, den de contracts give de construction of wat dem rydee know am as de Merowe Dam project wey dem sign for de 2002 den 2003 insyd.

De main contractors be:

* China International Water&amp;Electric Corp., China National Water Resources den Hydropower Engineering Corp. (construction of dam, hydromechanical works)
* Lahmeyer International (Germany - planning, project management, civil engineering)
* Alstom (France - generators, turbines)
* Harbin Power Engineering Company, Jilin Province Transmission den Substation Project Company (both China - transmission system extension)
By de time dem sign de contracts, de Merowe Dam already be de largest international project de Chinese industry eva participate am insyd. 

River diversion den work for de concrete dams top begin for early 2004 insyd. Dem close de left river channel for 30 December 2005 top; de project timeline wey dem scheduled de reservoir wey dey impound to start for mid-2006 insyd den de first generating unit to go on-line for mid-2007 insyd. Dem inaugurate de dam for March 3, 2009 top, at wey point de reservoir dey full den all de hydro-electric generating capacity on-line. 

== Financing ==
Dem report de total project cost to be $2.945 billion. Dem fi subdivide am into partial amounts give de construction work for de dam einself (ca. 45%), ein technical equipment (ca. 25%) den de necessary upgrade of de power transmission system (ca. 30%). De project dey receive funding from

* China Import Export Bank - USD 608 million
* Arab Fund give Economic den Social Development – USD 477 million
* Saudi Fund give Development – USD 215 million
* Abu Dhabi Fund give Development – USD 210 million
* Kuwait Fund give Arab Economic Development – USD 200 million
* Oman Fund give Development - USD 106 million
* State of Qatar - USD 15 million
* De cost wey dey remain – [[:en:USD|$]] 1.114 billion – de Sudanese government cover am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Merowe Dam Project |url=http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/funding.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Benefits ==
De electrification level for Sudan insyd dey very low, even by de standards of de region. For 2002 insyd, de average Sudanese consume 58 kWh of electricity per year, i.e., about one fifteenth of demma Egyptian neighbors to de north, den less dan one hundredth of de OECD average.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=27 September 2021 |title=Africa :: Sudan — the World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020040/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan |archive-date=January 11, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; De capital Khartoum den a few large plantations dey account give more dan two thirds of de country ein electric power demand, while dem no connect most of de rural areas to de national grid. Many villages dey use de option of connecting small generators to de ubiquitous diesel-powered [[irrigation]] pumps. De way of generating electricity be rada inefficient den expensive.

De combined grid-connected generating capacity for Sudan insyd 728 MW for 2002 insyd, about 45% hydroelectricity den 55% oil-fired thermal plants. Howeva, de effective capacity always already be a lot lower. De two main facilities, de Sennar (wey dem construct for 1925 insyd) den Roseires (1966) dams for de [[Blue Nile]] top, wey dem originally design am give [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] purposes rada dan power production. Dem add generating units during de 1960s den 1970s wen de demand give electric power increase, but dem often heavily restrict power production by irrigation needs. 

De government for Khartoum insyd announce plans to raise de country ein electrification level from an estimated 30% to about 90% for de mid-term insyd. Large investments into de medium den low voltage distribution grids go dey necessary but no sufficient to reach dis ambitious goal: First den foremost, de foreseeable increase for power consumption insyd go require de addition of generating capacity. During de 1990s, Sudanese electricity customers have already plague by frequent blackouts den brownouts secof insufficient generation. Three new thermal power plants go into operation for de Khartoum area insyd for 2004 insyd, wey dey increase de installed capacity to 1315 MW. De Merowe dam plus ein peak output of 1250 MW go almost double dis capacity once e dey cam online.

== Human impact ==

=== Resettlement den compensation ===
Before de construction begin, an estimated 55,000 to 70,000 pippoe be resident for de area insyd wey de reservoir lake cover am, mainly dey belong to de Manasir, Hamadab den Amri tribes. Dem live for small farming villages insyd along de banks of de Nile den for de islands insyd for de cataract insyd. Dem relatively isolate de whole region ,without paved roads den oda infrastructure, den de communities dey largely self-sufficient. Except give beans den millet de farmers grow vegetables, both give demma own consumption den give trading at de weekly regional markets. Howeva, demma main source of income—den demma most valuable possession—be de groves of date palms wey dey grow for de fertile [[:en:Silt|silt]] insyd for de river banks top.
[[File:Compensated_palms_hamdab.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Compensated_palms_hamdab.JPG|thumb|During relocation of de Manasir from Dar al-Manasir ahead of de flooding wey destroy demma villages den palm trees wey dem compensate dem burn am]]De inhabitants of de region to be flooded, dem forcibly displace am along a timeline wey dey correspond to demma land ein proximity to de dam site: de pippoe of Hamadab to Al-Multaga for 2003 insyd, de pippoe of Amri to Wadi Muqaddam for 2007 insyd, den de Manasir to Al-Mokabrab den Al-Fidah for 2008 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hafsass&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Hafsaas-Tsakos |first=Henriette |year=2011 |title=Ethical implications of salvage archaeology and dam building: The clash between archaeologists and local people in Dar al-Manasir, Sudan |journal=Journal of Social Archaeology |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=49–76 |doi=10.1177/1469605310388372 |s2cid=147240919}}&lt;/ref&gt; At de resettlement sites, farmers receive plots of land relative for size insyd to demma former possessions, in addition to financial compensation give lost assets—houses den date palms.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Merowe Dam Project |url=http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/payments.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, a majority prefer to stay near to demma old grounds as possible den already thus build at de shores of de new lake. Many families already defy resettlement den dey live rydee for de margins of de lake top. Farmers already becam fishermen, but demma income dey less dan before.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hafsass&quot; /&gt;

Though government officials dey claim der dey improved living conditions at de resettlement areas, plus relatively modern buildings den infrastructure, affected pippoe dey reject de compensation plans. Demma main objections be:

* De soil at de resettlement areas be sandy, den ein quality be extremely poor, wey dem compare to de excellent farmland beside de Nile. E go take much effort den a long time—probably decades—until e becam fertile enough give dey grow vegetables den oda marketable produce.
* De government announce dat e go provide free water, sand removal den fertilizer during de first two years after de resettlement.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Merowe Dam Project |url=http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/new-hamdab.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; After dis period, de farmers go get to pay de full price give dem services, none of wey already dem go pay at de old site.
* Compensation give a date palm dey amount to about four years ein harvest, while a good palm tree fi bear fruit give a hundred years. Compensation give vegetable gardens dey very low, den only married men go receive compensation give demma houses.
Dem resettle about 6,000 pippoe to de Al-Multaqah site for de Nubian desert insyd during 2003 den 2004. Demma villages be de closest to de dam construction site wey dey near Hamdab.&lt;ref name=&quot;dlc.dlib.indiana.edu&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Terminski |first=Bogumil |date=2013 |title=Development-Induced Displacement and Resettlement: Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges |url=https://hdl.handle.net/10535/8833 |journal=Digital Library of the Commons |language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to a survey wey dem conduct am for early 2005 insyd,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.irn.org/programs/merowe/index.php?id=050428merowe.html Irn.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060131191119/http://www.irn.org/programs/merowe/index.php?id=050428merowe.html|date=2006-01-31}}&lt;/ref&gt; de poverty rate already increase dramatically sekof de farmers no dey able to produce anything saleable for de local markets insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;dlc.dlib.indiana.edu&quot; /&gt;

=== Nomads ===
A significant fraction of de Manasir tribe dey inhabit de desert regions close to de Nile valley. De exact size of dis nomadic population dey unknown, but dem estimate am to be of de same order of magnitude as dat of de resident farmers, i.e., tens of thousands. Both groups dey maintain tight cultural interchanges den trade relations plus each oda.

Dem cover only de owners of real estate purportedly under de compensation scheme, although reports be say dem already displace families without compensation anaa adequate provisions give relocation. Nomadic families no go receive any compensation, even though de resettlement of de farming Manasir go deprive dem of demma symbiotic partners. De consequences give demma ability to sustain demma lives for a harsh environment insyd dey remain to be assessed. 

== Human rights concerns ==
UN Special Rapporteur for Adequate Housing top Miloon Kothari issue a statement August 27,[2007], wey e bell give a halt to dam construction at Merowe until an independent assessment of de dam ein impacts for de more dan 60,000 pippoe wey stand to be displaced by de dams at Merowe den Kajbar. Kothari state he already &quot;received reports dat de Merowe reservoir ein water levels already rise, wey e destroy dozens of homes for de area den dey put many more at risk.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;unrights&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 9, 2007 |title=UN rights expert urges suspension to dam projects in northern Sudan |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=23617&amp;Cr=sudan&amp;Cr1 |publisher=[[UN News Centre]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kothari announce, &quot;De affected pippoe already claim dat dem receive no warning dat dem go fi raise water levels den dat no assistance from Government authorities already be forthcoming since dem already destroy demma houses.&quot; According to reports, de Government of Sudan no honor ein promises to dem pippoe wey dem displace. Kothari note am dat, &quot;dem recolate thousands of pippoe for de same area insyd for similar circumstances insyd dat lef many temporarily without food anaa shelter, den dat of dem pippoe dey remain homeless today.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;unrights&quot; /&gt; Dem bell Kothari upon de Sudanese government to ensure safety den adequate housing to all dem pippoe wey de dam affect am den warn de projects &quot;go lead to large-scale forced evictions den further violence.&quot;

== Archaeology ==
De fertile Nile valley already dey attract human settlement give thousands of years. De section between de 4th den 5th cataract—a significant portion of wey dem go inundate am by de reservoir lake—already dey densely populated thru nearly all periods of (pre)history, but very little archaeological work dem eva conduct am for dis particular region insyd. Recent surveys confirm de richness den diversity of traceable remains, from de Stone Age to de Islamic period. 

Several foreign institutions recently anaa dem currently involve am for salvage archaeology insyd for de region insyd under de umbrella Merowe Dam Archaeological Salvage Project (MDASP). Among dem be ACACIA project University of Cologne, Gdańsk Archaeological Museum Expedition (GAME), Polish Academy of Sciences, Humboldt University of Berlin, de Italian Institute give Africa den de Orient (IsIAO), de University College London, de Sudan Archaeological Research Society, de Hungarian Meroe Foundation, University of California at Santa Barbara - Arizona State University consortium, den de Oriental Institute Museum of de University of Chicago. 

Demma main problems be de shortness of de remaining time den limited funding. Unlike de large [[UNESCO]] campaign wey dem conduct for Egypt insyd before de completion of de Aswan High Dam, wen dem fi document more dan a thousand archaeological sites den dem move complete buildings to prevent dem from drowning for [[:en:Lake_Nasser|Lake Nasser]] [[:en:Lake_Nasser|ein]] floods insyd, dem much moe restrict work at de 4th cataract.

Since 2006, de archaeologists wey dey work give de Merowe Dam Archaeological Salvage Project becam accused by environmental den human rights activists as well as de representatives of de affected pippoe of facilitating de political legitimatization of de project.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Sudan's Merowe requests to stop excavating reservoir area |url=http://www.sudantribune.com/Sudan-s-Merowe-requests-to-stop,20457 |work=Sudan Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ancient Gold Center Discovered on the Nile |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070619-gold-nile_2.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621203736/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070619-gold-nile_2.html |archive-date=June 21, 2007 |work=National Geographic News}}&lt;/ref&gt; De archaeologists wey dey work give de dam project find demselves for an ethical dilemma insyd since dem dey undertake salvage excavations while de local pippoe dey for opposition insyd to de building of de dam dat dey necessitate both demma resettlement den de archaeological campaign.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hafsass&quot; /&gt;

Historian Runoko Rashidi issue a statement for solidarity insyd plus Sudanese Nubians wey dey protest de dams den dem bell am give a halt to demma construction.{{Blockquote|We never forget de terrible tragedy wey e result from de Aswan High Dam for Egyptian Nubia insyd. De project for Sudanese Nubia insyd, wey we bell am de &quot;damn dams&quot;, go perpetuate yet anoda tragedy, anoda atrocity, against African pippoe. Nubia be a treasure-house of artifacts dat dey attest to de ancient greatness of Africa. For dem to inundate am go cause irreparable harm to a noble heritage.

We for organize to resist dis project. One of de great figures among Africans in America, Frederick Douglass, say dat &quot;power dey concede nothing without demand. E never do, den e never go do.&quot;}}

== Political impact ==

=== International ===
Dem fix usage rights to de waters of de Nile for de Nile Waters Treaty insyd,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Nile Waters Agreement |url=http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/projects/casestudies/nile_agreement.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050905010029/http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/projects/casestudies/nile_agreement.html |archive-date=September 5, 2005 |access-date=July 15, 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; wey dem negotiate am by de British for 1959 insyd. E dey allot 82 percent of de water volume to Egypt, while dem grant Sudan de rights to de remaining 18 percent. None of de riparian countries further upstream for de Nile basin insyd—[[Ethiopia]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Kenya]] den [[Tanzania]]—dem entitle am to any significant use of de water, be e give irrigation (of particular interest to Ethiopia den Kenya) anaa hydropower (Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda). 

As Sudan rydee dey push forward to make use of ein water allotment, dem countries begin to bell give a revision of de treaty, wey e argue say—plus de exception of Ethiopia—dem all already dey under colonial rule at de time de negotiations take place, den dem no already represent am for demma best interest insyd. Moreova, dem make de decision of distribution of water without any negotiations plus Ethiopia, wey reject de agreement den e be de source of 90% of de water den 96% of transported sediment of de Nile.&lt;ref&gt;Marshall et al., {{cite web |title=Late Pleistocene and Holocene environmental and climatic change from Lake Tana, source of the Blue Nile |url=http://www.holivar2006.org/abstracts/pdf/T1-026.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928124412/http://www.holivar2006.org/abstracts/pdf/T1-026.pdf |archive-date=2006-09-28 |access-date=2006-10-09}}&amp;nbsp;{{small|(247&amp;nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}, 2006&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Kendie, ''The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941–2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle''. United States of America: Signature Book Printing, Inc., 2005, pp.198.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Domestic ===
While a peace treaty dey appear to already stop de fighting for Southern Sudan insyd after almost 20 years, der be no end for sight insyd yet give de civil war for Darfur insyd. More recently, unrest for Nubia insyd as a direct result of de dams den de forced permanent displacement of Nubians from demma homelands dey threaten to erupt into war. A group wey dey bell einself de Nubian Liberation Front dey threaten armed resistance in order to thwart de series of dams along de Nile, den particularly at Kajbar.

During de Sudanese civil war (2023–present) for 13 January 2025 top, dem damage de dam ein power station RSF drones, wey e cause a fire at de facility den dey damage a key transformer. De attack sanso cause power outages as far as Shendi, Port Sudan, Atbara den Omdurman.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=2025-01-13|title=Drone attack on Merowe dam power station disrupts electricity supply|url=https://sudantribune.com/article295881/|work=Sudan Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental impact ==

=== Health ===
De resettlement area be a vast area plus an expected 50,000–70,000 inhabitants wey go be be going thru a transitional period give a few years before de get acclimatised den dem psychologically adapt to demma new life. Governing by de two eminent health impact experiences of New Halfa resettlement projects den Aswan Dam for Egypt insyd, strategic health planning suppose go start early to foresee wat water born diseases den oda ecological health problems (such as bilharziasis, [[malaria]]) dey likely to prevail den to plan how to guard against dat.

=== Evaporation ===
De creation of de reservoir lake go increase de surface area of de Nile by about 700 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. Under de climatic conditions at de site, dem fi expect additional evaporation losses of up to 1,500,000,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per year. Dis dey correspond to about 8% of de total amount of water wey dem allocate to Sudan for de Nile Waters Treaty insyd.

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100224043629/http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/ Official website]
* [http://www.internationalrivers.org/en/africa/merowe-dam-sudan International Rivers ein critique of project]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081113154158/http://sudaninside.net/merowe-dam/ Photos of Merowe dam]</text>
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De '''Merowe Dam''', wey dem sanso know am as '''Merowe High Dam''', '''Merowe Multi-Purpose Hydro Project''' anaa '''Hamdab Dam''', be a large dam wey dey near Merowe Town for northern [[Sudan]] insyd, about {{Convert|350|km}} north of de capital Khartoum. Ein dimensions dey make am de largest contemporary hydropower project for [[Africa]] insyd. Dem situate am for de river [[Nile]] top, close to den dey inundate de 4th Cataract wey de river dey divide into multiple smaller branches plus large islands in between. Merowe be a city about 40 kilometres (25 mi) downstream from de construction site at Hamdab. De main purpose give build de dam be de generation of electricity.&lt;ref&gt;[https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=46505&amp;src=eorss-iotd Merowe Dam, Nile River, Republic of Sudan], NASA Earth Observatory&lt;/ref&gt;

== Technical details ==
De dam get a length of about   den a crest height of up to {{Convert|67|m}}. E dey consist of concrete-faced rockfill dams for each river bank top (de right bank dam be de largest part of de project, 4.3 km long den 53m high; de left bank be 1590 metres long den 50 metres high), an  -long  -high earth-core rockfill dam (de 'main dam') for de left river channel insyd, den a live water section for de right river channel insyd (sluices, spillway den a 300-metre power intake dam plus turbine housings).&lt;ref name=&quot;structure&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Merowe Dam: Structure |url=http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/structure.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306175208/http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/structure.html |archive-date=2017-03-06 |access-date=2012-11-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; E dey contain a reservoir of {{Convert|12.5|km3|acre.ft}}, anaa about 15% of de Nile ein annual flow of {{Convert|84|km3|acre.ft}}; de intended reservoir level be 300 metres above sea level, plus de Nile level downstream of de dam wey dey be about 265 metres. Dem plan to extend de reservoir lake to {{Convert|174|km}} upstream.

== Powerhouse ==
Dem equip de powerhouse plus ten {{convert|125|MW}} Francis turbines, dem design each one give a nominal discharge rate of 300 cubic metres per second, den each one dey drive a {{nowrap|150 MVA}}, {{nowrap|15 kV}} synchronous generator. De planners dey expect an annual electricity yield of {{convert|5.5|TWh}}, wey e correspond to an average load of {{convert|625|MW}}, anaa 50% of de load dem rate. To utilize de extra generation capacity, dem go upgrade den extend de Sudanese power grid as part of de project, plus about {{Convert|500|km}} of new {{nowrap|500 kV}} aerial transmission line across de Bayudah Desert to Atbara, wey e continue to Omdurman/Khartoum, as well as about Atbara of {{nowrap|220 kV}}  lines eastwards to Port Sudan den westwards along de Nile, wey dey connect to Merowe, Dabba den Dongola.

== Planning den construction ==
[[File:Merowe_Dam,_Nile_River,_Republic_of_the_Sudan.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Merowe_Dam,_Nile_River,_Republic_of_the_Sudan.JPG|left|thumb|Astronaut photograph of Merowe Dam]]
De idea of a Nile dam at de 4th cataract be quite old. De authorities of de Anglo-Egyptian Sudan propose am several times during de first half of de 20th century. Dem suppose am to equalize de large annual Nile flow fluctuations, create de possibility of growing cotton den dey provide flood protection give de lower Nile valley. After Sudan achieve independence for 1956 insyd, [[Egypt]] decide to control de flow of Nile water dat reach ein own territory by building a dam den creating a reservoir —de Aswan Dam den [[Lake Nasser|Nasser Lake]].

De Sudan military government under Presido Nimeiri revive de plan for 1979 insyd, rydee plus de intention of producing hydroelectricity give Sudan ein rising demand. De following decade see international industry den planning offices busy, wey dey produce a total of four feasibility studies [1 - Coyne et Bellier, 1979 / Gibb, Merz &amp; McLellan, GB, 1983 / Sweco, SE, 1984 / Monenco Consultants Ltd., CA, 1989]. Howeva, insufficient funding den lack of investor interest effectively stall de project at de planning stage.

Dis dey appear to change fundamentally since de country start dey export oil for commercial quantities insyd for de years 1999/2000 insyd. A greatly improved creditworthiness bring an influx of foreign investment, den de contracts give de construction of wat dem rydee know am as de Merowe Dam project wey dem sign for de 2002 den 2003 insyd.

De main contractors be:

* China International Water&amp;Electric Corp., China National Water Resources den Hydropower Engineering Corp. (construction of dam, hydromechanical works)
* Lahmeyer International (Germany - planning, project management, civil engineering)
* Alstom (France - generators, turbines)
* Harbin Power Engineering Company, Jilin Province Transmission den Substation Project Company (both China - transmission system extension)
By de time dem sign de contracts, de Merowe Dam already be de largest international project de Chinese industry eva participate am insyd. 

River diversion den work for de concrete dams top begin for early 2004 insyd. Dem close de left river channel for 30 December 2005 top; de project timeline wey dem scheduled de reservoir wey dey impound to start for mid-2006 insyd den de first generating unit to go on-line for mid-2007 insyd. Dem inaugurate de dam for March 3, 2009 top, at wey point de reservoir dey full den all de hydro-electric generating capacity on-line. 

== Financing ==
Dem report de total project cost to be $2.945 billion. Dem fi subdivide am into partial amounts give de construction work for de dam einself (ca. 45%), ein technical equipment (ca. 25%) den de necessary upgrade of de power transmission system (ca. 30%). De project dey receive funding from

* China Import Export Bank - USD 608 million
* Arab Fund give Economic den Social Development – USD 477 million
* Saudi Fund give Development – USD 215 million
* Abu Dhabi Fund give Development – USD 210 million
* Kuwait Fund give Arab Economic Development – USD 200 million
* Oman Fund give Development - USD 106 million
* State of Qatar - USD 15 million
* De cost wey dey remain – [[:en:USD|$]] 1.114 billion – de Sudanese government cover am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Merowe Dam Project |url=http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/funding.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Benefits ==
De electrification level for Sudan insyd dey very low, even by de standards of de region. For 2002 insyd, de average Sudanese consume 58 kWh of electricity per year, i.e., about one fifteenth of demma Egyptian neighbors to de north, den less dan one hundredth of de OECD average.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=27 September 2021 |title=Africa :: Sudan — the World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020040/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan |archive-date=January 11, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; De capital Khartoum den a few large plantations dey account give more dan two thirds of de country ein electric power demand, while dem no connect most of de rural areas to de national grid. Many villages dey use de option of connecting small generators to de ubiquitous diesel-powered [[irrigation]] pumps. De way of generating electricity be rada inefficient den expensive.

De combined grid-connected generating capacity for Sudan insyd 728 MW for 2002 insyd, about 45% hydroelectricity den 55% oil-fired thermal plants. Howeva, de effective capacity always already be a lot lower. De two main facilities, de Sennar (wey dem construct for 1925 insyd) den Roseires (1966) dams for de [[Blue Nile]] top, wey dem originally design am give [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] purposes rada dan power production. Dem add generating units during de 1960s den 1970s wen de demand give electric power increase, but dem often heavily restrict power production by irrigation needs. 

De government for Khartoum insyd announce plans to raise de country ein electrification level from an estimated 30% to about 90% for de mid-term insyd. Large investments into de medium den low voltage distribution grids go dey necessary but no sufficient to reach dis ambitious goal: First den foremost, de foreseeable increase for power consumption insyd go require de addition of generating capacity. During de 1990s, Sudanese electricity customers have already plague by frequent blackouts den brownouts secof insufficient generation. Three new thermal power plants go into operation for de Khartoum area insyd for 2004 insyd, wey dey increase de installed capacity to 1315 MW. De Merowe dam plus ein peak output of 1250 MW go almost double dis capacity once e dey cam online.

== Human impact ==

=== Resettlement den compensation ===
Before de construction begin, an estimated 55,000 to 70,000 pippoe be resident for de area insyd wey de reservoir lake cover am, mainly dey belong to de Manasir, Hamadab den Amri tribes. Dem live for small farming villages insyd along de banks of de Nile den for de islands insyd for de cataract insyd. Dem relatively isolate de whole region ,without paved roads den oda infrastructure, den de communities dey largely self-sufficient. Except give beans den millet de farmers grow vegetables, both give demma own consumption den give trading at de weekly regional markets. Howeva, demma main source of income—den demma most valuable possession—be de groves of date palms wey dey grow for de fertile [[:en:Silt|silt]] insyd for de river banks top.
[[File:Compensated_palms_hamdab.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Compensated_palms_hamdab.JPG|thumb|During relocation of de Manasir from Dar al-Manasir ahead of de flooding wey destroy demma villages den palm trees wey dem compensate dem burn am]]De inhabitants of de region to be flooded, dem forcibly displace am along a timeline wey dey correspond to demma land ein proximity to de dam site: de pippoe of Hamadab to Al-Multaga for 2003 insyd, de pippoe of Amri to Wadi Muqaddam for 2007 insyd, den de Manasir to Al-Mokabrab den Al-Fidah for 2008 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hafsass&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Hafsaas-Tsakos |first=Henriette |year=2011 |title=Ethical implications of salvage archaeology and dam building: The clash between archaeologists and local people in Dar al-Manasir, Sudan |journal=Journal of Social Archaeology |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=49–76 |doi=10.1177/1469605310388372 |s2cid=147240919}}&lt;/ref&gt; At de resettlement sites, farmers receive plots of land relative for size insyd to demma former possessions, in addition to financial compensation give lost assets—houses den date palms.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Merowe Dam Project |url=http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/payments.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, a majority prefer to stay near to demma old grounds as possible den already thus build at de shores of de new lake. Many families already defy resettlement den dey live rydee for de margins of de lake top. Farmers already becam fishermen, but demma income dey less dan before.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hafsass&quot; /&gt;

Though government officials dey claim der dey improved living conditions at de resettlement areas, plus relatively modern buildings den infrastructure, affected pippoe dey reject de compensation plans. Demma main objections be:

* De soil at de resettlement areas be sandy, den ein quality be extremely poor, wey dem compare to de excellent farmland beside de Nile. E go take much effort den a long time—probably decades—until e becam fertile enough give dey grow vegetables den oda marketable produce.
* De government announce dat e go provide free water, sand removal den fertilizer during de first two years after de resettlement.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Merowe Dam Project |url=http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/new-hamdab.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; After dis period, de farmers go get to pay de full price give dem services, none of wey already dem go pay at de old site.
* Compensation give a date palm dey amount to about four years ein harvest, while a good palm tree fi bear fruit give a hundred years. Compensation give vegetable gardens dey very low, den only married men go receive compensation give demma houses.
Dem resettle about 6,000 pippoe to de Al-Multaqah site for de Nubian desert insyd during 2003 den 2004. Demma villages be de closest to de dam construction site wey dey near Hamdab.&lt;ref name=&quot;dlc.dlib.indiana.edu&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Terminski |first=Bogumil |date=2013 |title=Development-Induced Displacement and Resettlement: Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges |url=https://hdl.handle.net/10535/8833 |journal=Digital Library of the Commons |language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to a survey wey dem conduct am for early 2005 insyd,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.irn.org/programs/merowe/index.php?id=050428merowe.html Irn.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060131191119/http://www.irn.org/programs/merowe/index.php?id=050428merowe.html|date=2006-01-31}}&lt;/ref&gt; de poverty rate already increase dramatically sekof de farmers no dey able to produce anything saleable for de local markets insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;dlc.dlib.indiana.edu&quot; /&gt;

=== Nomads ===
A significant fraction of de Manasir tribe dey inhabit de desert regions close to de Nile valley. De exact size of dis nomadic population dey unknown, but dem estimate am to be of de same order of magnitude as dat of de resident farmers, i.e., tens of thousands. Both groups dey maintain tight cultural interchanges den trade relations plus each oda.

Dem cover only de owners of real estate purportedly under de compensation scheme, although reports be say dem already displace families without compensation anaa adequate provisions give relocation. Nomadic families no go receive any compensation, even though de resettlement of de farming Manasir go deprive dem of demma symbiotic partners. De consequences give demma ability to sustain demma lives for a harsh environment insyd dey remain to be assessed. 

== Human rights concerns ==
UN Special Rapporteur for Adequate Housing top Miloon Kothari issue a statement August 27,[2007], wey e bell give a halt to dam construction at Merowe until an independent assessment of de dam ein impacts for de more dan 60,000 pippoe wey stand to be displaced by de dams at Merowe den Kajbar. Kothari state he already &quot;received reports dat de Merowe reservoir ein water levels already rise, wey e destroy dozens of homes for de area den dey put many more at risk.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;unrights&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 9, 2007 |title=UN rights expert urges suspension to dam projects in northern Sudan |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=23617&amp;Cr=sudan&amp;Cr1 |publisher=[[UN News Centre]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kothari announce, &quot;De affected pippoe already claim dat dem receive no warning dat dem go fi raise water levels den dat no assistance from Government authorities already be forthcoming since dem already destroy demma houses.&quot; According to reports, de Government of Sudan no honor ein promises to dem pippoe wey dem displace. Kothari note am dat, &quot;dem recolate thousands of pippoe for de same area insyd for similar circumstances insyd dat lef many temporarily without food anaa shelter, den dat of dem pippoe dey remain homeless today.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;unrights&quot; /&gt; Dem bell Kothari upon de Sudanese government to ensure safety den adequate housing to all dem pippoe wey de dam affect am den warn de projects &quot;go lead to large-scale forced evictions den further violence.&quot;

== Archaeology ==
De fertile Nile valley already dey attract human settlement give thousands of years. De section between de 4th den 5th cataract—a significant portion of wey dem go inundate am by de reservoir lake—already dey densely populated thru nearly all periods of (pre)history, but very little archaeological work dem eva conduct am for dis particular region insyd. Recent surveys confirm de richness den diversity of traceable remains, from de Stone Age to de Islamic period. 

Several foreign institutions recently anaa dem currently involve am for salvage archaeology insyd for de region insyd under de umbrella Merowe Dam Archaeological Salvage Project (MDASP). Among dem be ACACIA project University of Cologne, Gdańsk Archaeological Museum Expedition (GAME), Polish Academy of Sciences, Humboldt University of Berlin, de Italian Institute give Africa den de Orient (IsIAO), de University College London, de Sudan Archaeological Research Society, de Hungarian Meroe Foundation, University of California at Santa Barbara - Arizona State University consortium, den de Oriental Institute Museum of de University of Chicago. 

Demma main problems be de shortness of de remaining time den limited funding. Unlike de large [[UNESCO]] campaign wey dem conduct for Egypt insyd before de completion of de Aswan High Dam, wen dem fi document more dan a thousand archaeological sites den dem move complete buildings to prevent dem from drowning for [[:en:Lake_Nasser|Lake Nasser]] [[:en:Lake_Nasser|ein]] floods insyd, dem much moe restrict work at de 4th cataract.

Since 2006, de archaeologists wey dey work give de Merowe Dam Archaeological Salvage Project becam accused by environmental den human rights activists as well as de representatives of de affected pippoe of facilitating de political legitimatization of de project.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Sudan's Merowe requests to stop excavating reservoir area |url=http://www.sudantribune.com/Sudan-s-Merowe-requests-to-stop,20457 |work=Sudan Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ancient Gold Center Discovered on the Nile |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070619-gold-nile_2.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621203736/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070619-gold-nile_2.html |archive-date=June 21, 2007 |work=National Geographic News}}&lt;/ref&gt; De archaeologists wey dey work give de dam project find demselves for an ethical dilemma insyd since dem dey undertake salvage excavations while de local pippoe dey for opposition insyd to de building of de dam dat dey necessitate both demma resettlement den de archaeological campaign.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hafsass&quot; /&gt;

Historian Runoko Rashidi issue a statement for solidarity insyd plus Sudanese Nubians wey dey protest de dams den dem bell am give a halt to demma construction.{{Blockquote|We never forget de terrible tragedy wey e result from de Aswan High Dam for Egyptian Nubia insyd. De project for Sudanese Nubia insyd, wey we bell am de &quot;damn dams&quot;, go perpetuate yet anoda tragedy, anoda atrocity, against African pippoe. Nubia be a treasure-house of artifacts dat dey attest to de ancient greatness of Africa. For dem to inundate am go cause irreparable harm to a noble heritage.

We for organize to resist dis project. One of de great figures among Africans in America, Frederick Douglass, say dat &quot;power dey concede nothing without demand. E never do, den e never go do.&quot;}}

== Political impact ==

=== International ===
Dem fix usage rights to de waters of de Nile for de Nile Waters Treaty insyd,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Nile Waters Agreement |url=http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/projects/casestudies/nile_agreement.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050905010029/http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/projects/casestudies/nile_agreement.html |archive-date=September 5, 2005 |access-date=July 15, 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; wey dem negotiate am by de British for 1959 insyd. E dey allot 82 percent of de water volume to Egypt, while dem grant Sudan de rights to de remaining 18 percent. None of de riparian countries further upstream for de Nile basin insyd—[[Ethiopia]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Kenya]] den [[Tanzania]]—dem entitle am to any significant use of de water, be e give irrigation (of particular interest to Ethiopia den Kenya) anaa hydropower (Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda). 

As Sudan rydee dey push forward to make use of ein water allotment, dem countries begin to bell give a revision of de treaty, wey e argue say—plus de exception of Ethiopia—dem all already dey under colonial rule at de time de negotiations take place, den dem no already represent am for demma best interest insyd. Moreova, dem make de decision of distribution of water without any negotiations plus Ethiopia, wey reject de agreement den e be de source of 90% of de water den 96% of transported sediment of de Nile.&lt;ref&gt;Marshall et al., {{cite web |title=Late Pleistocene and Holocene environmental and climatic change from Lake Tana, source of the Blue Nile |url=http://www.holivar2006.org/abstracts/pdf/T1-026.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928124412/http://www.holivar2006.org/abstracts/pdf/T1-026.pdf |archive-date=2006-09-28 |access-date=2006-10-09}}&amp;nbsp;{{small|(247&amp;nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}, 2006&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Kendie, ''The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941–2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle''. United States of America: Signature Book Printing, Inc., 2005, pp.198.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Domestic ===
While a peace treaty dey appear to already stop de fighting for Southern Sudan insyd after almost 20 years, der be no end for sight insyd yet give de civil war for Darfur insyd. More recently, unrest for Nubia insyd as a direct result of de dams den de forced permanent displacement of Nubians from demma homelands dey threaten to erupt into war. A group wey dey bell einself de Nubian Liberation Front dey threaten armed resistance in order to thwart de series of dams along de Nile, den particularly at Kajbar.

During de Sudanese civil war (2023–present) for 13 January 2025 top, dem damage de dam ein power station RSF drones, wey e cause a fire at de facility den dey damage a key transformer. De attack sanso cause power outages as far as Shendi, Port Sudan, Atbara den Omdurman.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=2025-01-13|title=Drone attack on Merowe dam power station disrupts electricity supply|url=https://sudantribune.com/article295881/|work=Sudan Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental impact ==

=== Health ===
De resettlement area be a vast area plus an expected 50,000–70,000 inhabitants wey go be be going thru a transitional period give a few years before de get acclimatised den dem psychologically adapt to demma new life. Governing by de two eminent health impact experiences of New Halfa resettlement projects den Aswan Dam for Egypt insyd, strategic health planning suppose go start early to foresee wat water born diseases den oda ecological health problems (such as bilharziasis, [[malaria]]) dey likely to prevail den to plan how to guard against dat.

=== Evaporation ===
De creation of de reservoir lake go increase de surface area of de Nile by about 700 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. Under de climatic conditions at de site, dem fi expect additional evaporation losses of up to 1,500,000,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per year. Dis dey correspond to about 8% of de total amount of water wey dem allocate to Sudan for de Nile Waters Treaty insyd.

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/ Official website]
* [http://www.internationalrivers.org/en/africa/merowe-dam-sudan International Rivers' critique of project]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081113154158/http://sudaninside.net/merowe-dam/ Photos of Merowe dam]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Dams dem plete insyd 2009]]
[[Category:Energy infrastructure dem plete insyd 2009]]
[[Category:Dams insyd Sudan]]
[[Category:Hydroelectric power stations insyd Sudan]]
[[Category:Dams for de Nile top]]
[[Category:Northern State (Sudan)]]
[[Category:Dams insyd Africa by country]]
[[Category:Dams insyd Africa]]</text>
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De '''Merowe Dam''', wey dem sanso know am as '''Merowe High Dam''', '''Merowe Multi-Purpose Hydro Project''' anaa '''Hamdab Dam''', be a large dam wey dey near Merowe Town for northern [[Sudan]] insyd, about {{Convert|350|km}} north of de capital Khartoum. Ein dimensions dey make am de largest contemporary hydropower project for [[Africa]] insyd. Dem situate am for de river [[Nile]] top, close to den dey inundate de 4th Cataract wey de river dey divide into multiple smaller branches plus large islands in between. Merowe be a city about 40 kilometres (25 mi) downstream from de construction site at Hamdab. De main purpose give build de dam be de generation of electricity.&lt;ref&gt;[https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=46505&amp;src=eorss-iotd Merowe Dam, Nile River, Republic of Sudan], NASA Earth Observatory&lt;/ref&gt;

== Technical details ==
De dam get a length of about   den a crest height of up to {{Convert|67|m}}. E dey consist of concrete-faced rockfill dams for each river bank top (de right bank dam be de largest part of de project, 4.3 km long den 53m high; de left bank be 1590 metres long den 50 metres high), an  -long  -high earth-core rockfill dam (de 'main dam') for de left river channel insyd, den a live water section for de right river channel insyd (sluices, spillway den a 300-metre power intake dam plus turbine housings).&lt;ref name=&quot;structure&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Merowe Dam: Structure |url=http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/structure.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306175208/http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/structure.html |archive-date=2017-03-06 |access-date=2012-11-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; E dey contain a reservoir of {{Convert|12.5|km3|acre.ft}}, anaa about 15% of de Nile ein annual flow of {{Convert|84|km3|acre.ft}}; de intended reservoir level be 300 metres above sea level, plus de Nile level downstream of de dam wey dey be about 265 metres. Dem plan to extend de reservoir lake to {{Convert|174|km}} upstream.

== Powerhouse ==
Dem equip de powerhouse plus ten {{convert|125|MW}} Francis turbines, dem design each one give a nominal discharge rate of 300 cubic metres per second, den each one dey drive a {{nowrap|150 MVA}}, {{nowrap|15 kV}} synchronous generator. De planners dey expect an annual electricity yield of {{convert|5.5|TWh}}, wey e correspond to an average load of {{convert|625|MW}}, anaa 50% of de load dem rate. To utilize de extra generation capacity, dem go upgrade den extend de Sudanese power grid as part of de project, plus about {{Convert|500|km}} of new {{nowrap|500 kV}} aerial transmission line across de Bayudah Desert to Atbara, wey e continue to Omdurman/Khartoum, as well as about Atbara of {{nowrap|220 kV}}  lines eastwards to Port Sudan den westwards along de Nile, wey dey connect to Merowe, Dabba den Dongola.

== Planning den construction ==
[[File:Merowe_Dam,_Nile_River,_Republic_of_the_Sudan.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Merowe_Dam,_Nile_River,_Republic_of_the_Sudan.JPG|left|thumb|Astronaut photograph of Merowe Dam]]
De idea of a Nile dam at de 4th cataract be quite old. De authorities of de Anglo-Egyptian Sudan propose am several times during de first half of de 20th century. Dem suppose am to equalize de large annual Nile flow fluctuations, create de possibility of growing cotton den dey provide flood protection give de lower Nile valley. After Sudan achieve independence for 1956 insyd, [[Egypt]] decide to control de flow of Nile water dat reach ein own territory by building a dam den creating a reservoir —de Aswan Dam den [[Lake Nasser|Nasser Lake]].

De Sudan military government under Presido Nimeiri revive de plan for 1979 insyd, rydee plus de intention of producing hydroelectricity give Sudan ein rising demand. De following decade see international industry den planning offices busy, wey dey produce a total of four feasibility studies [1 - Coyne et Bellier, 1979 / Gibb, Merz &amp; McLellan, GB, 1983 / Sweco, SE, 1984 / Monenco Consultants Ltd., CA, 1989]. Howeva, insufficient funding den lack of investor interest effectively stall de project at de planning stage.

Dis dey appear to change fundamentally since de country start dey export oil for commercial quantities insyd for de years 1999/2000 insyd. A greatly improved creditworthiness bring an influx of foreign investment, den de contracts give de construction of wat dem rydee know am as de Merowe Dam project wey dem sign for de 2002 den 2003 insyd.

De main contractors be:

* China International Water&amp;Electric Corp., China National Water Resources den Hydropower Engineering Corp. (construction of dam, hydromechanical works)
* Lahmeyer International (Germany - planning, project management, civil engineering)
* Alstom (France - generators, turbines)
* Harbin Power Engineering Company, Jilin Province Transmission den Substation Project Company (both China - transmission system extension)
By de time dem sign de contracts, de Merowe Dam already be de largest international project de Chinese industry eva participate am insyd. 

River diversion den work for de concrete dams top begin for early 2004 insyd. Dem close de left river channel for 30 December 2005 top; de project timeline wey dem scheduled de reservoir wey dey impound to start for mid-2006 insyd den de first generating unit to go on-line for mid-2007 insyd. Dem inaugurate de dam for March 3, 2009 top, at wey point de reservoir dey full den all de hydro-electric generating capacity on-line. 

== Financing ==
Dem report de total project cost to be $2.945 billion. Dem fi subdivide am into partial amounts give de construction work for de dam einself (ca. 45%), ein technical equipment (ca. 25%) den de necessary upgrade of de power transmission system (ca. 30%). De project dey receive funding from

* China Import Export Bank - USD 608 million
* Arab Fund give Economic den Social Development – USD 477 million
* Saudi Fund give Development – USD 215 million
* Abu Dhabi Fund give Development – USD 210 million
* Kuwait Fund give Arab Economic Development – USD 200 million
* Oman Fund give Development - USD 106 million
* State of Qatar - USD 15 million
* De cost wey dey remain – [[:en:USD|$]] 1.114 billion – de Sudanese government cover am.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Merowe Dam Project |url=http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/funding.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Benefits ==
De electrification level for Sudan insyd dey very low, even by de standards of de region. For 2002 insyd, de average Sudanese consume 58 kWh of electricity per year, i.e., about one fifteenth of demma Egyptian neighbors to de north, den less dan one hundredth of de OECD average.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=27 September 2021 |title=Africa :: Sudan — the World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020040/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan |archive-date=January 11, 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; De capital Khartoum den a few large plantations dey account give more dan two thirds of de country ein electric power demand, while dem no connect most of de rural areas to de national grid. Many villages dey use de option of connecting small generators to de ubiquitous diesel-powered [[irrigation]] pumps. De way of generating electricity be rada inefficient den expensive.

De combined grid-connected generating capacity for Sudan insyd 728 MW for 2002 insyd, about 45% hydroelectricity den 55% oil-fired thermal plants. Howeva, de effective capacity always already be a lot lower. De two main facilities, de Sennar (wey dem construct for 1925 insyd) den Roseires (1966) dams for de [[Blue Nile]] top, wey dem originally design am give [[:en:Irrigation|irrigation]] purposes rada dan power production. Dem add generating units during de 1960s den 1970s wen de demand give electric power increase, but dem often heavily restrict power production by irrigation needs. 

De government for Khartoum insyd announce plans to raise de country ein electrification level from an estimated 30% to about 90% for de mid-term insyd. Large investments into de medium den low voltage distribution grids go dey necessary but no sufficient to reach dis ambitious goal: First den foremost, de foreseeable increase for power consumption insyd go require de addition of generating capacity. During de 1990s, Sudanese electricity customers have already plague by frequent blackouts den brownouts secof insufficient generation. Three new thermal power plants go into operation for de Khartoum area insyd for 2004 insyd, wey dey increase de installed capacity to 1315 MW. De Merowe dam plus ein peak output of 1250 MW go almost double dis capacity once e dey cam online.

== Human impact ==

=== Resettlement den compensation ===
Before de construction begin, an estimated 55,000 to 70,000 pippoe be resident for de area insyd wey de reservoir lake cover am, mainly dey belong to de Manasir, Hamadab den Amri tribes. Dem live for small farming villages insyd along de banks of de Nile den for de islands insyd for de cataract insyd. Dem relatively isolate de whole region ,without paved roads den oda infrastructure, den de communities dey largely self-sufficient. Except give beans den millet de farmers grow vegetables, both give demma own consumption den give trading at de weekly regional markets. Howeva, demma main source of income—den demma most valuable possession—be de groves of date palms wey dey grow for de fertile [[:en:Silt|silt]] insyd for de river banks top.
[[File:Compensated_palms_hamdab.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Compensated_palms_hamdab.JPG|thumb|During relocation of de Manasir from Dar al-Manasir ahead of de flooding wey destroy demma villages den palm trees wey dem compensate dem burn am]]De inhabitants of de region to be flooded, dem forcibly displace am along a timeline wey dey correspond to demma land ein proximity to de dam site: de pippoe of Hamadab to Al-Multaga for 2003 insyd, de pippoe of Amri to Wadi Muqaddam for 2007 insyd, den de Manasir to Al-Mokabrab den Al-Fidah for 2008 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hafsass&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last=Hafsaas-Tsakos |first=Henriette |year=2011 |title=Ethical implications of salvage archaeology and dam building: The clash between archaeologists and local people in Dar al-Manasir, Sudan |journal=Journal of Social Archaeology |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=49–76 |doi=10.1177/1469605310388372 |s2cid=147240919}}&lt;/ref&gt; At de resettlement sites, farmers receive plots of land relative for size insyd to demma former possessions, in addition to financial compensation give lost assets—houses den date palms.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Merowe Dam Project |url=http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/payments.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, a majority prefer to stay near to demma old grounds as possible den already thus build at de shores of de new lake. Many families already defy resettlement den dey live rydee for de margins of de lake top. Farmers already becam fishermen, but demma income dey less dan before.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hafsass&quot; /&gt;

Though government officials dey claim der dey improved living conditions at de resettlement areas, plus relatively modern buildings den infrastructure, affected pippoe dey reject de compensation plans. Demma main objections be:

* De soil at de resettlement areas be sandy, den ein quality be extremely poor, wey dem compare to de excellent farmland beside de Nile. E go take much effort den a long time—probably decades—until e becam fertile enough give dey grow vegetables den oda marketable produce.
* De government announce dat e go provide free water, sand removal den fertilizer during de first two years after de resettlement.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Merowe Dam Project |url=http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/en/new-hamdab.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; After dis period, de farmers go get to pay de full price give dem services, none of wey already dem go pay at de old site.
* Compensation give a date palm dey amount to about four years ein harvest, while a good palm tree fi bear fruit give a hundred years. Compensation give vegetable gardens dey very low, den only married men go receive compensation give demma houses.
Dem resettle about 6,000 pippoe to de Al-Multaqah site for de Nubian desert insyd during 2003 den 2004. Demma villages be de closest to de dam construction site wey dey near Hamdab.&lt;ref name=&quot;dlc.dlib.indiana.edu&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Terminski |first=Bogumil |date=2013 |title=Development-Induced Displacement and Resettlement: Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges |url=https://hdl.handle.net/10535/8833 |journal=Digital Library of the Commons |language=English}}&lt;/ref&gt; According to a survey wey dem conduct am for early 2005 insyd,&lt;ref&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20060131191119/http://www.irn.org/programs/merowe/index.php?id=050428merowe.html Irn.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060131191119/http://www.irn.org/programs/merowe/index.php?id=050428merowe.html|date=2006-01-31}}&lt;/ref&gt; de poverty rate already increase dramatically sekof de farmers no dey able to produce anything saleable for de local markets insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;dlc.dlib.indiana.edu&quot; /&gt;

=== Nomads ===
A significant fraction of de Manasir tribe dey inhabit de desert regions close to de Nile valley. De exact size of dis nomadic population dey unknown, but dem estimate am to be of de same order of magnitude as dat of de resident farmers, i.e., tens of thousands. Both groups dey maintain tight cultural interchanges den trade relations plus each oda.

Dem cover only de owners of real estate purportedly under de compensation scheme, although reports be say dem already displace families without compensation anaa adequate provisions give relocation. Nomadic families no go receive any compensation, even though de resettlement of de farming Manasir go deprive dem of demma symbiotic partners. De consequences give demma ability to sustain demma lives for a harsh environment insyd dey remain to be assessed. 

== Human rights concerns ==
UN Special Rapporteur for Adequate Housing top Miloon Kothari issue a statement August 27,[2007], wey e bell give a halt to dam construction at Merowe until an independent assessment of de dam ein impacts for de more dan 60,000 pippoe wey stand to be displaced by de dams at Merowe den Kajbar. Kothari state he already &quot;received reports dat de Merowe reservoir ein water levels already rise, wey e destroy dozens of homes for de area den dey put many more at risk.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;unrights&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 9, 2007 |title=UN rights expert urges suspension to dam projects in northern Sudan |url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=23617&amp;Cr=sudan&amp;Cr1 |publisher=[[UN News Centre]]}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Kothari announce, &quot;De affected pippoe already claim dat dem receive no warning dat dem go fi raise water levels den dat no assistance from Government authorities already be forthcoming since dem already destroy demma houses.&quot; According to reports, de Government of Sudan no honor ein promises to dem pippoe wey dem displace. Kothari note am dat, &quot;dem recolate thousands of pippoe for de same area insyd for similar circumstances insyd dat lef many temporarily without food anaa shelter, den dat of dem pippoe dey remain homeless today.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;unrights&quot; /&gt; Dem bell Kothari upon de Sudanese government to ensure safety den adequate housing to all dem pippoe wey de dam affect am den warn de projects &quot;go lead to large-scale forced evictions den further violence.&quot;

== Archaeology ==
De fertile Nile valley already dey attract human settlement give thousands of years. De section between de 4th den 5th cataract—a significant portion of wey dem go inundate am by de reservoir lake—already dey densely populated thru nearly all periods of (pre)history, but very little archaeological work dem eva conduct am for dis particular region insyd. Recent surveys confirm de richness den diversity of traceable remains, from de Stone Age to de Islamic period. 

Several foreign institutions recently anaa dem currently involve am for salvage archaeology insyd for de region insyd under de umbrella Merowe Dam Archaeological Salvage Project (MDASP). Among dem be ACACIA project University of Cologne, Gdańsk Archaeological Museum Expedition (GAME), Polish Academy of Sciences, Humboldt University of Berlin, de Italian Institute give Africa den de Orient (IsIAO), de University College London, de Sudan Archaeological Research Society, de Hungarian Meroe Foundation, University of California at Santa Barbara - Arizona State University consortium, den de Oriental Institute Museum of de University of Chicago. 

Demma main problems be de shortness of de remaining time den limited funding. Unlike de large [[UNESCO]] campaign wey dem conduct for Egypt insyd before de completion of de Aswan High Dam, wen dem fi document more dan a thousand archaeological sites den dem move complete buildings to prevent dem from drowning for [[:en:Lake_Nasser|Lake Nasser]] [[:en:Lake_Nasser|ein]] floods insyd, dem much moe restrict work at de 4th cataract.

Since 2006, de archaeologists wey dey work give de Merowe Dam Archaeological Salvage Project becam accused by environmental den human rights activists as well as de representatives of de affected pippoe of facilitating de political legitimatization of de project.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Sudan's Merowe requests to stop excavating reservoir area |url=http://www.sudantribune.com/Sudan-s-Merowe-requests-to-stop,20457 |work=Sudan Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Ancient Gold Center Discovered on the Nile |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070619-gold-nile_2.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621203736/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070619-gold-nile_2.html |archive-date=June 21, 2007 |work=National Geographic News}}&lt;/ref&gt; De archaeologists wey dey work give de dam project find demselves for an ethical dilemma insyd since dem dey undertake salvage excavations while de local pippoe dey for opposition insyd to de building of de dam dat dey necessitate both demma resettlement den de archaeological campaign.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hafsass&quot; /&gt;

Historian Runoko Rashidi issue a statement for solidarity insyd plus Sudanese Nubians wey dey protest de dams den dem bell am give a halt to demma construction.{{Blockquote|We never forget de terrible tragedy wey e result from de Aswan High Dam for Egyptian Nubia insyd. De project for Sudanese Nubia insyd, wey we bell am de &quot;damn dams&quot;, go perpetuate yet anoda tragedy, anoda atrocity, against African pippoe. Nubia be a treasure-house of artifacts dat dey attest to de ancient greatness of Africa. For dem to inundate am go cause irreparable harm to a noble heritage.

We for organize to resist dis project. One of de great figures among Africans in America, Frederick Douglass, say dat &quot;power dey concede nothing without demand. E never do, den e never go do.&quot;}}

== Political impact ==

=== International ===
Dem fix usage rights to de waters of de Nile for de Nile Waters Treaty insyd,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=The Nile Waters Agreement |url=http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/projects/casestudies/nile_agreement.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050905010029/http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/projects/casestudies/nile_agreement.html |archive-date=September 5, 2005 |access-date=July 15, 2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; wey dem negotiate am by de British for 1959 insyd. E dey allot 82 percent of de water volume to Egypt, while dem grant Sudan de rights to de remaining 18 percent. None of de riparian countries further upstream for de Nile basin insyd—[[Ethiopia]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Kenya]] den [[Tanzania]]—dem entitle am to any significant use of de water, be e give irrigation (of particular interest to Ethiopia den Kenya) anaa hydropower (Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda). 

As Sudan rydee dey push forward to make use of ein water allotment, dem countries begin to bell give a revision of de treaty, wey e argue say—plus de exception of Ethiopia—dem all already dey under colonial rule at de time de negotiations take place, den dem no already represent am for demma best interest insyd. Moreova, dem make de decision of distribution of water without any negotiations plus Ethiopia, wey reject de agreement den e be de source of 90% of de water den 96% of transported sediment of de Nile.&lt;ref&gt;Marshall et al., {{cite web |title=Late Pleistocene and Holocene environmental and climatic change from Lake Tana, source of the Blue Nile |url=http://www.holivar2006.org/abstracts/pdf/T1-026.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928124412/http://www.holivar2006.org/abstracts/pdf/T1-026.pdf |archive-date=2006-09-28 |access-date=2006-10-09}}&amp;nbsp;{{small|(247&amp;nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}, 2006&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Daniel Kendie, ''The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941–2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle''. United States of America: Signature Book Printing, Inc., 2005, pp.198.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Domestic ===
While a peace treaty dey appear to already stop de fighting for Southern Sudan insyd after almost 20 years, der be no end for sight insyd yet give de civil war for Darfur insyd. More recently, unrest for Nubia insyd as a direct result of de dams den de forced permanent displacement of Nubians from demma homelands dey threaten to erupt into war. A group wey dey bell einself de Nubian Liberation Front dey threaten armed resistance in order to thwart de series of dams along de Nile, den particularly at Kajbar.

During de Sudanese civil war (2023–present) for 13 January 2025 top, dem damage de dam ein power station RSF drones, wey e cause a fire at de facility den dey damage a key transformer. De attack sanso cause power outages as far as Shendi, Port Sudan, Atbara den Omdurman.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|date=2025-01-13|title=Drone attack on Merowe dam power station disrupts electricity supply|url=https://sudantribune.com/article295881/|work=Sudan Tribune}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental impact ==

=== Health ===
De resettlement area be a vast area plus an expected 50,000–70,000 inhabitants wey go be be going thru a transitional period give a few years before de get acclimatised den dem psychologically adapt to demma new life. Governing by de two eminent health impact experiences of New Halfa resettlement projects den Aswan Dam for Egypt insyd, strategic health planning suppose go start early to foresee wat water born diseases den oda ecological health problems (such as bilharziasis, [[malaria]]) dey likely to prevail den to plan how to guard against dat.

=== Evaporation ===
De creation of de reservoir lake go increase de surface area of de Nile by about 700 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. Under de climatic conditions at de site, dem fi expect additional evaporation losses of up to 1,500,000,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per year. Dis dey correspond to about 8% of de total amount of water wey dem allocate to Sudan for de Nile Waters Treaty insyd.

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100224043629/http://www.merowedam.gov.sd/ Official website]
* [http://www.internationalrivers.org/en/africa/merowe-dam-sudan International Rivers' critique of project]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081113154158/http://sudaninside.net/merowe-dam/ Photos of Merowe dam]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Dams dem plete insyd 2009]]
[[Category:Energy infrastructure dem plete insyd 2009]]
[[Category:Dams insyd Sudan]]
[[Category:Hydroelectric power stations insyd Sudan]]
[[Category:Dams for de Nile top]]
[[Category:Northern State (Sudan)]]
[[Category:Dams insyd Africa by country]]
[[Category:Dams insyd Africa]]</text>
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    <title>Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation Centre Kumasi</title>
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[[File:RWESCK Building 1.jpg|thumb|302x302px|RWESCK Building for KNUST Campus insyd]]
'''Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation Centre Kumasi''' ('''RWESCK''') be research den postgraduate training centre for [[Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology]] (KNUST) for [[Kumasi]], [[Ghana]]. De centre dey de Department of Civil Engineering for de College of Engineering, den e dey specialise for postgraduate programmes, professional development courses den applied research for water den sanitation.&lt;ref name=&quot;wascal-fellows&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=CALL FOR APPLICATIONS; CENTRE FELLOWS – WASCAL |url=https://wascal.org/call-for-applications-centre-fellows/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De centre be part of de Africa Centres of Excellence initiative, World Bank-supported programme wey dem design make e strengthen postgraduate training, applied research den regional capacity for selected development fields.&lt;ref name=&quot;worldbank-financial&quot;&gt;[https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/550231634567043229/pdf/Ghana-AFRICA-WEST-P126974-Africa-Higher-Education-Centers-of-Excellence-Project-Audited-Financial-Statement.pdf) Africa Centres of Excellence Project on Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation Centre Kumasi (RWESCK, KNUST): Audited Financial Statement] (PDF) (Report). World Bank. 26 July 2021. Retrieved 10 June 2026.&lt;/ref&gt; Ein work dey cover water resources, climate change, water treatment den supply, waste management, environmental sanitation, den water, sanitation and hygiene governance.&lt;ref name=&quot;worldbank-overview&quot;&gt;[https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/515221567581272314-0090022019/render/0903194KofiAkodwaaBoadiRWESCK.pdf Overview of RWESCK KNUST, Kumasi-Ghana] (PDF) (Report). World Bank. Retrieved 10 June 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

==History==
RWESCK come from earlier water den sanitation capacity-building work for KNUST. De centre trace ein beginning to de Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Project, wey start for 1996 with money support from de Government of de Netherlands.&lt;ref name=&quot;brief-history&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=BRIEF HISTORY OF RWESCK {{!}} Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kumasi - RWESCK |url=https://rwesck.knust.edu.gh/brief-history-rwesck |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=rwesck.knust.edu.gh}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem revise de project for 2004 den rename am Water Resources and Environmental Sanitation Project.&lt;ref name=&quot;brief-history&quot; /&gt;

For 2016, ''Graphic Online'' report say de World Bank dey provide US$8 million to support de establishment of de Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation Centre for Kumasi. De report say dem go locate de centre for KNUST campus, den e go scale up research, training den capacity building for students and other stakeholders for de water den sanitation sectors.&lt;ref name=&quot;graphic-worldbank&quot;&gt;Kenu, Daniel (2 April 2016). [https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/world-bank-supports-establishment-of-water-sanitation-centre-in-kumasi.html &quot;World Bank supports establishment of water, sanitation centre in Kumasi&quot;]. ''Graphic Online''. Retrieved 10 June 2026.&lt;/ref&gt;

World Bank audited financial statement identify RWESCK as Africa Centres of Excellence project wey KNUST implement, with de International Development Association as project financier.&lt;ref name=&quot;worldbank-financial&quot; /&gt; De 2016 ''Graphic Online'' report san state say de centre be collaboration among de centre, de World Bank den de Government of Ghana.&lt;ref name=&quot;graphic-worldbank&quot; /&gt;

==Aim den focus areas==
Dem establish RWESCK to support postgraduate training, research den capacity development for water den environmental sanitation.&lt;ref name=&quot;graphic-worldbank&quot; /&gt; WASCAL describe de centre as regional centre of excellence for de Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, KNUST, wey dey specialise for postgraduate programmes at MSc den PhD levels, plus professional development courses for water den sanitation.&lt;ref name=&quot;wascal-fellows&quot; /&gt;

De centre ein focus areas include water resources, climate change, water treatment den supply, waste management, environmental sanitation den WASH governance.&lt;ref name=&quot;worldbank-overview&quot; /&gt; WASCAL list ein thematic areas as innovative water treatment technology, innovative water distribution den smart technology, environmental sanitation and waste management technology, climate resilience and water resources management, den water and sanitation governance.&lt;ref name=&quot;wascal-fellows&quot; /&gt;

RWESCK ein official mission statement describe ein purpose as to provide environment for teaching, research den mentorship training in water and sanitation science and technology for industrial and socio-economic development.&lt;ref name=&quot;mission&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Mission, Vision and Values {{!}} Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kumasi - RWESCK |url=https://rwesck.knust.edu.gh/about/mission-vision-and-values |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=rwesck.knust.edu.gh}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Academic programmes==
RWESCK dey offer postgraduate programmes through KNUST ein Department of Civil Engineering. Ein MSc programmes include Environmental Sanitation and Waste Management, Water Supply Engineering and Management, Water Engineering with water resources focus, den Disaster Prevention and Management.&lt;ref name=&quot;msc&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2026 |title=MSc Programme:Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kumasi-RWESCK |url=https://rwesck.knust.edu.gh/msc-programme |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=rwesck.knust.edu.gh}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De centre san dey offer doctoral programmes in Water Supply and Treatment Technology, Water Resources Management, den Environmental Sanitation and Waste Management.&lt;ref name=&quot;doctorate&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Doctorate Programme:Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kumasi-RWESCK |url=https://rwesck.knust.edu.gh/doctorate-programme |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=rwesck.knust.edu.gh}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ein doctoral programme structure include coursework, proposal development, internship, research den thesis work.&lt;ref name=&quot;doctorate&quot; /&gt;

Applications dey open to candidates from Ghana den other African countries. De centre state say candidates from non-Anglophone countries must show evidence say dem fit communicate in English.&lt;ref name=&quot;how-apply&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2026 |title=How To Apply For MSC/MPhil/PhD/Short Course:Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kumasi-RWESCK |url=https://rwesck.knust.edu.gh/education/how-apply-mscmphilphdshort-course |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=rwesck.knust.edu.gh}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Professional training den short courses==
RWESCK dey run professional short courses for water den sanitation. De centre describe ein short-course methods as lectures, group exercises, case-study analysis, hands-on sessions den field trips.&lt;ref name=&quot;short-courses&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Short Courses {{!}} Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kumasi - RWESCK |url=https://rwesck.knust.edu.gh/short-courses-0 |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=rwesck.knust.edu.gh}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De courses wey dem list include sustainable onsite sanitation and faecal sludge management, integrated municipal solid waste management, climate-resilient urban drainage, water and sanitation master planning, borehole drilling and construction, GIS applications in water resources management, drinking-water safety planning, advanced water treatment membrane technology, water instrumentation and automation, machine learning and artificial intelligence applications in water and sanitation management, den water and sanitation infrastructure governance.&lt;ref name=&quot;short-courses&quot; /&gt;

For 2025, de NEPAD Water Centres of Excellence network report say RWESCK host delegation from Nigeria ein National Water Resources Institute as part of collaboration wey link to water resources management training. De report say de delegation visit RWESCK ein water quality laboratories, hydraulic laboratories den water resources engineering laboratories.&lt;ref name=&quot;nepad-nwri&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2025-10-24 |title=Kwame Nkrumah University for Sciences and Technology (KNUST), Ghana, partners with the Nigeria National Water Resources Institute (NWRI), to strengthen water resource management in the region. {{!}} Africa Water-Sector News &amp; NEPAD Southern African Network of Water Centres of Excellence |url=https://nepadwatercoe.org/2025/10/24/kwame-nkrumah-university-for-sciences-and-technology-ghana-partners-with-the-nigeria-national-water-resources-institute-nwri-kaduna-to-strengthen-water-resource-management-in-the-region/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |language=en-ZA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Research==
RWESCK dey organise ein research around water, sanitation den environmental systems. Ein research groups include de Water Resources Research Group, Water Supply Research Group, Environmental Sanitation Research Group, den WASH Governance and Policy Research Group.&lt;ref name=&quot;research-groups&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Research Groups &amp; Themes {{!}} Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kumasi - RWESCK |url=https://rwesck.knust.edu.gh/research/research-groups-themes |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=rwesck.knust.edu.gh}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De Water Resources Research Group dey focus on areas such as climate change, integrated water resources management, transboundary basins, irrigation development, scientific computing den modelling.&lt;ref name=&quot;research-groups&quot; /&gt; De Water Supply Research Group dey work on water treatment den water-supply service delivery in relation to de Sustainable Development Goals.&lt;ref name=&quot;research-groups&quot; /&gt; De Environmental Sanitation Research Group dey cover environmental protection, environmental health, waste treatment, composting, nutrient recovery, bio-waste-to-energy den modelling of development impacts.&lt;ref name=&quot;research-groups&quot; /&gt; De WASH Governance and Policy Research Group dey focus on infrastructure development, financing, governance, settlement upgrading, women empowerment den behavioural-change communication.&lt;ref name=&quot;research-groups&quot; /&gt;

De centre list publications by affiliated researchers for areas such as water supply, sachet-water quality, rainwater harvesting, water services for de urban poor, small-town water service delivery, faecal sludge den latrine use, solid-waste services, groundwater, irrigation-water quality den hydrological modelling.&lt;ref name=&quot;publications&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Publications {{!}} Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kumasi - RWESCK |url=https://rwesck.knust.edu.gh/research/publications |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=rwesck.knust.edu.gh |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Applied research den innovation==
RWESCK don involve itself for applied research on sanitation, wastewater treatment den resource recovery. For 2023, MyJoyOnline report say RWESCK and Sewerage Systems Ghana Limited use activated charcoal wey dem derive from faecal sludge to purify wastewater.&lt;ref name=&quot;myjoy-charcoal&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2023-03-03 |title=RWESCK-KNUST, Sewerage Systems Ghana are using faecal activated charcoal to purify wastewater - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/rwesck-knust-sewerage-systems-ghana-are-using-faecal-activated-charcoal-to-purify-wastewater/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; De report state say de work evaluate faecal sludge-derived activated charcoal for wastewater pollutant removal, den say de results appear for ''Advances in Materials Science and Engineering''.&lt;ref name=&quot;myjoy-charcoal&quot; /&gt;

De Africa Higher Education Centres of Excellence programme report for 2024 say RWESCK undertake digital-skills development activities in artificial intelligence, machine learning, de Internet of Things, GIS data analytics den digital literacy for de water den sanitation sector.&lt;ref name=&quot;ace-digital&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024-06-24 |title=RWESCK Pioneers Digital Transformation and Sustainable Solutions in Water and Environmental Sanitation – ACE – Africa Higher Education Centres of Excellence |url=https://ace.aau.org/rwesck-pioneers-digital-transformation-and-sustainable-solutions-in-water-and-environmental-sanitation/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; De same report say de centre dey work with de Ghana Standards Authority toward ISO/IEC 17025:2017 certification for ein laboratory facilities.&lt;ref name=&quot;ace-digital&quot; /&gt;

Another Africa Higher Education Centres of Excellence report describe RWESCK projects for non-intrusive water-leakage detection den unmanned aerial vehicle surveillance of illegal mining.&lt;ref name=&quot;ace-innovations&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2024-10-01 |title=Pioneering Innovations in Water Management, Environmental Protection, and Sustainable Development (RWESCK, KNUST) – ACE – Africa Higher Education Centres of Excellence |url=https://ace.aau.org/pioneering-innovations-in-water-management-environmental-protection-and-sustainable-development-rwesck-knust/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; De report say de leakage-detection work use passive acoustic sensing, machine learning den signal processing, den dem dey develop am with de Community Water and Sanitation Agency.&lt;ref name=&quot;ace-innovations&quot; /&gt;

==Digital water den sanitation training==
RWESCK don work on digitalisation for de water den sanitation sector. For 2023, MyJoyOnline report say RWESCK, in collaboration with AgroParisTech, identify digital skills gaps for application of digitalisation innovations den smart circular economy for water and sanitation utilities management.&lt;ref name=&quot;myjoy-digital&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2023-01-26 |title=Digitalisation of water and sanitation sector won’t make people jobless - Director, RWESCK-KNUST - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/digitalisation-of-water-and-sanitation-sector-wont-make-people-jobless-director-rwesck-knust/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De same report say RWESCK organise national workshop on digital transformation skills development for de water and sanitation sector for Accra. E san report say de Nyansapo Project, wey de French Embassy in Ghana fund, be intended to introduce digital transformation skills into water and sanitation education for graduate training, research den internships.&lt;ref name=&quot;myjoy-digital&quot; /&gt;

==Conferences den sector engagement==
RWESCK don participate for sector conferences den knowledge-exchange activities on climate change, water security den environmental sanitation. For 2017, ''Graphic Online'' report say climate change den sanitation experts, together with early career scientists working in Africa, meet for Accra to discuss research on water insecurity, climate change, flooding den sanitation issues wey dey affect Ghana den other parts of de continent.&lt;ref name=&quot;graphic-scientists&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2017-08-29 |title=Scientists confer on research works on climate change, water insecurity |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/general-news/scientists-confer-on-research-works-on-climate-change-water-insecurity.html |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De report describe de event as de first regional conference and school for West Africa dedicated to water, climate change den environmental sanitation. E state say de event be jointly organised by KNUST, de Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences den de World Bank.&lt;ref name=&quot;graphic-scientists&quot; /&gt; De thematic areas include climate change, climatic systems, resilient WASH systems, integrated water resources management, hydrology, hydrogeology, water security, vulnerability den early warning systems.&lt;ref name=&quot;graphic-scientists&quot; /&gt;

==Community outreach==
RWESCK san involve for hygiene education den school-based WASH outreach. For 2023, MyJoyOnline report on RWESCK ein handwashing education activities for rural communities, including education for pupils on proper handwashing den donation of tissue, liquid soap den handwashing stations to schools.&lt;ref name=&quot;myjoy-handwashing&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2023-01-11 |title=Taking handwashing to rural communities - the RWESCK experience - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/taking-handwashing-to-rural-communities-the-rwesck-experience/ |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; De report name Ampabame, Odaho den Kwaso M/A primary schools among de schools wey de activities reach.&lt;ref name=&quot;myjoy-handwashing&quot; /&gt;

==Laboratories den facilities==
RWESCK develop laboratory den teaching facilities to support research den postgraduate training. De centre state say one of ein objectives be to build laboratory and lecture facilities for postgraduate education in water, environment den sanitation.&lt;ref name=&quot;centre-excellence&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Centre of Excellence {{!}} Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kumasi - RWESCK |url=https://rwesck.knust.edu.gh/about/centre-excellence |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=rwesck.knust.edu.gh}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2024, de centre publicise laboratory characterisation services including X-ray diffraction analysis den scanning electron microscopy. De centre describe de X-ray diffraction facility as portable desktop instrument for powder diffraction applications, den de scanning electron microscope as tool for morphology den elemental analysis across research den quality-control applications.&lt;ref name=&quot;lab-services&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Explore RWESCK Laboratories Advanced Characterization Services {{!}} Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kumasi - RWESCK |url=https://rwesck.knust.edu.gh/news/general/explore-rwesck-laboratories-advanced-characterization-services |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=rwesck.knust.edu.gh}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De NEPAD Water Centres of Excellence network report for 2025 say visiting delegation from Nigeria ein National Water Resources Institute tour RWESCK facilities including water quality laboratories, hydraulic laboratories den water resources engineering laboratories.&lt;ref name=&quot;nepad-nwri&quot; /&gt;

==Partnerships==
RWESCK dey work with academic, public-sector den industry partners. De centre list regional academic partners including de National Water Resources Institute den de University of Benin for Nigeria, plus Cheikh Anta Diop University for Senegal.&lt;ref name=&quot;partnership&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=PARTNERSHIP {{!}} Regional Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kumasi - RWESCK |url=https://rwesck.knust.edu.gh/partnership |access-date=2026-06-25 |website=rwesck.knust.edu.gh}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ein national partners include de Water Resources Commission, Ghana Water Company Limited, Community Water and Sanitation Agency, Ghana Irrigation Development Authority, CSIR Water Research Institute, den de Environmental Protection Agency.&lt;ref name=&quot;partnership&quot; /&gt; WASCAL san describe RWESCK as centre with local academic and industrial partners plus international relations with universities outside Ghana.&lt;ref name=&quot;wascal-fellows&quot; /&gt;

==Role for water den sanitation education==
RWESCK be part of Ghana ein water den sanitation education and research infrastructure. Ein activities relate to drinking-water treatment, water resources management, faecal sludge management, municipal solid waste, urban drainage, water-safety planning, climate resilience den WASH governance.&lt;ref name=&quot;short-courses&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;research-groups&quot; /&gt;

De centre ein regional role connect to de need for trained engineers, researchers den practitioners wey fit work on water access, sanitation services, waste management, environmental health, climate-related water risks den governance of WASH infrastructure.&lt;ref name=&quot;wascal-fellows&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;graphic-scientists&quot; /&gt;

==External links==
* [https://rwesck.knust.edu.gh/ Official website]

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
[[Category:Research institutes]]
[[Category:Water resources management]]
[[Category:Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology]]
[[Category:1996 establishments insyd Ghana]]
[[Category:Buildings den structures dem plete insyd 1996]]</text>
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    <title>Akaki River</title>
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De '''Akaki''' be river for central Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. E be right-side tributary of de Awash River.

De '''Akaki River''' sanso be de biggest river for Addis Ababa, [[Ethiopia]] ein capital. But plenty people no dey notice am secof de thick forest cover wey dey hide am, den secof how people no too dey show interest for am again, since e no get de normal river animals, den de plants for der mostly be weeds for de edges or trees for de riverbank.

Two smaller rivers join de Akaki for de Aba-Samuel reservoir.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=AKAKI RIVER: OROMIA - ENVIRONMENT IN PERIL |url=http://www.gadaa.com/AkakiRiver.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200225074400/http://www.gadaa.com/AkakiRiver.html |archive-date=2020-02-25 |access-date=2026-06-16 |website=www.gadaa.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dese two rivers be de Little Akaki den de Great Akaki; de Little Akaki dey de western side of de Akaki, while de Great Akaki dey de eastern side.

== Pollution ==
De city of Addis Ababa make de Akaki ein waste disposal site. Dis dey put de rural population wey dey live for de edges of de city for risk, secof de Akaki be source of drinking water give dem.

== Avifauna ==
De Akaki be very important give plenty bird species. BirdLife International identify de Akaki–Aba-Samuel wetlands as important staging ground for winter migratory bird species. De wetlands be known say e fit support as many as 20,000 water birds.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Category:Awash River]]
[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]]
[[Category:Geography of Oromia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa]]</text>
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    <title>Water supply and sanitation in South Africa</title>
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Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of Apartheid South Africa ein newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an improved water source for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot;&gt;[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012&lt;/ref&gt;

South Africa sanso get a strong water industry plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt; Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities.      

For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de Stockholm Industry Water Award &quot;give ein transformative den inclusive approach&quot;, wey dey bell am &quot;one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=&quot;Most progressive water utility in Africa&quot; wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}&lt;/ref&gt; De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den urine-diverting dry toilets.        

For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for Cape Town insyd as de city ein water supply dem predict am to run dry before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de &quot;magnitude den severity&quot; of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from Israel to help am build [[desalination]] plants.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water resources den water use ==
[[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&amp;#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&amp;#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual surface runoff at 43 to 48&amp;#x20;km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, wey e depend for de source top.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO Aquastat&quot;&gt;FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Earthtrends&quot;&gt;World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010&lt;/ref&gt;   

Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&amp;#x20;km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&amp;#x20;km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de [[Nile|Nile River]] alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.&lt;ref name=&quot;Orange-Senqu River Commission&quot;&gt;[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Limpopo Watercourse Commission&quot;&gt;[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;      

De main rivers be de [[Orange River]] wey dey drain to de [[Atlantic Ocean]], de [[Limpopo River]], de Incomati River, de [[Maputo River]], de Tugela River, de [[Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de Breede River. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de &quot;water tower&quot; of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;Orange-Senqu River Commission&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Limpopo Watercourse Commission&quot; /&gt; Potential future water resources be seawater desalination anaa de transfer of water from de [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]].           

Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&amp;#x20;km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO Aquastat&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Earthtrends&quot; /&gt; For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO Aquastat&quot; /&gt; De Gauteng area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de Vaal Dam den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de Lesotho Highlands Water Project, in particular from de Katse Dam.&lt;ref&gt;Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010&lt;/ref&gt; Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de Berg River Dam.               

Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den wastewater management major difficulties.&lt;ref name=&quot;:32&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;               

Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from KfW to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal wastewater treatment plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:322&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Wastewater reuse ===
For South Africa insyd, de main driver give wastewater reuse be drought conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Meeker&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research &amp; Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, for Beaufort West insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute water scarcity (production of 2,300 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per day).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, UF, two-stage RO, den permeate wey ultraviolet light (UV) disinfect am.   

De town George face water shortages den already decide for an IPR strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, de Garden Route Dam, wer dem be combined plus current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&amp;#x20;m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.&lt;ref name=&quot;Meeker&quot; /&gt;       

Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town Hermanus (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&amp;#x20;m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&amp;#x20;m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, RO desalination, as well as advanced oxidation den carbon filtration. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.&lt;ref name=&quot;Meeker&quot; /&gt;

== Access to water by SA citizens ==
[[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein Constitution insyd, wey dey state dat &quot;Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

After de end of Apartheid South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.&lt;ref&gt;BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.&lt;/ref&gt;

Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title=&quot;Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis&quot; |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail &amp; Guardian |language=en-ZA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail &amp; Guardian |language=en-ZA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Water ===
For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an &quot;improved&quot; water supply be 3.64 million.&lt;ref name=&quot;SAJMPWash&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot;&gt;WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation&lt;/ref&gt; 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SAJMPWash&quot; /&gt;

For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[Thabo Mbeki]] already promise &quot;all households go get running water within five years&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]&lt;/ref&gt; Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.&lt;ref&gt;Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies.   

=== Sanitation ===
Plus respect to [[sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to &quot;improved&quot; sanitation dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SAJMPWash&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot; /&gt; Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SAJMPWash&quot; /&gt; 

According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to improved sanitation increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), bucket toilets (3 million) anaa practice [[open defecation]] (4 million).&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;

According to Statistics South Africa, access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}&lt;/ref&gt; De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[Diarrhea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[cholera]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]&lt;/ref&gt; While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}&lt;/ref&gt;    

South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail &amp; Guardian |language=en-ZA}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Service quality ==

=== Water quality den continuity of supply ===
Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Barometer&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122&lt;/ref&gt; Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de Department of Water Affairs wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am &quot;blue drop&quot; incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a &quot;blue drop&quot; if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a water safety plan, process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.&lt;ref&gt;Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;

Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de World Health Organization. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a &quot;strong spin element&quot; dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, &quot;while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources&lt;/ref&gt; For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of Bitou.&lt;ref&gt;Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;

Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. Eutrophication be a growing concern,&lt;ref&gt;Oberholster, P.J. &amp; Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).&lt;/ref&gt; plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.&lt;ref&gt;UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Wastewater treatment ===
55% of wastewater treatment plants, especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.&lt;ref&gt;Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt; For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% &quot;perform within acceptable standards&quot; den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.&lt;ref&gt;Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement  by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;

According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26&lt;/ref&gt; According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities &quot;run assets to failure&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013&lt;/ref&gt;

== Stakeholders ==
Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd:

* De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter.
* Water Boards, wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd;
* Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure.
Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd.

=== Policy den regulation ===
De Department of Water Affairs (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, &quot;der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government&quot;, according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, &quot;wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Service provision ===
Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. 
[[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997&lt;ref name=&quot;WSA&quot;&gt;Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.&lt;/ref&gt; responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see Municipalities of South Africa).&lt;ref name=&quot;eThekwini Municipality&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;eThekwini Municipality&quot; /&gt;    

Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a &quot;Transformation Plan&quot; wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de King Report for Corporate Governance top, wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting.      

De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities.       

'''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions.        

'''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities.          

'''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de Berg River Dam. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Odas ===                

'''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]&lt;/ref&gt;

De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.&lt;ref&gt;Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7&lt;/ref&gt; Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called &quot;new social movements&quot; dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation Abahlali baseMjondolo wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for &quot;mass popular appropriation&quot; of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd.          

For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Human resources ==
South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157&lt;/ref&gt;

One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de African National Congress, dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== History den recent developments ==
[[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

=== Transition ===
For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de Department of Water Affairs den Forestry de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get &quot;equitable access to water supply den sanitation&quot;. To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

De passing of de Constitution of de Republic of South Africa for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== Water Services Act of 1997 ===
For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first White Paper for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.&lt;ref name=&quot;WSA&quot; /&gt;

De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many Townships insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher water tariffs den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of &quot;tricklers&quot; dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. 

De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.&lt;ref&gt;2002 White Paper&lt;/ref&gt; Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly.

=== Municipal Systems Act of 2000 ===
De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. 

=== Free Basic Water Policy ===
Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Galvin&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; After Thabo Mbeki becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de African National Congress promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 &quot;kilolitres&quot; (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality.   

=== Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters ===
'''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for Johannesburg insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de Joint Venture Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd.   

'''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for Soweto insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pacific Institute&quot;&gt;[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008&lt;/ref&gt;

For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water &quot;is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle.&quot; Further, de judge state dat &quot;25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri&quot;, den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pacific Institute&quot; /&gt;

For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.&lt;/ref&gt; De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&amp;#x20;m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per month to 10 anaa even 15&amp;#x20;m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of &quot;emergency water&quot; four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus &quot;solution&quot;: A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&amp;page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd ===
Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers.  

For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions.    

=== Basic Sanitation White Paper ===
In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]&lt;/ref&gt; E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms.  

E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd.    

=== Decentralisation ===
Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]&lt;/ref&gt;

For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004&lt;/ref&gt; De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd.

=== National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy ===
For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of bucket toilets. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a sewage treatment plant. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by flush toilets anaa Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines wey water no dey readily available.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;    

Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem  move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SERI&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, &quot;de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation&quot;. A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be &quot;deliberately vague&quot; sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.&lt;ref name=&quot;SERI&quot; /&gt;

=== Partnerships ===
South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include Denmark,&lt;ref name=&quot;sydafrika&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; de Netherlands,&lt;ref name=&quot;dws&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; den Israel,&lt;ref name=&quot;sajr&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.&lt;ref name=&quot;sydafrika&quot; /&gt; E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.&lt;ref name=&quot;dws&quot; /&gt; Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from Israel for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for arid environments insyd&lt;ref name=&quot;sajr&quot; /&gt;

=== List of ministers for charge of water insyd ===
Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry

* Dr. Kader Asmal (1994–1999)
* Ronnie Kasrils (1999–2004)
* Buyelwa Sonjica (2004–2006)
* Lindiwe Hendricks (2006–2009)
Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs:

* Buyelwa Sonjica (2009–2010)
* Edna Molewa (2010-2014)
Ministers of Water den Sanitation:

* Nomvula Mokonyane (2014-2018)
* Gugile Nkwinti (2018-2019)
Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation

* Lindiwe Sisulu (since 2019)

== Efficiency ==
One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of non-revenue water. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.&lt;ref&gt;International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Final aspects ==

=== Tariff level ===
Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users.

'''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, Rand Water, charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter.    

For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&amp;sid=91&amp;pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Poor households get to register demselves as &quot;indigent&quot; (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&amp;lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give &quot;formal&quot; housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Free basic water ===
South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}&lt;/ref&gt; Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.&lt;ref&gt;Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.&lt;/ref&gt;

Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of GDP for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.&lt;ref name=&quot;WRC Rural&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&amp;q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&amp;hl=de&amp;gl=de&amp;pid=bl&amp;srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&amp;sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of &quot;Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}&lt;/ref&gt; De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.&lt;ref name=&quot;GWI&quot;&gt;The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31&lt;/ref&gt;

As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Galvin&quot; /&gt;

=== Affordability ===
Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail &amp; Guardian}}&lt;/ref&gt; de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,&lt;ref name=&quot;WRC Rural&quot; /&gt; for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line.     

=== Cost recovery ===
For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;WRC Rural&quot; /&gt; Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de &quot;equitable share&quot; transfers from national government.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Investment ===
According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey DBSA publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows:

* 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities 
* 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities
* 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards

* 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF 

* 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)&lt;ref name=&quot;Barometer Financing&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.&lt;ref&gt;White Paper 2002, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de De Hoop Dam wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.&lt;ref&gt;Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Financing ===
Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd:

* 51% thru inter-governmental grants;
* 19% thru borrowing; den
* 30% thru internal cash generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Barometer Financing&quot; /&gt;
De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am &quot;equitable share&quot;. One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;WRC Rural&quot; /&gt;     

For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
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== External links ==</text>
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Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of Apartheid South Africa ein newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an improved water source for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot;&gt;[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012&lt;/ref&gt;

South Africa sanso get a strong water industry plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt; Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities.      

For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de Stockholm Industry Water Award &quot;give ein transformative den inclusive approach&quot;, wey dey bell am &quot;one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=&quot;Most progressive water utility in Africa&quot; wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}&lt;/ref&gt; De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den urine-diverting dry toilets.        

For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for Cape Town insyd as de city ein water supply dem predict am to run dry before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de &quot;magnitude den severity&quot; of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from Israel to help am build [[desalination]] plants.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018&lt;/ref&gt;

== Water resources den water use ==
[[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&amp;#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&amp;#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual surface runoff at 43 to 48&amp;#x20;km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, wey e depend for de source top.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO Aquastat&quot;&gt;FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Earthtrends&quot;&gt;World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010&lt;/ref&gt;   

Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&amp;#x20;km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&amp;#x20;km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de [[Nile|Nile River]] alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.&lt;ref name=&quot;Orange-Senqu River Commission&quot;&gt;[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Limpopo Watercourse Commission&quot;&gt;[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;      

De main rivers be de [[Orange River]] wey dey drain to de [[Atlantic Ocean]], de [[Limpopo River]], de Incomati River, de [[Maputo River]], de Tugela River, de [[Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de Breede River. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de &quot;water tower&quot; of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.&lt;ref name=&quot;Orange-Senqu River Commission&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Limpopo Watercourse Commission&quot; /&gt; Potential future water resources be seawater desalination anaa de transfer of water from de [[Zambezi|Zambezi River]].           

Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&amp;#x20;km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO Aquastat&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Earthtrends&quot; /&gt; For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO Aquastat&quot; /&gt; De Gauteng area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de Vaal Dam den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de Lesotho Highlands Water Project, in particular from de Katse Dam.&lt;ref&gt;Rand Water:[https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010&lt;/ref&gt; Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de Berg River Dam.               

Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den wastewater management major difficulties.&lt;ref name=&quot;:32&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;               

Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from KfW to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal wastewater treatment plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:322&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Wastewater reuse ===
For South Africa insyd, de main driver give wastewater reuse be drought conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;Meeker&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research &amp; Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}&lt;/ref&gt; For example, for Beaufort West insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute water scarcity (production of 2,300 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per day).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt; De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, UF, two-stage RO, den permeate wey ultraviolet light (UV) disinfect am.   

De town George face water shortages den already decide for an IPR strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, de Garden Route Dam, wer dem be combined plus current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&amp;#x20;m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.&lt;ref name=&quot;Meeker&quot; /&gt;       

Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town Hermanus (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&amp;#x20;m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&amp;#x20;m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, RO desalination, as well as advanced oxidation den carbon filtration. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.&lt;ref name=&quot;Meeker&quot; /&gt;

== Access to water by SA citizens ==
[[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein Constitution insyd, wey dey state dat &quot;Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;

After de end of Apartheid South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.&lt;ref&gt;BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.&lt;/ref&gt;

Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title=&quot;Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis&quot; |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail &amp; Guardian |language=en-ZA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail &amp; Guardian |language=en-ZA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Water ===
For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an &quot;improved&quot; water supply be 3.64 million.&lt;ref name=&quot;SAJMPWash&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot;&gt;WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation&lt;/ref&gt; 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SAJMPWash&quot; /&gt;

For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[Thabo Mbeki]] already promise &quot;all households go get running water within five years&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]&lt;/ref&gt; Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.&lt;ref&gt;Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.&lt;/ref&gt; Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies.   

=== Sanitation ===
Plus respect to [[sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to &quot;improved&quot; sanitation dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SAJMPWash&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;ReferenceA&quot; /&gt; Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;SAJMPWash&quot; /&gt; 

According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to improved sanitation increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), bucket toilets (3 million) anaa practice [[open defecation]] (4 million).&lt;ref name=&quot;JMP&quot; /&gt;

According to Statistics South Africa, access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.&lt;ref name=&quot;Census 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}&lt;/ref&gt; De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[Diarrhea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[cholera]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]&lt;/ref&gt; While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}&lt;/ref&gt;    

South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail &amp; Guardian |language=en-ZA}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

== Service quality ==

=== Water quality den continuity of supply ===
Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Barometer&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122&lt;/ref&gt; Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de Department of Water Affairs wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am &quot;blue drop&quot; incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a &quot;blue drop&quot; if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a water safety plan, process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.&lt;ref&gt;Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;

Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de World Health Organization. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a &quot;strong spin element&quot; dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, &quot;while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources&lt;/ref&gt; For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of Bitou.&lt;ref&gt;Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;

Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. Eutrophication be a growing concern,&lt;ref&gt;Oberholster, P.J. &amp; Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).&lt;/ref&gt; plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.&lt;ref&gt;UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Wastewater treatment ===
55% of wastewater treatment plants, especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.&lt;ref&gt;Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt; For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% &quot;perform within acceptable standards&quot; den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.&lt;ref&gt;Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement  by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011&lt;/ref&gt;

According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26&lt;/ref&gt; According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities &quot;run assets to failure&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013&lt;/ref&gt;

== Stakeholders ==
Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd:

* De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter.
* Water Boards, wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd;
* Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure.
Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd.

=== Policy den regulation ===
De Department of Water Affairs (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, &quot;der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government&quot;, according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, &quot;wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Service provision ===
Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. 
[[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997&lt;ref name=&quot;WSA&quot;&gt;Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.&lt;/ref&gt; responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see Municipalities of South Africa).&lt;ref name=&quot;eThekwini Municipality&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.&lt;ref name=&quot;eThekwini Municipality&quot; /&gt;    

Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a &quot;Transformation Plan&quot; wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de King Report for Corporate Governance top, wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting.      

De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities.       

'''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions.        

'''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities.          

'''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de Berg River Dam. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Odas ===                

'''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]&lt;/ref&gt;

De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.&lt;ref&gt;Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7&lt;/ref&gt; Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called &quot;new social movements&quot; dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation Abahlali baseMjondolo wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for &quot;mass popular appropriation&quot; of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd.          

For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]&lt;/ref&gt;

== Human resources ==
South Africa dey experience a brain drain dat sanso dey affect de availability of qualified engineers for water den sanitation utilities insyd. De nomba of civil engineers for municipalities insyd decline from 20 per 100,000 inhabitants for 1994 insyd to 2.8 for 2009 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;Marius van Aardt:A south African story:Silulumanzi's perspective, in: Transforming the World of Water, Global Water Summit 2010, Global Water Intelligence and International Desalination Association, p. 156–157&lt;/ref&gt;

One reason be de official policy of cadre deployment, wey persons wey dey loyal to de ruling party, de African National Congress, dem give dem jobs for different branches of government insyd. Dis intransparent process dey put party loyalty ahead of competence den dey demoralise public service employees, according to a 2012 study wey de Human Sciences Research Council do am. Skilled staff concentrate at de national den provincial levels, but der dey a skills deficit at de municipal level. South Africa no get a unified civil service, so dat der dey no uniform standards give hiring den promotion at de municipal level. According to de study, der sanso be a high level of turnova of middle den senior managers for de civil service insyd, sekof stressful working conditions den opportunities give qualified professionals for de private sector insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Ahmed Areff, News24 |date=12 July 2012 |title=Cadre deployment: 'Loyalty ahead of competence' |url=http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/Politics/Cadre-deployment-Loyalty-ahead-of-competence-20120712 |access-date=4 September 2012 |publisher=Modimowabarwa Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Mandy de Waal, allAfrica.com |title=South Africa: Cadre Deployment, Cronyism and the Paving of SA's Highway to Hell |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208030379.html |access-date=4 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== History den recent developments ==
[[File:Joburg_top.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Joburg_top.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De skyline of Johannesburg ein [[:en:Central_Business_District_(Johannesburg)|Central Business District]] wey dem see am from de observatory of de [[:en:Carlton_Centre|Carlton Centre]]]]During Apartheid, de national government get no role for providing public water anaa sanitation services insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=History of Water and Sanitation in South Africa |url=http://wp.wpi.edu/capetown/projects/p2009/water-sanitation/history-of-water-and-sanitation-in-south-africa/ |access-date=2017-05-17 |website=wp.wpi.edu |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De history of de water supply den sanitation sector since de end of Apartheid dem already characterise am by a strong government commitment to increase access to services den a gradual reduction of de role of Water Boards den de national government for service provision insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;[http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio:Whose hand on the tap? Water privatisation in South Africa], Bob Carty, February 2003 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218201733/http://www.cbc.ca/news/features/water/southafrica.html|date=18 December 2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Der already be tension between de goal of increased cost recovery wey dem enshrine am for de Water Services Act insyd for de one hand top, den de constitutional rights wey dem introduce am for 1996 insyd den de policy of free basic water wey dem introduce am for 2001 insyd for de oda hand top. Der already be a nomba of controversies for policies top for de sectors insyd, wey dey include about private sector participation, wey dem introduce am for de mid-1990s insyd, de practice of cutting off water anaa installing flow restrictors give dem pippoe wey no dey pay demma bills, den de installation of pre-paid meters.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;

=== Transition ===
For 1994 insyd, de first post-Apartheid government wey dem assign de Department of Water Affairs den Forestry de task of ensuring dat all South Africans go fi get &quot;equitable access to water supply den sanitation&quot;. To dat end, dem create de Community Water Supply den Sanitation Program to target key areas give instituting water den sanitation systems, den dem establish de National Sanitation Program to increase de rate of distribution of water den sanitation services.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

De passing of de Constitution of de Republic of South Africa for 1996 insyd create a new, constitutional dispensation plus a guaranteed Bill of Rights. Among dem rights be de section 24(a) right to an environment dat no dey harmful to health anaa well-being, den de section 27(1)(b) right to sufficient water.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

De government sanso create new policies such as de Water Services Act, de National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) of 1998, den de National Water Act (NWA) of 1998 in order to target water den sanitation problems.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt;

=== Water Services Act of 1997 ===
For 1994 insyd de government publish ein first White Paper for Water den Sanitation Policy top, wey lead to de Water Services Act of 1997.&lt;ref name=&quot;WSA&quot; /&gt;

De Act dey call give higher cost recovery, wey prove a challenge sekof widespread poverty den a culture of non-payment give water for many Townships insyd, as a remnant of protests against Apartheid. Higher water tariffs den rigorous cut-offs give non-payment, anaa flow reductions thru de installation of &quot;tricklers&quot; dat dey allow only a very limited flow of water, impose hardships for de poorest top. 

De Act sanso modify de role of Water Boards, wey e provide a clear legal definition of de functions of Water Boards den municipalities. Water Boards already historically be de only bulk water providers. Dem oblige municipalities to buy water thru dem. De Act allow municipalities to develop demma own bulk water supply infrastructure anaa to buy bulk water from providers oda dan Water Boards. Conversely e sanso allow Water Boards to provide retail water services at de request of municipalities.&lt;ref&gt;2002 White Paper&lt;/ref&gt; Since dem already pass de Act de capacity of both Water Boards den many water service providers increase significantly.

=== Municipal Systems Act of 2000 ===
De Municipal Systems Act (MSA) place de responsibility give water services for local governments top. E thus becam each city ein responsibility to provide basic water den sanitation services give all residents. De funding give improvements to water den sanitation systems go fi cam from de national government via de Municipal Infrastructure Grant MIG anaa Equitable Shares, anaa via local revenue collection. 

=== Free Basic Water Policy ===
Durban be de first South African city to introduce a policy of free basic water for 1998 insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Galvin&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Mary Galvin |date=6 June 2012 |title=Evolving Rights: South Africa's Free Basic Water policy |url=https://www.blueplanetproject.net/index.php/evolving-rights-south-africas-free-basic-water-policy/ |access-date=26 February 2014}}&lt;/ref&gt; After Thabo Mbeki becam Presido of South Africa for 1999 insyd den a cholera outbreak wey occur for 2000 insyd, de African National Congress promise free basic water during a municipal election campaign for December 2000 insyd. For July 2001 insyd free basic water becam a national policy thru a revised tariff structure dat include at least 6 &quot;kilolitres&quot; (cubic meters) of free water per month (40-litre per capita per day give a family of five or 25-litre per capita per day give a family of eight). Dem already implement de policy gradually within de means of each municipality.   

=== Management contract give Johannesburg den pre-paid meters ===
'''Johannesburg management contract.''' Building for earlier experiences top plus private sector participation since 1994, a five-year management contract give water services for Johannesburg insyd, South Africa ein largest city den de country ein economic den financial hub, dem award am for 2000 insyd to de Joint Venture Water den Sanitation Services South Africa (WSSA). Dem no renew de Johannesburg management contract wen e expire for 2005 insyd. Howeva, private operators continue to provide services for many oda South African cities insyd.   

'''Prepaid meters.''' Dem install 170,000 prepaid meters for poor townships of Johannesburg insyd, wey dey include for Soweto insyd. Dem sanso install prepaid meters for oda cities insyd as part of management contracts plus private operators. Dem meters, wey cut off water supply above de 6 cubic meter monthly limit if dem no make payment, spark substantial protests for poor neighbourhoods insyd. Residents of Phiri, a neighborhood for Soweto insyd, dem sue am against prepaid meters plus de support of South African den international anti-privatisation activists in wat dem already bell am de Mazibuko case, wey dem name am after de first plaintiff.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pacific Institute&quot;&gt;[http://www.pacinst.org/about_us/ Pacific Institute]: [https://www.pacinst.org/press_center/press_releases/south_africa_water_decision.html Oakland Research Matters in Historic South African Water Rights Decision], 1 May 2008&lt;/ref&gt;

For April 2008 insyd, de South African High Court find de practice of prepaid meters for Soweto insyd unconstitutional, den write dat denying de poor access to adequate water &quot;is to deny dem de rights to health den to lead a dignified lifestyle.&quot; Further, de judge state dat &quot;25 liters per person per day be insufficient give de residents of Phiri&quot;, den order de city to provide free basic water for de amount of 50 liters per person per day insyd plus de option of an ordinary credit-metered water supply (instead of prepaid) give more use. De Court apparently assume a household size of eight.&lt;ref name=&quot;Pacific Institute&quot; /&gt;

For October 2009 insyd de Constitutional Court ovaturn de case den declare prepaid meters to be lawful.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/50630 South Africa, Johannesburg:Phiri residents lose court battle]. Retrieved 20 November 2009.&lt;/ref&gt; De court case lead to de development of a more social practice wey dey concern prepaid meters. For example, dem fi increase de minimum amount from 6&amp;#x20;m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per month to 10 anaa even 15&amp;#x20;m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; per month wey dey depend for de level of poverty top den size of a household. Sanso, new prepaid meters dey still deliver a minimum amount of 40 liter per hour under low pressure after dem cut off service. Furthermore, dem fi use 1000 liter of &quot;emergency water&quot; four times per year, for example to extinguish fires, even if dem no suppose pay bills. Dem fi grant 2000 liter of additional water by local authorities for demand top give special needs. Howeva, not all residents dey aware of these fairly complex mechanisms.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Aubriot |first=Julie |date=December 2011 |title=Focus &quot;solution&quot;: A Soweto, des citoyens portent plainte (Focus solutions: In Soweto, citizens sue) |url=http://www.pseau.org/outils/lettre/article.php?lett_article_lettre_id=1261&amp;page_originale=1 |access-date=12 April 2012 |work=La lettre du pS-Eau |page=13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== History den developments of water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd ===
Reliable den consistent water supply for Johannesburg insyd already be a longstanding challenge. For 1903 insyd, de Water Works Commission establish de Rand Water board to manage bulk water supply for de region insyd. Ein responsibilities include sourcing raw water, treatment den purification, distribution thru a regional network, storage for reservoirs den towers insyd, den delivery of potable water to consumers.  

For recent years insyd, water infrastructure for Johannesburg insyd require ongoing maintenance den investment. Dem announce planned maintenance programmes give December 2025 den January 2026. De city sanso procure additional water tankers to mitigate de impact of supply disruptions.    

=== Basic Sanitation White Paper ===
In response to de fact dat access to sanitation dey lag significantly behind access to water, de government publish ein White Paper for Basic Household Sanitation top for 2001 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/sanitation.asp Sanitation White Paper]&lt;/ref&gt; E bell give universal access to basic sanitation by March 2010, plus priority accorded to communities plus de greatest needs. De policy dey outline de roles of de various stakeholders – households, municipalities, provincial governments, various branches of national government – den dey establish coordination den monitoring mechanisms.  

E dey sanso bell give Infrastructure Grants to municipalities to finance investments for sanitation insyd. De paper dey note dat e be de government ein policy to provide free basic services to the poorest, but no dey spell out how dem go implement dis policy for de case of basic sanitation insyd.    

=== Decentralisation ===
Following a second White Paper for water supply den sanitation policy wey dem publish for 2002 insyd (after de first White Paper for 1994 insyd) dem establish a national policy to further decentralise de sector, wey dey phase out de national government ein involvement for service provision insyd, wey e limit DWAF ein role to policy den regulation.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/docs/Other/WaterServices/draft%20water%20services%20white%20paper%206.1.pdf Draft 2002 White Paper of Water Supply and Sanitation]&lt;/ref&gt;

For rural areas insyd dem already support dis policy of decentralisation by de '''Masibambane program''', a sector-wide approach wey dem link am to budget-based donor support give rural water supply den sanitation. De initial investment be ZAR 2.2 billion (EUR 279 million) plus a focus for de three poorest provinces top den a target to reach about 2.5 million pippoe. A 2004 evaluation by de Water den Sanitation Program (WSP) Africa show dat de program perform well financially.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.irc.nl/page/103 IRC]:[http://www.irc.nl/page/13987 South Africa: Masibambane program for rural water supply and sanitation], 29 September 2004&lt;/ref&gt; De program rydee be for ein third phase insyd.

=== National Sanitation Strategy, Bucket Eradication Programme den Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy ===
For February 2005 insyd de government launch a programme to eradicate de use of bucket toilets. Bucket toilets dey consist of a bucket wey dem place under a toilet seat; for formally established settlements insyd dem empty de buckets for a daily basis top by de municipality den dem bring de content to a sewage treatment plant. Howeva, dem sanso use buckets for newly established informal settlements insyd. Der dey 250,000 bucket toilets for formally established settlements insyd as of 2005. Der be was a strong political will to carry out de program. As of March 2008, dem replace 91% of de bucket toilets by flush toilets anaa Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines wey water no dey readily available.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Duncan Mara |date=30 September 2008 |title=Bucket latrines almost eradicated in South Africa |url=https://duncanmarasanitation.blogspot.de/2008/09/bucket-latrines-almost-eradicated-in.html |access-date=16 December 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;    

Howeva, communities resist de construction of latrines, wey e force construction to a standstill den ask give flush toilets. Der already no dey community participation for de choice of technologies insyd. Dem very much focus programme for de provision of infrastructure top, plus little emphasis for sustainability den hygiene promotion top, so dat dem limit de health impact. Dem  move de deadline to complete de program from 2007 to 2010.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Simphiwe Nojiyeza and Baruti Amisi |year=c. 2008 |title=The Challenges of eradicating Bucket Sanitation in South Africa |url=https://ccs.ukzn.ac.za/files/Nojiyeza%20and%20Amisi%20Challenges%20of%20eradicating%20Bucket%20Sanitation%20in%20SA.pdf |access-date=16 December 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;SERI&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=60–67}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For August 2005 insyd dem publish a National Sanitation Strategy. E dey cover, among oda things, &quot;de roles den responsibilities for sanitation delivery insyd, wey e plan give sanitation, funding sanitation, implementation approaches, regulating de sanitation sector, den monitoring den evaluation&quot;. A Free Basic Sanitation Implementation Strategy follow am for March 2009 insyd, plus de aim of reaching universal access to sanitation by 2014. According to one observer, de strategy be &quot;deliberately vague&quot; sekof de issue of free provision of sanitation services be so controversial. Der be no legal obligation to provide free basic sanitation. De implementation strategy dey include eight different options to channel subsidies. Dem pilot de policy for 17 municipalities insyd for 2010 insyd, den for a further 23 municipalities insyd for 2011 insyd, although e dey unclear wey dem dey use subsidy mechanism.&lt;ref name=&quot;SERI&quot; /&gt;

=== Partnerships ===
South Africa form partnerships den dem engage for discussions insyd plus several nations, wey dey include Denmark,&lt;ref name=&quot;sydafrika&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date= |title=The National Water Strategic Sector Cooperation |url=https://sydafrika.um.dk/en/sector-cooperation/water-sector-program |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; de Netherlands,&lt;ref name=&quot;dws&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=7 December 2024 |title=Deputy Minister David Mahlobo lauds contribution from various countries to South Africa's democracy, and the water and sanitation sector |url=https://www.dws.gov.za/communications/Articles/2024/IA%20-%20DM%20Mahlobo%20lauds%20contribution%20from%20various%20countries%20to%20South%20Africas%20democracy%20and%20the%20water%20and%20sanitation%20sector.pdf |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=[[Department of Water and Sanitation]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; den Israel,&lt;ref name=&quot;sajr&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author-last=Feinberg |author-first=Tali |date=6 July 2023 |title=Israeli team brings water expertise to SA |url=https://www.sajr.co.za/israeli-team-brings-water-expertise-to-sa/ |access-date=12 February 2025 |website=South African [[Jewish Report]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; to enhance ein water supply den sanitation infrastructure. For instance, South Africa engage for a ''Strategic Sector Cooperation'' insyd plus Denmark for 2015 insyd, wey e focus for strengthening water resilience top den preparing give water sector reforms.&lt;ref name=&quot;sydafrika&quot; /&gt; E sign a ''Blue Deal'' agreement plus de Netherlands for 2020 insyd to support water management den facilitate de exchange of knowledge den experience.&lt;ref name=&quot;dws&quot; /&gt; Additionally, South Africa engage plus high-level water delegations from Israel for 2023 insyd to learn from ein success for water sustainability insyd den agricultural development for arid environments insyd&lt;ref name=&quot;sajr&quot; /&gt;

=== List of ministers for charge of water insyd ===
Ministers of Water Affairs den Forestry

* Dr. Kader Asmal (1994–1999)
* Ronnie Kasrils (1999–2004)
* Buyelwa Sonjica (2004–2006)
* Lindiwe Hendricks (2006–2009)
Ministers of Water den Environmental Affairs:

* Buyelwa Sonjica (2009–2010)
* Edna Molewa (2010-2014)
Ministers of Water den Sanitation:

* Nomvula Mokonyane (2014-2018)
* Gugile Nkwinti (2018-2019)
Ministers of Human Settlements, Water den Sanitation

* Lindiwe Sisulu (since 2019)

== Efficiency ==
One indicator to measure de technical efficiency of water utilities be de level of non-revenue water. For a well-managed utility insyd dat level suppose dey below about 25%. For Johannesburg insyd, de estimated level decline from 44% for 2003 insyd to 31% for 2006 insyd. For Durban insyd, e stand at an estimated average of 31% between 2002 den 2006. For Cape Town insyd de estimates fluctuate significantly between 10% den 37%, wey e suggest dat de estimates no go fi dey reliable. De average level of non-revenue water give South African utilities wey dey participate for de International Benchmarking Network give Water den Sanitation Utilities insyd for de 2002–2006 period insyd be 31%.&lt;ref&gt;International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IBNet):[https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ Database Search for South Africa and Non-Revenue Water]. Retrieved 24 October 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Final aspects ==

=== Tariff level ===
Tariffs dey include bulk water tariffs wey water boards charge to municipalities den retail water tariffs wey municipalities charge to users.

'''Bulk water tariffs''' dey vary greatly. For 2011 insyd de largest water board, Rand Water, charge Rand 3.97 (US$0.48) per cubic meter. De highest bulk water tariff (Rand 9.11 anaa US$1.10 per cubic meter), de financially crippled Namakwa Water Board charge am, while de lowest tariff (Rand 2.28 anaa US$0.28), de Pelladrift Water Board charge am.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=allAfrica.com |date=5 May 2010 |title=South Africa: Water Tariffs Set to Rise to Reduce Need for Borrowing |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201005050084.html |access-date=4 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Retail water tariffs''' dey vary between municipalities den between user categories, plus non-residential users wey dem dey charge am higher tariffs dan residential users. Typically water tariffs sanso dey vary plus consumption, plus higher tariffs wey e apply to higher consumption. De average retail water tariff for 2006 insyd give a sample of cities den across all consumption levels, dem estimate am to be de equivalent of US$1.06 per cubic meter.    

For 2010 insyd '''Johannesburg''' water provide between 6 den 15 cubic meters of water per month insyd give free, wey e depend for de poverty level of residents top. Give dem wey dem consider am no poor, de tariff gve de tranche between 6 den 10 cubic meters be R4.93 (US$0.73), give de tranche up to 15 cubic meters e be R7.31 (US$1.08) den so on until R14.94 (US$2.21) give a consumption wey dey exceed 40 cubic meters per month. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month thus be R20.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Johannesburg Water |title=Tariffs |url=http://www.johannesburgwater.co.za/asp/content_sub.asp?id=8&amp;sid=91&amp;pageName=Tariffs |access-date=4 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Poor households get to register demselves as &quot;indigent&quot; (poor), wey – according to critics – dey lead to a situation wey only a fraction of de poor dey receive de higher free basic water allocation to wey dem be eligible.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Coalition Against Water Privatisation |date=26 March 2010 |title=City of Johannesburg's proposed water tariff increases and shifts in free basic water allowance escalates the war on the poor |url=http://apf.org.za/spip.php?article300&amp;lang=en |access-date=4 August 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For '''Cape Town''' insyd, water tariffs give de first block beyond free basic water be slightly lower dan for Johannesburg insyd at R4.55 until 10 cubic meters, den de next tranche at R9.7 be broader dan for Johannesburg insyd wey e cover until 20 cubic meters per month, plus R23,42 charge beyond 50 cubic meters, wey dey result for a steeper tariff structure insyd. De water bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R18. De sewer charge be 70% of de water charge.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Water Rhapsody Conservation Systems |title=Cape Town Water Tariffs for 2010 |url=http://www.capewatersolutions.co.za/2010/05/01/water-tariffs-for-2010/ |access-date=8 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Durban''' dey distinguish between a lower tariff give semi-pressure service give houses for low-income settlements insyd plus roof tanks den a higher full pressure service give &quot;formal&quot; housing areas. Semi-pressure service be free until 9 cubic meters, while full-pressure service dey cost R9.50 per cubic meter until 9 cubic meters per month, den R11.25 until 25 cubic meters. De bill give 10 cubic meters per month be R7 give semi-pressure service den R97 give full-pressure service. Der sanso be a free low-pressure service give ground tanks for informal den rural areas insyd, under wey dem pump water a day to fill a 200 litres ground tank.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=Water Tariffs as of July 1, 2012 |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Water_Tariffs_English.aspx |access-date=8 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Free basic water ===
South Africa introduce a policy of free basic services, wey dey include water, electricity den solid waste collection. As part of dat policy, every household be say to receive de first 6 cubic meters per month give free. Dem introduce de policy gradually since 2000 within de means of each municipality.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Mike Muller |title=Free basic water – a sustainable instrument for a sustainable future in South Africa |url=http://eau.sagepub.com/content/20/1/67.full.pdf+html |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Environment and Urbanization 2008, 20:67}}&lt;/ref&gt; Each municipality dey decide if dem make free basic water available to everyone anaa only to de poor. Most municipalities dey provide free basic water to all anaa almost all demma residents. For 2012 insyd de program reach 86% of all households.&lt;ref&gt;Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/FreeBasicWater/ Free Basic Water Project:Implementation Status], as of 31 August 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2010. Out of 152 water services authorities, 10 provide free basic water to all their residents and 142 to most. The city of [[EThekwini Metropolitan Municipality|eThekwini]] provides free basic water to 99% of households in its service area and the municipalities in the Gauteng area to 90%.&lt;/ref&gt;

Based for an average consumption of 5 cubic meters of free water per household den month top, an estimated 8 million beneficiary households, den an estimated water supply cost of 4 Rand per cubic meter, de annual cost of dem fi estimate de policy at 2bn Rand (US$280m). Dis dey correspond to about 0.1% of GDP for 2011 insyd, anaa about 0.25% of government expenditures. Anoda estimate dey put de cost of free basic water at 5.84 Rand per capita per month, wey dey correspond to 2.2bn Rand per year.&lt;ref name=&quot;WRC Rural&quot;&gt;{{cite web |last=The Water Wheel |date=September–October 2005 |title=Rural Free Basic Water Under Magnifying Glass |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&amp;q=cache:bRQjRsG97l8J:www.win-sa.org.za/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_docman%26task%3Ddoc_download%26gid%3D70%26Itemid%3D13+Rural+Free+Basic+Water+UnderMagnifying+Glass+south+africa&amp;hl=de&amp;gl=de&amp;pid=bl&amp;srcid=ADGEESjLUIbPHpfdt2Ju-N4FEsi1pIm0jUNKEb_JzjTvqYE2XsndMk03NvxnSLBc8U2I3hALFby-mkac1BrQa9KPrO7eOk7WyVlz4q4I1KHy2D4r56QQLExRof9tF74xvb8H8pbFjw6N&amp;sig=AHIEtbT67gNRHMRzv_mUzsjmhOSUW6-MNg |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Summary of &quot;Development of Models to Facilitate the Provision of Free Basic Water in Rural Areas (Water Research Commission Report No 1379/1/05)&quot;}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Out of de 32 million pippoe dat receive free basic water for 2005 insyd, almost half, anaa 15 million, no dey poor. Furthermore, many poor for rural areas insyd, wey receive limited amounts of water give free thru standpipes, no dey benefit fully. Dem pippoe without access to publicly provided water no dey benefit at all from de program.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last=Mosdell, T. and A. Leatt |year=2005 |title=On Tap: A Review of the Free Basic Water Policy |journal=In: Towards a Mean to Live: Targeting Poverty Alleviation to Make Children's Rights Real |issue=Children's Institute, University of Cape Town |pages=25}}&lt;/ref&gt; De policy be more successful for wealthier municipalities insyd, wey get de ability to cross-subsidise water provision give de poor, dan for poorer insyd, often rural municipalities. Dis be one of de reasons why for 2009 insyd de government announce am e go review ein implementation strategy give free basic water, possibly thru registers of poor users.&lt;ref name=&quot;GWI&quot;&gt;The price of free water in South Africa, in:Global Water Intelligence, August 2009, p. 31&lt;/ref&gt;

As part of dis review process, Durban rydee already change ein implementation of de free basic water policy: Households wey dey live for properties insyd dat dem value above a certain threshold rydee for prove dat demma income dey below de poverty limit, in order to continue to receive free basic water. De reason give de change be dat most of dem pippoe wey dey benefit from free basic water no dey poor. Dem use less dan amount of free basic water – 9 cubic meters per month for de case of Durban insyd – give de simple reason dat der be two anaa less residents for de household insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;Galvin&quot; /&gt;

=== Affordability ===
Der be little information wey dey available for demma affordability yop, i.e. de share of water bills for household income insyd. If a household dey consume less dan de free basic water limit, de share be obviously zero. Give a household for Cape Town insyd dat get no sewer connection den dey consume 10 cubic meters of water, de monthly water bill be almost R20 anaa US$2.40. Plus de poverty line at R500 per capita den month,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=16 September 2011 |title=Poverty and inequality in South Africa |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-16-poverty-and-inequality-in-south-africa |access-date=8 September 2012 |work=Mail &amp; Guardian}}&lt;/ref&gt; de monthly income of a four-person household at de poverty line go be R2000, den de water bill go be 1 percent of income. Howeva, according to anoda source de poverty level for South Africa insyd be only R1000 per household,&lt;ref name=&quot;WRC Rural&quot; /&gt; for wey case insyd de share of de water bill go be 2 percent of income, den higher give dem pippoe wey dey live below de poverty line.     

=== Cost recovery ===
For 2010 insyd, eleven of de 13 water boards dey financially viable. De exceptions be Namakwa den Bushbuckridge water boards. Municipalities owe de water boards more dan Rand 1.3bn (about US$200 million). Der be little information available for cost recovery top at de municipal level, partly sekof revenues den costs wey dem associate am plus water supply den sanitation no be necessarily accounted give separately for municipal budgets insyd. If Water Services Authorities dey prepare water den sanitation budgets, dem no often include asset replacement costs (depreciation) for budgets insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;WRC Rural&quot; /&gt; Furthermore, de policy of free basic water dey lead to deficits for de supply of dem services insyd. Municipalities cover dem deficits for large part insyd thru de &quot;equitable share&quot; transfers from national government.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Paulina Calfucoy |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Improving Free Basic Water Provision in South Africa |url=http://www.lafollette.wisc.edu/publications/workshops/2009/southafrica.pdf |access-date=8 September 2012 |publisher=Prepared for the Financial and Fiscal Commission, South Africa |pages=11–13}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Investment ===
According to de 2008 Infrastructure Barometer wey DBSA publish am den based for figures top wey de National Treasury provide am, total municipal investments for water supply den sanitation insyd for 2007 insyd be 13.4 billion Rand (US$1.9 billion at de 2007 exchange rate), wey dem break am down as follows:

* 5.6 billion Rand give water supply by municipalities 
* 4.7 billion Rand give sanitation by municipalities
* 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by Water Boards

* 1.0 billion Rand give water resources development by DWAF 

* 1.1 billion Rand give water resources development by de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA)&lt;ref name=&quot;Barometer Financing&quot;&gt;{{cite web|last=Development Bank of Southern Africa|title=Infrastructure Barometer 2008, Chapter 5: Water|url=http://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|access-date=18 August 2012|pages=114–116|archive-date=5 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505203633/https://www.dbsa.org/feature/Documents/Section%2005%20Water.pdf|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Municipal investments for de sector insyd increase substantially from 2001 wen dem dey about four times less dan for 2007 insyd at 2.8 billion Rand.&lt;ref&gt;White Paper 2002, p. 2&lt;/ref&gt;

For 2010/11 insyd total spending by de Department of Water Affairs be 8.2 billion Rand, wey dey include compensation give employees (1.2 bn), consultants give de design den supervision of civil works (0.6 bn) den investments. Investments dey include direct expenditures give TCTA den indirect expenditures for de form of transfers insyd to Water Boards den Water Service Authorities (municipalities), mostly give dams, bulk water transfers den water treatment plants. De largest project under construction be de De Hoop Dam wey be part of de Olifants River Water Resources Development Programme dat dey provide water give mining den municipal uses.&lt;ref&gt;Department of Water Affairs: Strategic Plan (Annual Performance Plan) 2011/12 – 2013/14, p. 23–25&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Financing ===
Dem finance municipal water den sanitation investments from de following sources for 2003–06 insyd:

* 51% thru inter-governmental grants;
* 19% thru borrowing; den
* 30% thru internal cash generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;Barometer Financing&quot; /&gt;
De larger municipalities dey rely more for loans top den for internal cash generation top, while de smaller ones dey depend more for grants top den oda sources of funding. Wealthier municipalities partially dey finance free basic water thru cross-subsidies from non-residential users den local tax revenue. All municipalities dey receive a constitutionally mandated share of national tax revenues as an unconditional recurrent grant, wey dem bell am &quot;equitable share&quot;. One of ein objectives be say to offset de cost of free basic water den free basic electricity. De formula dey provide higher grants to dem municipalities dat get a high nomba of poor among dem dat dey receive water services. If a municipality dey increase access to water, ein share for de transfers insyd thus sanso dey increase. Dem determine de nomba of poor thru census data, wey – according to sam municipalities – dey underestimate de actual extent of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;WRC Rural&quot; /&gt;     

For de 2012/13 budget insyd de total equitable share be Rand 37.8 billion (US$4.6bn). In addition der dey a Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG). Dem aim de MIG programme at providing all South Africans plus at least a basic level of service by de year 2013 thru de provision of grant finance to cover de capital cost of basic infrastructure give de poor. For de 2012/13 budget insyd, de allocation give MIGs be Rand 13.8 billion (US$1.7 billion). In addition, der be a Capacity Building Grant. Dem administer all dem grants by de Department of Cooperative Governance den Traditional Affairs (formerly de Department of Provincial den Local Government).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Department of Cooperative and Traditional Affairs |title=Minister Baloyi's 2012 Budget Vote speech |url=http://www.cogta.gov.za/index.php/component/content/article/244-minister-richard-baloyi/328-minister-baloyis-2012-budget-vote-speech.html |access-date=8 September 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
*[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]
*[http://www.waterdialogues.org/south-africa/index.htm The Water Dialogues – South Africa ]

[[Category:Water supply den sanitation insyd South Africa| ]]
[[Category:Water supply infrastructure insyd South Africa|*]]
[[Category:Environment of South Africa]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Germama River</title>
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De '''Germama''' (anaa '''Kesem''' anaa '''Kessem''') River, be a tributary of de [[Awash River]] insyd [[Ethiopia]]. De name ''Germama'' dey cam from de [Afaan Oromoo language] word wich dey mean &quot;frolicking&quot;, &quot;boisterous&quot;, anaa &quot;frisky&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[https://nai.uu.se/download/18.39fca04516faedec8b248de2/1580829011745/ORTGEN05.pdf &quot;Local History in Ethiopia, Gena-Gerwane&quot;] (pdf) The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 22 April 2022)&lt;/ref&gt;

De Germama no be river wey boats fit travel on, wey e dey flow plus plenty water during de rainy season. E rise from west of Kese Koremash, then e flow east go join de Awash. Ein course dey mark sam few kilometres of de northern boundary of de Awash National Park. De Kessem River pass thru height drop of more dan 2,000 m across flow length of about 130 km.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Knoche|first=Malte|last2=Fischer|first2=Christian|last3=Pohl|first3=Eric|last4=Krause|first4=Peter|last5=Merz|first5=Ralf|title=Combined uncertainty of hydrological model complexity and satellite-based forcing data evaluated in two data-scarce semi-arid catchments in Ethiopia|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=519|pages=2049–2066|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.10.003|year=2014|bibcode=2014JHyd..519.2049K}}&lt;/ref&gt; De steep gradient of de river profile be de reason why ein flow dey turbulent, wey ein name sef reflect. De lowlands of de upper Germama be de location of de former Shewan district of Bulga;&lt;ref&gt;[https://nai.uu.se/download/18.39fca04516faedec8b248c75/1580827647197/ORTBUA05.pdf &quot;Local History in Ethiopia, Bua-Buotaro&quot;](pdf) The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 22 April 2022)&lt;/ref&gt; de lower course define de northern boundary of de Shewan district of Menjar.

De Ethiopian Ministry of Water Resources start construction of dam on de Germama for 2005. De dam go help irrigate areas for both sides of de river, den areas for de Dofen den Kebena Mountains.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Water &amp; Energy of Ethiopia |url=http://www.mowr.gov.et/index.php?pagenum=4.2&amp;pagehgt=1000px&amp;ContentID=27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720151731/http://www.mowr.gov.et/index.php?pagenum=4.2&amp;pagehgt=1000px&amp;ContentID=27 |archive-date=2011-07-20 |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=www.mowr.gov.et}}&lt;/ref&gt; Dem complete de dam, but ein water-control gates no dey fully work. Dem shut down de dam so dem go fix dis issue, den dem expect say e go return to full capacity within one year from January 2024.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Kesem Dam to Resume Operation in full Capacity Within Year |url=https://www.ena.et/web/eng/w/eng_3804241 |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=ENA English |language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Awash River]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa by country]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Lake Bario</title>
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'''Lake Bario''' be one of a chain of lakes into wich de [[Awash River]] dey empty ein waters. E be located at de eastern end of de Afar Region of [[Ethiopia]]. Lake Bario dey lie insyd de middle of a swamp, thru wich e dey receive ein inflow from Lake Afambo to de northeast. Ein outflow be on ein southern side, wich dey circle around Mount Dama Ali to empty into Lake Abbe.&lt;ref&gt;Robert Mepham, R. H. Hughes, and J. S. Hughes, [https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC&amp;pg=PP1 ''A directory of African wetlands''], (Cambridge: IUCN, UNEP and WCMC, 1992), p. 166&lt;/ref&gt; 
== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bario}}
[[Category:Afar Region]]
[[Category:Awash River]]
[[Category:Lakes of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Lakes of de Great Rift Valley]]
[[Category:Lakes of Africa]]
[[Category:Lakes of Africa by country]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Borkana River</title>
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'''Borkana River''' be river for central [[Ethiopia]]. E be left-side tributary of de Awash. Johann Ludwig Krapf record say de local Oromo people dey call am “Tshaffa”.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Isenberg |first=Charles William |url=http://archive.org/details/journalsofrevmes00isen |title=Journals of the Rev. Messrs. Isenberg and Krapf, missionaries of the Church missionary society, detailing their proceedings in the kingdom of Shoa, and journeys in other parts of Abyssinia, in the years 1839, 1840, 1841, and 1842 |last2=Krapf |first2=J. L. (Johann Ludwig) |last3=MacQueen |first3=James |date=1843 |publisher=London : Seeley |others=University of California Libraries |location=US}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

[[Category:Awash River]]
[[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa]]
[[Category:Rivers of Africa by country]]</text>
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    <title>Gilgel Gibe III Dam</title>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. 

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="16304" sha1="e9lvfmdbp7fr8tfl7le99edzoi5ovy2" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation.  

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival.   

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives.    

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe.     

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley.      

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead.       

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot;        

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be.         

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be. Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations.          

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be. Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.          

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be. Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.          

Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir.           

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be. Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.          

Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population.            

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be. Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.          

Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population. As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top.             

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be. Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.          

Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population. As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top. Dem go fi finance de sugarcane plantations plus aid from India, wey dem heavily engage am for developing Ethiopian sugar production insyd.              

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be. Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.          

Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population. As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top. Dem go fi finance de sugarcane plantations plus aid from India, wey dem heavily engage am for developing Ethiopian sugar production insyd. De investors for de plantations insyd be mostly Ethiopian state-owned companies.              

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives. De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be. Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.          

Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population. As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top. Dem go fi finance de sugarcane plantations plus aid from India, wey dem heavily engage am for developing Ethiopian sugar production insyd. De investors for de plantations insyd be mostly Ethiopian state-owned companies.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot; /&gt;              

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be. Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.          

Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population. As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top. Dem go fi finance de sugarcane plantations plus aid from India, wey dem heavily engage am for developing Ethiopian sugar production insyd. De investors for de plantations insyd be mostly Ethiopian state-owned companies.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot; /&gt;              

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="18824" sha1="0nimonz9jpmyuvy0q97j4q8pk5l49dv" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be. Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.          

Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population. As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top. Dem go fi finance de sugarcane plantations plus aid from India, wey dem heavily engage am for developing Ethiopian sugar production insyd. De investors for de plantations insyd be mostly Ethiopian state-owned companies.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot; /&gt;              

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.          

Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population. As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top. Dem go fi finance de sugarcane plantations plus aid from India, wey dem heavily engage am for developing Ethiopian sugar production insyd. De investors for de plantations insyd be mostly Ethiopian state-owned companies.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot; /&gt;              

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.&lt;ref&gt;[[Survival International]]:[http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/5683 Giant dam to devastate 200,000 tribal people in Ethiopia], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population. As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top. Dem go fi finance de sugarcane plantations plus aid from India, wey dem heavily engage am for developing Ethiopian sugar production insyd. De investors for de plantations insyd be mostly Ethiopian state-owned companies.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot; /&gt;              

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam plus an associated [[:en:Hydroelectric|hydroelectric]] power plant for de [[:en:Omo_River_(Ethiopia)|Omo River]] for [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of [[:en:Sodo|Sodo]] for de [[:en:South_Ethiopia_Regional_State|South Ethiopia Regional State]] insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_I_Power_Station|Gibe I]] dam (184 MW) den [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_II_Power_Station|Gibe II]] power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned [[:en:Ethiopian_Electric_Power|Ethiopian Electric Power]] own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister [[:en:Hailemariam_Desalegn|Hailemariam Desalegn]] for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de [[:en:African_Development_Bank|African Development Bank]] delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from [[:en:Non-governmental_organization|NGOs]] give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister [[:en:Meles_Zenawi|Meles Zenawi]] vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high [[:en:Roller-compacted_concrete|roller-compacted concrete]] dam. E dey withhold a [[:en:Reservoir|reservoir]] capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein [[:en:Spillway|spillway]] be 108 m (354 ft) long den [[:en:Floodgate|floodgate]]-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two [[:en:Penstock|penstocks]] dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW [[:en:Electrical_generator|generators]] wey [[:en:Francis_turbine|Francis turbines]] support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be [[:en:Energy_in_Ethiopia|electricity generation]] dat be both [[:en:Renewable_energy|renewable]] den [[:en:Dispatchable_generation|dispatchable]]. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to [[:en:Kenya|Kenya]] (500 MW), [[:en:Sudan|Sudan]] (200 MW) den [[:en:Djibouti|Djibouti]] (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making [[:en:Power_Purchase_Agreement|Power Purchase Agreements]] insyd. Only Kenya sign a [[:en:Memorandum_of_understanding|Memorandum of Understanding]] to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de [[:en:World_Bank|World Bank]] de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den [[:en:Brownout_(electricity)|brownouts]]. According to de [[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]] drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan [[:en:Paleoanthropologist|paleoanthropologist]] [[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]] wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] ein [[:en:World_Heritage_Committee|World Heritage Committee]], for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] top, a [[:en:World_Heritage_Site|World Heritage Site]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of [[:en:International_Rivers|International Rivers]]' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_Peoples'_Region|Southern Nations of Ethiopia]], a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], Bodi ([[:en:Mekan_people|Mekan]]), [[:en:Muguji|Muguji]] (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), [[:en:Hamer_people|Hamer]], Bashada, [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]] den [[:en:Daasanach_people|Daasanach]].&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;     

[[:en:Stephen_Corry|Stephen Corry]], Director of de indigenous rights organization [[:en:Survival_International|Survival International]] say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.&lt;ref&gt;[[Survival International]]:[http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/5683 Giant dam to devastate 200,000 tribal people in Ethiopia], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population.&lt;ref name=&quot;Salini&quot;&gt;Statement by Salini on Ethiopia News:[http://www.ethiopian-news.com/ethiopia-gibe-iii-project-facts/ Gibe III project Facts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074931/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/ethiopia-gibe-iii-project-facts/|date=2010-08-24}}, 1 April 2010, accessed on September 18, 2010&lt;/ref&gt; As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top. Dem go fi finance de sugarcane plantations plus aid from India, wey dem heavily engage am for developing Ethiopian sugar production insyd. De investors for de plantations insyd be mostly Ethiopian state-owned companies.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot; /&gt;              

== References ==</text>
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De '''Gilgel Gibe III Dam''' be a 250&amp;#x20;m high roller-compacted concrete dam plus an associated hydroelectric power plant for de Omo River for Ethiopia insyd. Dem locate am about 62 km (39 mi) west of Sodo for de South Ethiopia Regional State insyd. At de time of ein full commissioning de dam be de third largest hydroelectric plant for Africa insyd plus a power output of about 1,870 Megawatt (MW), thus more dan doubling Ethiopia ein total installed capacity from ein 2007 level of 814 MW.&lt;ref name=&quot;Gibe&quot;&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Energy_Information_Administration|Energy Information Administration]]:[http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET Ethiopia Energy Profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831140611/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/country/country_energy_data.cfm?fips=ET|date=2010-08-31}}, accessed on October 27, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; De Gibe III dam be part of de Gibe cascade, a series of dams wey dey include de existing Gibe I dam (184 MW) den Gibe II power station (420 MW) as well as de planned Gibe IV (1,472 MW) den Gibe V (560 MW) dams. De state-owned Ethiopian Electric Power own den operate existing dams, wey sanso be de client give de Gibe III Dam.  

De US$1.8 billion project begin for 2006 insyd, electricity generation start for October 2015 insyd.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 December 2013 |title=Ethiopia: Gilgel Gibe III to Start Operation in September, 2014 |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201312231556.html |accessdate=13 October 2014 |publisher=allAfrica.com}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=22 September 2014 |title=Ethiopia's Gibe III dam 87% complete |url=http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/newsethiopias-gibe-iii-dam-87-complete-4380259 |accessdate=22 November 2014 |publisher=Water Power &amp; Dam Construction}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |date=5 November 2015 |title=Ethiopia's massive Gilgel Gibe III Dam starts power generation |url=http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202013218/http://thisisafrica.me/ethiopias-gilgel-gibe-iii-dam-starts-power-generation/ |archive-date=2 February 2016 |accessdate=13 October 2015 |publisher=This is Africa}}&lt;/ref&gt; De remaining generators dey operational by 2016.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|last1=Maasho|first1=Aaron|title=Ethiopia dam project could start power generation by June - official|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL6N0UG08620150101|accessdate=9 July 2020|work=Reuters|date=1 January 2015|url-access=limited}}&lt;/ref&gt; De project already experience serious delays; for May 2012 insyd, dem already schedule full commissioning give June 2013.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation:[http://www.gibe3.com.et/ Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316235451/http://www.gibe3.com.et/|date=2016-03-16}}, accessed in May 2012&lt;/ref&gt; Dem inaugurate de dam by Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn for 17 December 2016 top.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|title=Ethiopia opens massive Gibe 3 hydroelectric dam on Omo River|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217213719/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/ethiopia-opens-massive-gibe-3-hydroelectric-dam-on-omo-river/2016/12/17/ed0c78d8-c476-11e6-92e8-c07f4f671da4_story.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 December 2016|newspaper=Washington Post|accessdate=19 December 2016}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Local den international environmental groups dey forecast major negative environmental den social impacts of de dam den criticize de project ein environmental den social impact assessment as insufficient. Sekof dis den accusations dat de entire approval process give de project be suspect,&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot;&gt;BBC News:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7959563.stm The dam that divides Ethiopians], March 26, 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; wey funding give de full construction cost no dey secure, as de African Development Bank delay a decision about a loan pending a review of de dam ein environmental impact by ein compliance review den mediation unit. Dis dey date back to August 2009 wen dem accept a call from NGOs give such a review.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiofact.com:[http://www.ethiofact.com/index.php?/20090804581/news/afdb.html AfDB to probe Ethiopian dam project], 4 August 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For August 2010 insyd Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi vow to complete de dam &quot;at any cost&quot;, wey e say de dam ein critics &quot;no dey want to see Africa developed; dem want we to remain undeveloped den backward to serve demma tourists as a museum.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;News Business Ethiopia:[http://www.newbusinessethiopia.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;view=article&amp;id=224:african-policymakers-discuss-on-civil-status-information-&amp;catid=13:regional-politics&amp;Itemid=6 Meles Vows to Complete Gibe III Dam at Any Cost], 11 August 2010, accessed on 18 September 2010&lt;/ref&gt;

== Design ==
De Gilgel Gibe III Dam be 610 m-long (2,000 ft) den 243 m (797 ft) high roller-compacted concrete dam. E dey withhold a reservoir capacity of 14.7 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (3.5 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den a surface area of 210 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (81 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), wey dem collect from a catchment area of 34,150 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (13,190 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). De reservoir ein live (active anaa &quot;useful&quot;) storage be 11.75 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (2.82 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) den dead storage of 2.95 km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (0.71 mi&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;). De normal operating level of de reservoir be 892 m (2,927 ft) above sea level plus a maximum of 893 m (2,930 ft) den a minimum of 800 m (2,600 ft). De dam ein spillway be 108 m (354 ft) long den floodgate-controlled plus a maximum discharge capacity of 18,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (640,000 cu ft/s). Dem fi discharge water above 873 m (2,864 ft) above sea level thru ein gates. Feeding de dam ein power house be two penstocks dat each branch into five separate tunnels give each individual turbine. De power house dey contain ten 187 MW generators wey Francis turbines support am give a total installed capacity of 1,870 MW.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Gibe III Hydroelectric Project Official Website - Brief |url=http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502005105/http://www.gibe3.com.et/brief.html |archive-date=2 May 2016 |accessdate=26 September 2010 |publisher=Gibe3 Hydroelectric Project}}&lt;/ref&gt;         

De initial design of de dam foresee a rock-fill dam. Howeva, sekof difficulties plus obtaining proper den sufficient insurance coverage give de rock-fill dam, dem change de design to roller-compacted concrete.          

== Benefits ==
De main benefit of de dam be electricity generation dat be both renewable den dispatchable. Dem forecast am to supply about half of ein power to Ethiopia den export de oda half to Kenya (500 MW), Sudan (200 MW) den Djibouti (200 MW).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.allafrica.com/stories/200607210970.html &quot;Ethiopia, Italian Company Sign $2 Billion Hydro Power Project&quot;] (All Africa), subscription required; accessed 21 July 2006&lt;/ref&gt; Howeva, der dey long delays for making Power Purchase Agreements insyd. Only Kenya sign a Memorandum of Understanding to purchase electricity from de dam. De World Bank approve financing give a transmission line to Kenya for July 2012 insyd.    

Access to de electricity grid for Ethiopia insyd rydee dey very low. Less dan 2% of Ethiopia ein rural population, wey dey account give 85% of de total population, get access to de grid. Plus de support of de World Bank de government dey carry out an ambitious project to expand rural electricity access.&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopia Electric Agency:[http://ethiopiaref.energyprojects.net/ Ethiopia Energy Access Project], accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2003 insyd, low generation capacity wey dem combine plus a severe drought cause power cuts wey dey last 15 hours twice a week give a period of six months, wey e cost an estimated $200 million for economic output insyd.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot;&gt;[[:en:International_Rivers_Network|International Rivers Network]]:[http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf Ethiopia’s Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf|date=2009-09-02}}, May 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; For 2008 den 2009 insyd, Ethiopia again experience power cuts den brownouts. According to de International Rivers Network drought cause de power cuts, sekof almost all electricity generation for Ethiopia insyd be hydroelectric. According to de same source, despite an increase for access to de electric grid insyd, electricity consumption dey likely to remain low give de foreseeable future sekof de prevailing level of poverty.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt; Even without de Gibe III hydro plant, according to one source, Ethiopia already get a surplus installed capacity of 400 megawatts.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Allafrica.com|Allafrica.com]]:[http://allafrica.com/stories/200907021232.html Ethiopia: AfDB Set to Start Funding Country's Gibe Dam], July 3, 2009, accessed on December 20, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; Under Ethiopia ein current development plans dem say de country go dey more dan 95% dependent for hydroelectric power top. Ethiopia predict say electricity exports go generate around $407 million revenue per year, wey dey exceed de value of de country ein next most valuable export, coffee.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;

A secondary benefit of de project be flood protection. For 2006 insyd, a flood claim de lives of at least 360 pippoe den thousands of livestock for de lower Omo River basin insyd. A further benefit be de reduction for de impact of droughts insyd,&lt;ref&gt;Seleshi Bekele and Jonathan Lautze:[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/opinionla/la-oew-lautze4-2009jun04,0,2284769.story Blowback:Ethiopia's Gibe III dam: a balanced assessment], [[:en:Los_Angeles_Times|Los Angeles Times]], accessed on May 7, 2012&lt;/ref&gt; wey dey include thru large state-owned irrigated sugar plantations.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot;&gt;{{cite web |date=September 2011 |title=Understanding land investment deals in Africa: Half a million lives threatened by land development for sugar plantations in Ethiopia's lower Omo Valley |url=http://media.oaklandinstitute.org/sites/oaklandinstitute.org/files/Land_Deal_Brief_Ethiopia_Omo_Valley.pdf |accessdate=26 December 2011 |publisher=Oakland Institute |pages=2–3}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Controversy ==
De project be controversial sekof ein environmental den social impact, de magnitude of wey for einself insyd be a subject of controversy; sekof de award of de construction contract without competitive bidding; den sekof an alleged lack of transparency for project affairs insyd. For example, dem no publish de environmental den social impact assessment until two years after construction begin.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC&quot; /&gt; De assessment suggest dat de project go cause minimal problems environmentally den socially. Howeva, critics dey consider am to be flawed both for terms of thoroughness den objectivity insyd. Among dem critics be de African Resources Working Group wey release statements wey dey say dat &quot;De quantitative [den qualitative] data wey dem include for virtually all major sections of de report insyd, dem clearly select am give demma consistence plus de predetermined objective of validating de completion of de Gibe III hydro-dam&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot;&gt;African Resources Working Group:[http://www.arwg-gibe.org/ A Commentary on the Environmental, Socioeconomic and Human Rights Impacts of the Proposed Gibe III Hydrodam in the Lower Omo River Basin of Southwest Ethiopia], January 2009, accessed on October 17, 2009&lt;/ref&gt; den dat despite claims wey de government make to de contrary, de dam go &quot;produce a broad range of negative effects, sam of wey go dey catastrophic.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Anoda prominent critic of de dam be de Kenyan paleoanthropologist Richard Leakey wey say dat &quot;de project be fatally flawed for terms of ein logic insyd, for terms of ein thoroughness insyd, for terms of ein conclusions insyd&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[[:en:Richard_Leakey|Richard Leakey]]:[http://richardleakey.wildlifedirect.org/2009/03/26/the-gibe-iii-dam-must-be-stopped/ The Gibe III dam must be stopped], March 26, 2009&lt;/ref&gt;

For June 2011 insyd UNESCO ein World Heritage Committee, for ein 35th session insyd wey dem hold for Paris, France insyd, dem bell give de construction of de dam to be halted, to submit all assessments of de dam den dem request Ethiopia den Kenya to invite a World Heritage Centre/[[:en:IUCN|IUCN]] monitoring mission to review de dam ein impact for Lake Turkana top, a World Heritage Site.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |last=Berhane |first=Daniel |title=TEXT OF UN BODY DECISION ON GIBE III DAM PROJECT |url=http://danielberhane.wordpress.com/2011/07/23/text-of-un-body-decision-on-gibe-iii-dam-project/ |accessdate=23 July 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Environmental den social impact ==
According to de Ethiopian authorities, once dem already build de dam de total amount of water wey dey flow into de lake no go change. De only difference go be a more stable flow ova de year - more during de dry season, den less during de wet. Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi say for a BBC interview insyd: &quot;De ovaall environmental impact of de project dey highly beneficial. E dey increase de amount of water for de river system insyd, e completely dey regulate flooding, wey be a major problem, e dey improve de livelihood of pippoe downstream sekof dem go get irrigation projects, den e no dey for any way insyd negatively affect de Turkana Lake. Dis be wat our studies dey show.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Ethiopian President Meles Zenawi in a [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sL2SKelDbdQ BBC interview], March 2009, Minutes 4:25 to 5:10&lt;/ref&gt;

According to critics, de dam go dey potentially devastating to de indigenous population.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De dam go stop de seasonal flood, wey go impact de lower reach of de Omo River den Lake Turkana as well as de pippoe wey dey rely for dem ecosystems top give demma livelihoods. According to Terri Hathaway, director of International Rivers' Africa programme, Gibe III be &quot;de most destructive dam under construction for Africa insyd.&quot; De project go condemn &quot;half a million of de region ein most vulnerable pippoe to hunger den conflict.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;BBC:[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/8582682.stm Web campaign against Ethiopia Gibe III dam], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt; 

=== Impact for de livelihoods of de inhabitants of de lower Omo River Valley top ===
[[File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omo_River_Valley_IMG_9888.jpg|thumb|Omo River Valley for 2010 insyd]]Dem estimate am dat more dan 200,000 pippoe dey rely for de Omo River top below de dam give sam form of subsistence such as flood recession agriculture, den many of dem ethnic groups dey live for chronic hunger insyd. Critics dey state dat de Gibe III dam go fi worsen demma situation. Indigenous pippoe dey rely for recessional cultivation of food top along de riverbanks, as well as livestock herding, give survival. De Gibe III dam den de associated decrease for water levels insyd den seasonality of flows for de Omo River insyd dey threaten de continuation of de only two options give survival for dis arid environment insyd—der dey are no alternatives.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; De pippoe wey dey live for de project area insyd be part of de Southern Nations of Ethiopia, a highly diverse group of pippoe. Ethnic groups wey de dam affect am dey include eight distinct indigenous communities: de Mursi, Bodi (Mekan), Muguji (Kwegu), Kara (Karo), Hamer, Bashada, Nyangatom den Daasanach.&lt;ref name=&quot;IRN&quot; /&gt;     

Stephen Corry, Director of de indigenous rights organization Survival International say, &quot;De Gibe III dam go be a disaster of cataclysmic proportions give de tribes of de Omo valley. Dem go destroy demma land den livelihoods, yet few get any idea what dey lie ahead. De government violate Ethiopia ein constitution den international law for de procurement process insyd. No respectable outside body supose dey fund dis atrocious project.&quot; Oda sources dey note dat, wen interviewed, pippoe for many villages insyd never even hear of de Gibe III dam, den many of dem no even know wat a dam be.&lt;ref name=&quot;ARWG&quot; /&gt; Dis be an indication of de failure of consultations den informed consent give de indigenous populations. Survival, togeda plus de Campaign give de Reform of de World Bank, Counter Balance coalition, Friends of Lake Turkana den International Rivers launch a petition to stop de dam.&lt;ref&gt;[[Survival International]]:[http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/5683 Giant dam to devastate 200,000 tribal people in Ethiopia], 23 March 2010&lt;/ref&gt;          

Dam proponents dey argue dat dem plan artificial floods to be released from de reservoir. Furthermore, dem envisage irrigation projects to improve de livelihoods of de downstream population.&lt;ref name=&quot;Salini&quot;&gt;Statement by Salini on Ethiopia News:[http://www.ethiopian-news.com/ethiopia-gibe-iii-project-facts/ Gibe III project Facts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824074931/http://www.ethiopian-news.com/ethiopia-gibe-iii-project-facts/|date=2010-08-24}}, 1 April 2010, accessed on September 18, 2010&lt;/ref&gt; As e becam known to a wider public for November 2011 insyd thru a report by de Oakland Institute, der dey indeed massive plans give cotton den sugarcane plantations for 445,000 ha top for de lower Omo Valley top. Dem go fi finance de sugarcane plantations plus aid from India, wey dem heavily engage am for developing Ethiopian sugar production insyd. De investors for de plantations insyd be mostly Ethiopian state-owned companies.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oakland Institute&quot; /&gt;              

== References ==</text>
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    <title>Category:Agriculture by culture</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-25T16:14:37Z</timestamp>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-25T16:14:49Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Fresh category</comment>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-25T16:15:00Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Category:Agriculture insyd Egypt</title>
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      <comment>Fresh category</comment>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-25T16:42:31Z</timestamp>
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  <page>
    <title>Zambezi, Zambia</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>105013</id>
      <timestamp>2026-06-25T17:03:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
        <id>1645</id>
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      <comment>Create a fresh article</comment>
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      <text bytes="5004" sha1="3bdt0u5mv7ikjaxsin6nbsqen01ovck" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the town|the river|Zambezi River|other uses|Zambezi (disambiguation)}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2009}}
{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;| official_name            = Zambezi
| other_name               = 
| native_name              = &lt;!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --&gt;
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&lt;!-- Location ------------------&gt;| subdivision_type         = Country
| subdivision_name         = [[Image:Flag of Zambia.svg|25px]] [[Zambia]]
| subdivision_type1        = [[Provinces of Zambia|Province]]
| subdivision_name1        = [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western Province]]
| subdivision_type2        = [[Districts of Zambia#North-Western Province|District]]
| subdivision_name2        = [[Zambezi District]]
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| unit_pref                = Imperial &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--&gt;
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| population_density_blank1_sq_mi = &lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
| timezone                 = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset               = +2
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| coordinates              = {{coord|13|33|00|S|23|07|00|E|region:ZM|display=inline,title}}
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[[Image:ZM-Zambezi.png|right|225px|Location of Zambezi in Zambia]]</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
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      <text bytes="5488" sha1="8qmpcnxo10tol433u6ibgsaq1t5aemp" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the town|the river|Zambezi River|other uses|Zambezi (disambiguation)}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2009}}
{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;| official_name            = Zambezi
| other_name               = 
| native_name              = &lt;!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --&gt;
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&lt;!-- Location ------------------&gt;| subdivision_type         = Country
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| subdivision_name2        = [[Zambezi District]]
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| established_date3        = &lt;!-- Area    ---------------------&gt;
| area_magnitude           = 
| unit_pref                = Imperial &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--&gt;
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| area_blank1_title        = 
| area_blank1_km2          = 
| area_blank1_sq_mi        = &lt;!-- Population   -----------------------&gt;
| population_as_of         = 2018 Estimate
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| population_density_blank1_sq_mi = &lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
| timezone                 = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
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| coordinates              = {{coord|13|33|00|S|23|07|00|E|region:ZM|display=inline,title}}
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| elevation_m              = 
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[[Image:ZM-Zambezi.png|right|225px|Location of Zambezi in Zambia]]
'''Zambezi''' be a town insyd de North-Western Province of [[Zambia]], lying on de Zambezi River, west of Kabompo. E be at de western end of de M8 road. E be known for de palaces of de chiefs of de Lunda den Lovale people. Until about 1966 e was called ''Balovale'' after de dominant chief (den ein village within de town be still known by dat name) but de name was changed insyd an attempt to defuse tensions between de main groups den de government of de newly independent country.</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>105018</id>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-25T17:11:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
        <id>1645</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Improve am</comment>
      <origin>105018</origin>
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      <text bytes="5569" sha1="lze6jvyaxzmp48t2xzwbyapykhp3680" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the town|the river|Zambezi River|other uses|Zambezi (disambiguation)}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2009}}
{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;| official_name            = Zambezi
| other_name               = 
| native_name              = &lt;!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --&gt;
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| motto                    = &lt;!-- images and maps  -----------&gt;
| image_skyline            = 
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| dot_x                    = 
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| pushpin_map              = Zambia&lt;!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map --&gt;
| pushpin_label_position   = left
| pushpin_map_caption      = Location in Zambia
&lt;!-- Location ------------------&gt;| subdivision_type         = Country
| subdivision_name         = [[Image:Flag of Zambia.svg|25px]] [[Zambia]]
| subdivision_type1        = [[Provinces of Zambia|Province]]
| subdivision_name1        = [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western Province]]
| subdivision_type2        = [[Districts of Zambia#North-Western Province|District]]
| subdivision_name2        = [[Zambezi District]]
| subdivision_type3        = 
| subdivision_name3        = 
| subdivision_type4        = 
| subdivision_name4        = &lt;!-- Politics -----------------&gt;
| government_footnotes     = 
| government_type          = 
| leader_title             = 
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| leader_title1            = &lt;!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --&gt;
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| leader_title4            = 
| leader_name4             = 
| established_title        = &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
| established_date         = 
| established_title2       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (town) --&gt;
| established_date2        = 
| established_title3       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (city) --&gt;
| established_date3        = &lt;!-- Area    ---------------------&gt;
| area_magnitude           = 
| unit_pref                = Imperial &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--&gt;
| area_footnotes           = 
| area_total_km2           = &lt;!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_land_km2            = &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_water_km2           = 
| area_total_sq_mi         = 
| area_land_sq_mi          = 
| area_water_sq_mi         = 
| area_water_percent       = 
| area_urban_km2           = 
| area_urban_sq_mi         = 
| area_metro_km2           = 
| area_metro_sq_mi         = 
| area_blank1_title        = 
| area_blank1_km2          = 
| area_blank1_sq_mi        = &lt;!-- Population   -----------------------&gt;
| population_as_of         = 2018 Estimate
| population_footnotes     = 
| population_note          = 
| population_total         = 
| population_density_km2   = 
| population_density_sq_mi = 
| population_metro         = 
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| population_blank1        = 
| population_blank2_title  = Religions
| population_blank2        = 
| population_density_blank1_km2 = 
| population_density_blank1_sq_mi = &lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
| timezone                 = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset               = +2
| timezone_DST             = 
| utc_offset_DST           = 
| coordinates              = {{coord|13|33|00|S|23|07|00|E|region:ZM|display=inline,title}}
| elevation_footnotes      = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
| elevation_m              = 
| elevation_ft             = &lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others --------&gt;
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[[Image:ZM-Zambezi.png|right|225px|Location of Zambezi in Zambia]]
'''Zambezi''' be a town insyd de North-Western Province of [[Zambia]], lying on de Zambezi River, west of Kabompo. E be at de western end of de M8 road. E be known for de palaces of de chiefs of de Lunda den Lovale people. Until about 1966 e was called ''Balovale'' after de dominant chief (den ein village within de town be still known by dat name) but de name was changed insyd an attempt to defuse tensions between de main groups den de government of de newly independent country.

De Chinyingi Suspension Bridge spans de river just to de north-west of de town.</text>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-25T17:12:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
        <id>1645</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Add sub-heading</comment>
      <origin>105019</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5581" sha1="i780g7jyi45j4q4w2pjhznqaarlmvn7" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the town|the river|Zambezi River|other uses|Zambezi (disambiguation)}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2009}}
{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;| official_name            = Zambezi
| other_name               = 
| native_name              = &lt;!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --&gt;
| nickname                 = 
| settlement_type          = [[List of populated places in Zambia|Town]]
| motto                    = &lt;!-- images and maps  -----------&gt;
| image_skyline            = 
| imagesize                = 
| image_caption            = 
| image_flag               = 
| flag_size                = 
| image_seal               = 
| seal_size                = 
| image_shield             = 
| shield_size              = 
| image_blank_emblem       = 
| blank_emblem_type        = 
| blank_emblem_size        = 
| image_map                = 
| mapsize                  = 
| map_caption              = 
| image_map1               = 
| mapsize1                 = 
| map_caption1             = 
| image_dot_map            = 
| dot_mapsize              = 
| dot_map_caption          = 
| dot_x                    = 
| dot_y                    = 
| pushpin_map              = Zambia&lt;!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map --&gt;
| pushpin_label_position   = left
| pushpin_map_caption      = Location in Zambia
&lt;!-- Location ------------------&gt;| subdivision_type         = Country
| subdivision_name         = [[Image:Flag of Zambia.svg|25px]] [[Zambia]]
| subdivision_type1        = [[Provinces of Zambia|Province]]
| subdivision_name1        = [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western Province]]
| subdivision_type2        = [[Districts of Zambia#North-Western Province|District]]
| subdivision_name2        = [[Zambezi District]]
| subdivision_type3        = 
| subdivision_name3        = 
| subdivision_type4        = 
| subdivision_name4        = &lt;!-- Politics -----------------&gt;
| government_footnotes     = 
| government_type          = 
| leader_title             = 
| leader_name              = 
| leader_title1            = &lt;!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --&gt;
| leader_name1             = 
| leader_title2            = 
| leader_name2             = 
| leader_title3            = 
| leader_name3             = 
| leader_title4            = 
| leader_name4             = 
| established_title        = &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
| established_date         = 
| established_title2       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (town) --&gt;
| established_date2        = 
| established_title3       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (city) --&gt;
| established_date3        = &lt;!-- Area    ---------------------&gt;
| area_magnitude           = 
| unit_pref                = Imperial &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--&gt;
| area_footnotes           = 
| area_total_km2           = &lt;!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_land_km2            = &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_water_km2           = 
| area_total_sq_mi         = 
| area_land_sq_mi          = 
| area_water_sq_mi         = 
| area_water_percent       = 
| area_urban_km2           = 
| area_urban_sq_mi         = 
| area_metro_km2           = 
| area_metro_sq_mi         = 
| area_blank1_title        = 
| area_blank1_km2          = 
| area_blank1_sq_mi        = &lt;!-- Population   -----------------------&gt;
| population_as_of         = 2018 Estimate
| population_footnotes     = 
| population_note          = 
| population_total         = 
| population_density_km2   = 
| population_density_sq_mi = 
| population_metro         = 
| population_density_metro_km2 = 
| population_density_metro_sq_mi = 
| population_urban         = 
| population_density_urban_km2 = 
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 
| population_blank1_title  = Ethnicities
| population_blank1        = 
| population_blank2_title  = Religions
| population_blank2        = 
| population_density_blank1_km2 = 
| population_density_blank1_sq_mi = &lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
| timezone                 = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset               = +2
| timezone_DST             = 
| utc_offset_DST           = 
| coordinates              = {{coord|13|33|00|S|23|07|00|E|region:ZM|display=inline,title}}
| elevation_footnotes      = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
| elevation_m              = 
| elevation_ft             = &lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others --------&gt;
| postal_code_type         = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
| postal_code              = 
| area_code                = 
| blank_name               = 
| blank_info               = 
| blank1_name              = 
| blank1_info              = 
| website                  = 
| footnotes                = 
}}
[[Image:ZM-Zambezi.png|right|225px|Location of Zambezi in Zambia]]
'''Zambezi''' be a town insyd de North-Western Province of [[Zambia]], lying on de Zambezi River, west of Kabompo. E be at de western end of de M8 road. E be known for de palaces of de chiefs of de Lunda den Lovale people. Until about 1966 e was called ''Balovale'' after de dominant chief (den ein village within de town be still known by dat name) but de name was changed insyd an attempt to defuse tensions between de main groups den de government of de newly independent country.

De Chinyingi Suspension Bridge spans de river just to de north-west of de town.
==Climate==</text>
      <sha1>i780g7jyi45j4q4w2pjhznqaarlmvn7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>105020</id>
      <parentid>105019</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-25T17:15:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
        <id>1645</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Improve am</comment>
      <origin>105020</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6235" sha1="2ocmpqf29o26obrvd9fu4niz8ebtn0f" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the town|the river|Zambezi River|other uses|Zambezi (disambiguation)}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2009}}
{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;| official_name            = Zambezi
| other_name               = 
| native_name              = &lt;!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --&gt;
| nickname                 = 
| settlement_type          = [[List of populated places in Zambia|Town]]
| motto                    = &lt;!-- images and maps  -----------&gt;
| image_skyline            = 
| imagesize                = 
| image_caption            = 
| image_flag               = 
| flag_size                = 
| image_seal               = 
| seal_size                = 
| image_shield             = 
| shield_size              = 
| image_blank_emblem       = 
| blank_emblem_type        = 
| blank_emblem_size        = 
| image_map                = 
| mapsize                  = 
| map_caption              = 
| image_map1               = 
| mapsize1                 = 
| map_caption1             = 
| image_dot_map            = 
| dot_mapsize              = 
| dot_map_caption          = 
| dot_x                    = 
| dot_y                    = 
| pushpin_map              = Zambia&lt;!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map --&gt;
| pushpin_label_position   = left
| pushpin_map_caption      = Location in Zambia
&lt;!-- Location ------------------&gt;| subdivision_type         = Country
| subdivision_name         = [[Image:Flag of Zambia.svg|25px]] [[Zambia]]
| subdivision_type1        = [[Provinces of Zambia|Province]]
| subdivision_name1        = [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western Province]]
| subdivision_type2        = [[Districts of Zambia#North-Western Province|District]]
| subdivision_name2        = [[Zambezi District]]
| subdivision_type3        = 
| subdivision_name3        = 
| subdivision_type4        = 
| subdivision_name4        = &lt;!-- Politics -----------------&gt;
| government_footnotes     = 
| government_type          = 
| leader_title             = 
| leader_name              = 
| leader_title1            = &lt;!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --&gt;
| leader_name1             = 
| leader_title2            = 
| leader_name2             = 
| leader_title3            = 
| leader_name3             = 
| leader_title4            = 
| leader_name4             = 
| established_title        = &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
| established_date         = 
| established_title2       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (town) --&gt;
| established_date2        = 
| established_title3       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (city) --&gt;
| established_date3        = &lt;!-- Area    ---------------------&gt;
| area_magnitude           = 
| unit_pref                = Imperial &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--&gt;
| area_footnotes           = 
| area_total_km2           = &lt;!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_land_km2            = &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_water_km2           = 
| area_total_sq_mi         = 
| area_land_sq_mi          = 
| area_water_sq_mi         = 
| area_water_percent       = 
| area_urban_km2           = 
| area_urban_sq_mi         = 
| area_metro_km2           = 
| area_metro_sq_mi         = 
| area_blank1_title        = 
| area_blank1_km2          = 
| area_blank1_sq_mi        = &lt;!-- Population   -----------------------&gt;
| population_as_of         = 2018 Estimate
| population_footnotes     = 
| population_note          = 
| population_total         = 
| population_density_km2   = 
| population_density_sq_mi = 
| population_metro         = 
| population_density_metro_km2 = 
| population_density_metro_sq_mi = 
| population_urban         = 
| population_density_urban_km2 = 
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 
| population_blank1_title  = Ethnicities
| population_blank1        = 
| population_blank2_title  = Religions
| population_blank2        = 
| population_density_blank1_km2 = 
| population_density_blank1_sq_mi = &lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
| timezone                 = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset               = +2
| timezone_DST             = 
| utc_offset_DST           = 
| coordinates              = {{coord|13|33|00|S|23|07|00|E|region:ZM|display=inline,title}}
| elevation_footnotes      = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
| elevation_m              = 
| elevation_ft             = &lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others --------&gt;
| postal_code_type         = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
| postal_code              = 
| area_code                = 
| blank_name               = 
| blank_info               = 
| blank1_name              = 
| blank1_info              = 
| website                  = 
| footnotes                = 
}}
[[Image:ZM-Zambezi.png|right|225px|Location of Zambezi in Zambia]]
'''Zambezi''' be a town insyd de North-Western Province of [[Zambia]], lying on de Zambezi River, west of Kabompo. E be at de western end of de M8 road. E be known for de palaces of de chiefs of de Lunda den Lovale people. Until about 1966 e was called ''Balovale'' after de dominant chief (den ein village within de town be still known by dat name) but de name was changed insyd an attempt to defuse tensions between de main groups den de government of de newly independent country.

De Chinyingi Suspension Bridge spans de river just to de north-west of de town.
==Climate==
Zambezi features a humid subtropical climate (Köppen:''Cwa'')&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |date=23 October 2023 |title=Table 1 Overview of the Köppen-Geiger climate classes including the defining criteria. |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-023-02549-6/tables/1 |journal=Nature: Scientific Data |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; plus distinct wet den dry seasons. De hottest period of de year be from September to November. Winters are cooler, plus warm days den cold nights. De wet season, from October to March, experiences significant rainfall. De dry season, from April to October, be marked by minimal precipitation.&lt;ref name=&quot;WMONormals&quot;/&gt; 

== References ==</text>
      <sha1>2ocmpqf29o26obrvd9fu4niz8ebtn0f</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>105021</id>
      <parentid>105020</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-25T17:17:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
        <id>1645</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Improve am</comment>
      <origin>105021</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9553" sha1="bb8y8i78kas1ammarby051y79oxhmtt" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the town|the river|Zambezi River|other uses|Zambezi (disambiguation)}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2009}}
{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;| official_name            = Zambezi
| other_name               = 
| native_name              = &lt;!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --&gt;
| nickname                 = 
| settlement_type          = [[List of populated places in Zambia|Town]]
| motto                    = &lt;!-- images and maps  -----------&gt;
| image_skyline            = 
| imagesize                = 
| image_caption            = 
| image_flag               = 
| flag_size                = 
| image_seal               = 
| seal_size                = 
| image_shield             = 
| shield_size              = 
| image_blank_emblem       = 
| blank_emblem_type        = 
| blank_emblem_size        = 
| image_map                = 
| mapsize                  = 
| map_caption              = 
| image_map1               = 
| mapsize1                 = 
| map_caption1             = 
| image_dot_map            = 
| dot_mapsize              = 
| dot_map_caption          = 
| dot_x                    = 
| dot_y                    = 
| pushpin_map              = Zambia&lt;!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map --&gt;
| pushpin_label_position   = left
| pushpin_map_caption      = Location in Zambia
&lt;!-- Location ------------------&gt;| subdivision_type         = Country
| subdivision_name         = [[Image:Flag of Zambia.svg|25px]] [[Zambia]]
| subdivision_type1        = [[Provinces of Zambia|Province]]
| subdivision_name1        = [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western Province]]
| subdivision_type2        = [[Districts of Zambia#North-Western Province|District]]
| subdivision_name2        = [[Zambezi District]]
| subdivision_type3        = 
| subdivision_name3        = 
| subdivision_type4        = 
| subdivision_name4        = &lt;!-- Politics -----------------&gt;
| government_footnotes     = 
| government_type          = 
| leader_title             = 
| leader_name              = 
| leader_title1            = &lt;!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --&gt;
| leader_name1             = 
| leader_title2            = 
| leader_name2             = 
| leader_title3            = 
| leader_name3             = 
| leader_title4            = 
| leader_name4             = 
| established_title        = &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
| established_date         = 
| established_title2       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (town) --&gt;
| established_date2        = 
| established_title3       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (city) --&gt;
| established_date3        = &lt;!-- Area    ---------------------&gt;
| area_magnitude           = 
| unit_pref                = Imperial &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--&gt;
| area_footnotes           = 
| area_total_km2           = &lt;!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_land_km2            = &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_water_km2           = 
| area_total_sq_mi         = 
| area_land_sq_mi          = 
| area_water_sq_mi         = 
| area_water_percent       = 
| area_urban_km2           = 
| area_urban_sq_mi         = 
| area_metro_km2           = 
| area_metro_sq_mi         = 
| area_blank1_title        = 
| area_blank1_km2          = 
| area_blank1_sq_mi        = &lt;!-- Population   -----------------------&gt;
| population_as_of         = 2018 Estimate
| population_footnotes     = 
| population_note          = 
| population_total         = 
| population_density_km2   = 
| population_density_sq_mi = 
| population_metro         = 
| population_density_metro_km2 = 
| population_density_metro_sq_mi = 
| population_urban         = 
| population_density_urban_km2 = 
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 
| population_blank1_title  = Ethnicities
| population_blank1        = 
| population_blank2_title  = Religions
| population_blank2        = 
| population_density_blank1_km2 = 
| population_density_blank1_sq_mi = &lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
| timezone                 = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset               = +2
| timezone_DST             = 
| utc_offset_DST           = 
| coordinates              = {{coord|13|33|00|S|23|07|00|E|region:ZM|display=inline,title}}
| elevation_footnotes      = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
| elevation_m              = 
| elevation_ft             = &lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others --------&gt;
| postal_code_type         = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
| postal_code              = 
| area_code                = 
| blank_name               = 
| blank_info               = 
| blank1_name              = 
| blank1_info              = 
| website                  = 
| footnotes                = 
}}
[[Image:ZM-Zambezi.png|right|225px|Location of Zambezi in Zambia]]
'''Zambezi''' be a town insyd de North-Western Province of [[Zambia]], lying on de Zambezi River, west of Kabompo. E be at de western end of de M8 road. E be known for de palaces of de chiefs of de Lunda den Lovale people. Until about 1966 e was called ''Balovale'' after de dominant chief (den ein village within de town be still known by dat name) but de name was changed insyd an attempt to defuse tensions between de main groups den de government of de newly independent country.

De Chinyingi Suspension Bridge spans de river just to de north-west of de town.
==Climate==
Zambezi features a humid subtropical climate (Köppen:''Cwa'')&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |date=23 October 2023 |title=Table 1 Overview of the Köppen-Geiger climate classes including the defining criteria. |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-023-02549-6/tables/1 |journal=Nature: Scientific Data |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; plus distinct wet den dry seasons. De hottest period of de year be from September to November. Winters are cooler, plus warm days den cold nights. De wet season, from October to March, experiences significant rainfall. De dry season, from April to October, be marked by minimal precipitation.&lt;ref name=&quot;WMONormals&quot;/&gt; 
{{Weather box
 | width       = auto
 | collapsed   = 
 | metric first = yes
 | single line = yes
 | location    = Zambezi (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1961–2020)
 | Jan record high C = 35.6
 | Feb record high C = 35.3
 | Mar record high C = 34.6
 | Apr record high C = 34.7
 | May record high C = 34.5
 | Jun record high C = 32.4
 | Jul record high C = 33.0
 | Aug record high C = 39.2
 | Sep record high C = 40.1
 | Oct record high C = 41.0
 | Nov record high C = 37.6
 | Dec record high C = 36.5
 | year record high C = 
 | Jan high C = 29.4
 | Feb high C = 29.5
 | Mar high C = 29.9
 | Apr high C = 30.3
 | May high C = 29.4
 | Jun high C = 27.6
 | Jul high C = 27.5
 | Aug high C = 31.0
 | Sep high C = 34.2
 | Oct high C = 34.4
 | Nov high C = 31.3
 | Dec high C = 29.6
 | year high C = 30.3
 | Jan mean C = 23.8
 | Feb mean C = 23.7
 | Mar mean C = 23.7
 | Apr mean C = 22.6
 | May mean C = 19.7
 | Jun mean C = 17.3
 | Jul mean C = 17.0
 | Aug mean C = 20.3
 | Sep mean C = 24.2
 | Oct mean C = 25.8
 | Nov mean C = 24.6
 | Dec mean C = 23.9
 | year mean C = 22.2
 | Jan low C = 18.1
 | Feb low C = 17.9
 | Mar low C = 17.5
 | Apr low C = 14.8
 | May low C = 10.0
 | Jun low C = 6.9
 | Jul low C = 6.4
 | Aug low C = 9.5
 | Sep low C = 14.1
 | Oct low C = 17.1
 | Nov low C = 17.9
 | Dec low C = 18.2
 | year low C = 14.0
 | Jan record low C = 9.2
 | Feb record low C = 12.3
 | Mar record low C = 11.0
 | Apr record low C = 6.5
 | May record low C = 2.4
 | Jun record low C = -2.2
 | Jul record low C = -2.0
 | Aug record low C = 1.4
 | Sep record low C = 6.0
 | Oct record low C = 8.6
 | Nov record low C = 10.2
 | Dec record low C = 9.2
 | year record low C = 
 | precipitation colour = green
 | Jan precipitation mm = 235.9
 | Feb precipitation mm = 191.7
 | Mar precipitation mm = 159.0
 | Apr precipitation mm = 38.8
 | May precipitation mm = 2.4
 | Jun precipitation mm = 0.8
 | Jul precipitation mm = 0.0
 | Aug precipitation mm = 0.4
 | Sep precipitation mm = 4.8
 | Oct precipitation mm = 75.1
 | Nov precipitation mm = 140.9
 | Dec precipitation mm = 218.1
 | year precipitation mm = 1067.9
|Jan humidity = 78.1
|Feb humidity = 78.9
|Mar humidity = 77.4
|Apr humidity = 68.9
|May humidity = 62.2
|Jun humidity = 58.1
|Jul humidity = 51.9
|Aug humidity = 45.7
|Sep humidity = 40.5
|Oct humidity = 56.6
|Nov humidity = 65.1
|Dec humidity = 75.5
|year humidity = 63.2
|Jan sun = 170.5
|Feb sun = 156.8
|Mar sun = 195.3
|Apr sun = 255.0
|May sun = 297.6
|Jun sun = 291.0
|Jul sun = 306.9
|Aug sun = 303.8
|Sep sun = 273.0
|Oct sun = 248.0
|Nov sun = 189.0
|Dec sun = 167.4
|year sun = 2854.3
 | source 1 = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] (humidity and sun 1961–1990)&lt;ref name=&quot;WMONormals&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-1-WMO-Normals-9120/Zambia/CSV/Zambezi_67531.csv
|title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991-2020 — Zambezi
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|access-date = January 24, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name= NOAA&gt;{{Cite FTP | url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG__I/ZA/67531.TXT
| server = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
| title = Zambezi MET Climate Normals 1961–1990
| access-date = April 5, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== References ==</text>
      <sha1>bb8y8i78kas1ammarby051y79oxhmtt</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>105022</id>
      <parentid>105021</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-25T17:19:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
        <id>1645</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Dey add category</comment>
      <origin>105022</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9632" sha1="s34xadt3ybvzl84bwntplcz9stskdmq" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the town|the river|Zambezi River|other uses|Zambezi (disambiguation)}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2009}}
{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;| official_name            = Zambezi
| other_name               = 
| native_name              = &lt;!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --&gt;
| nickname                 = 
| settlement_type          = [[List of populated places in Zambia|Town]]
| motto                    = &lt;!-- images and maps  -----------&gt;
| image_skyline            = 
| imagesize                = 
| image_caption            = 
| image_flag               = 
| flag_size                = 
| image_seal               = 
| seal_size                = 
| image_shield             = 
| shield_size              = 
| image_blank_emblem       = 
| blank_emblem_type        = 
| blank_emblem_size        = 
| image_map                = 
| mapsize                  = 
| map_caption              = 
| image_map1               = 
| mapsize1                 = 
| map_caption1             = 
| image_dot_map            = 
| dot_mapsize              = 
| dot_map_caption          = 
| dot_x                    = 
| dot_y                    = 
| pushpin_map              = Zambia&lt;!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map --&gt;
| pushpin_label_position   = left
| pushpin_map_caption      = Location in Zambia
&lt;!-- Location ------------------&gt;| subdivision_type         = Country
| subdivision_name         = [[Image:Flag of Zambia.svg|25px]] [[Zambia]]
| subdivision_type1        = [[Provinces of Zambia|Province]]
| subdivision_name1        = [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western Province]]
| subdivision_type2        = [[Districts of Zambia#North-Western Province|District]]
| subdivision_name2        = [[Zambezi District]]
| subdivision_type3        = 
| subdivision_name3        = 
| subdivision_type4        = 
| subdivision_name4        = &lt;!-- Politics -----------------&gt;
| government_footnotes     = 
| government_type          = 
| leader_title             = 
| leader_name              = 
| leader_title1            = &lt;!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --&gt;
| leader_name1             = 
| leader_title2            = 
| leader_name2             = 
| leader_title3            = 
| leader_name3             = 
| leader_title4            = 
| leader_name4             = 
| established_title        = &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
| established_date         = 
| established_title2       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (town) --&gt;
| established_date2        = 
| established_title3       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (city) --&gt;
| established_date3        = &lt;!-- Area    ---------------------&gt;
| area_magnitude           = 
| unit_pref                = Imperial &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--&gt;
| area_footnotes           = 
| area_total_km2           = &lt;!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_land_km2            = &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_water_km2           = 
| area_total_sq_mi         = 
| area_land_sq_mi          = 
| area_water_sq_mi         = 
| area_water_percent       = 
| area_urban_km2           = 
| area_urban_sq_mi         = 
| area_metro_km2           = 
| area_metro_sq_mi         = 
| area_blank1_title        = 
| area_blank1_km2          = 
| area_blank1_sq_mi        = &lt;!-- Population   -----------------------&gt;
| population_as_of         = 2018 Estimate
| population_footnotes     = 
| population_note          = 
| population_total         = 
| population_density_km2   = 
| population_density_sq_mi = 
| population_metro         = 
| population_density_metro_km2 = 
| population_density_metro_sq_mi = 
| population_urban         = 
| population_density_urban_km2 = 
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 
| population_blank1_title  = Ethnicities
| population_blank1        = 
| population_blank2_title  = Religions
| population_blank2        = 
| population_density_blank1_km2 = 
| population_density_blank1_sq_mi = &lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
| timezone                 = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset               = +2
| timezone_DST             = 
| utc_offset_DST           = 
| coordinates              = {{coord|13|33|00|S|23|07|00|E|region:ZM|display=inline,title}}
| elevation_footnotes      = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
| elevation_m              = 
| elevation_ft             = &lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others --------&gt;
| postal_code_type         = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
| postal_code              = 
| area_code                = 
| blank_name               = 
| blank_info               = 
| blank1_name              = 
| blank1_info              = 
| website                  = 
| footnotes                = 
}}
[[Image:ZM-Zambezi.png|right|225px|Location of Zambezi in Zambia]]
'''Zambezi''' be a town insyd de North-Western Province of [[Zambia]], lying on de Zambezi River, west of Kabompo. E be at de western end of de M8 road. E be known for de palaces of de chiefs of de Lunda den Lovale people. Until about 1966 e was called ''Balovale'' after de dominant chief (den ein village within de town be still known by dat name) but de name was changed insyd an attempt to defuse tensions between de main groups den de government of de newly independent country.

De Chinyingi Suspension Bridge spans de river just to de north-west of de town.
==Climate==
Zambezi features a humid subtropical climate (Köppen:''Cwa'')&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |date=23 October 2023 |title=Table 1 Overview of the Köppen-Geiger climate classes including the defining criteria. |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-023-02549-6/tables/1 |journal=Nature: Scientific Data |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; plus distinct wet den dry seasons. De hottest period of de year be from September to November. Winters are cooler, plus warm days den cold nights. De wet season, from October to March, experiences significant rainfall. De dry season, from April to October, be marked by minimal precipitation.&lt;ref name=&quot;WMONormals&quot;/&gt; 
{{Weather box
 | width       = auto
 | collapsed   = 
 | metric first = yes
 | single line = yes
 | location    = Zambezi (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1961–2020)
 | Jan record high C = 35.6
 | Feb record high C = 35.3
 | Mar record high C = 34.6
 | Apr record high C = 34.7
 | May record high C = 34.5
 | Jun record high C = 32.4
 | Jul record high C = 33.0
 | Aug record high C = 39.2
 | Sep record high C = 40.1
 | Oct record high C = 41.0
 | Nov record high C = 37.6
 | Dec record high C = 36.5
 | year record high C = 
 | Jan high C = 29.4
 | Feb high C = 29.5
 | Mar high C = 29.9
 | Apr high C = 30.3
 | May high C = 29.4
 | Jun high C = 27.6
 | Jul high C = 27.5
 | Aug high C = 31.0
 | Sep high C = 34.2
 | Oct high C = 34.4
 | Nov high C = 31.3
 | Dec high C = 29.6
 | year high C = 30.3
 | Jan mean C = 23.8
 | Feb mean C = 23.7
 | Mar mean C = 23.7
 | Apr mean C = 22.6
 | May mean C = 19.7
 | Jun mean C = 17.3
 | Jul mean C = 17.0
 | Aug mean C = 20.3
 | Sep mean C = 24.2
 | Oct mean C = 25.8
 | Nov mean C = 24.6
 | Dec mean C = 23.9
 | year mean C = 22.2
 | Jan low C = 18.1
 | Feb low C = 17.9
 | Mar low C = 17.5
 | Apr low C = 14.8
 | May low C = 10.0
 | Jun low C = 6.9
 | Jul low C = 6.4
 | Aug low C = 9.5
 | Sep low C = 14.1
 | Oct low C = 17.1
 | Nov low C = 17.9
 | Dec low C = 18.2
 | year low C = 14.0
 | Jan record low C = 9.2
 | Feb record low C = 12.3
 | Mar record low C = 11.0
 | Apr record low C = 6.5
 | May record low C = 2.4
 | Jun record low C = -2.2
 | Jul record low C = -2.0
 | Aug record low C = 1.4
 | Sep record low C = 6.0
 | Oct record low C = 8.6
 | Nov record low C = 10.2
 | Dec record low C = 9.2
 | year record low C = 
 | precipitation colour = green
 | Jan precipitation mm = 235.9
 | Feb precipitation mm = 191.7
 | Mar precipitation mm = 159.0
 | Apr precipitation mm = 38.8
 | May precipitation mm = 2.4
 | Jun precipitation mm = 0.8
 | Jul precipitation mm = 0.0
 | Aug precipitation mm = 0.4
 | Sep precipitation mm = 4.8
 | Oct precipitation mm = 75.1
 | Nov precipitation mm = 140.9
 | Dec precipitation mm = 218.1
 | year precipitation mm = 1067.9
|Jan humidity = 78.1
|Feb humidity = 78.9
|Mar humidity = 77.4
|Apr humidity = 68.9
|May humidity = 62.2
|Jun humidity = 58.1
|Jul humidity = 51.9
|Aug humidity = 45.7
|Sep humidity = 40.5
|Oct humidity = 56.6
|Nov humidity = 65.1
|Dec humidity = 75.5
|year humidity = 63.2
|Jan sun = 170.5
|Feb sun = 156.8
|Mar sun = 195.3
|Apr sun = 255.0
|May sun = 297.6
|Jun sun = 291.0
|Jul sun = 306.9
|Aug sun = 303.8
|Sep sun = 273.0
|Oct sun = 248.0
|Nov sun = 189.0
|Dec sun = 167.4
|year sun = 2854.3
 | source 1 = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] (humidity and sun 1961–1990)&lt;ref name=&quot;WMONormals&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-1-WMO-Normals-9120/Zambia/CSV/Zambezi_67531.csv
|title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991-2020 — Zambezi
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|access-date = January 24, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name= NOAA&gt;{{Cite FTP | url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG__I/ZA/67531.TXT
| server = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
| title = Zambezi MET Climate Normals 1961–1990
| access-date = April 5, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Populated places in North-Western Province, Zambia]]</text>
      <sha1>s34xadt3ybvzl84bwntplcz9stskdmq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>105023</id>
      <parentid>105022</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-25T17:20:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
        <id>1645</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Dey add category</comment>
      <origin>105023</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9659" sha1="0v9f4q5kjbqjfyyayc8ox68nzz8x7tt" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the town|the river|Zambezi River|other uses|Zambezi (disambiguation)}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2009}}
{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;| official_name            = Zambezi
| other_name               = 
| native_name              = &lt;!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --&gt;
| nickname                 = 
| settlement_type          = [[List of populated places in Zambia|Town]]
| motto                    = &lt;!-- images and maps  -----------&gt;
| image_skyline            = 
| imagesize                = 
| image_caption            = 
| image_flag               = 
| flag_size                = 
| image_seal               = 
| seal_size                = 
| image_shield             = 
| shield_size              = 
| image_blank_emblem       = 
| blank_emblem_type        = 
| blank_emblem_size        = 
| image_map                = 
| mapsize                  = 
| map_caption              = 
| image_map1               = 
| mapsize1                 = 
| map_caption1             = 
| image_dot_map            = 
| dot_mapsize              = 
| dot_map_caption          = 
| dot_x                    = 
| dot_y                    = 
| pushpin_map              = Zambia&lt;!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map --&gt;
| pushpin_label_position   = left
| pushpin_map_caption      = Location in Zambia
&lt;!-- Location ------------------&gt;| subdivision_type         = Country
| subdivision_name         = [[Image:Flag of Zambia.svg|25px]] [[Zambia]]
| subdivision_type1        = [[Provinces of Zambia|Province]]
| subdivision_name1        = [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western Province]]
| subdivision_type2        = [[Districts of Zambia#North-Western Province|District]]
| subdivision_name2        = [[Zambezi District]]
| subdivision_type3        = 
| subdivision_name3        = 
| subdivision_type4        = 
| subdivision_name4        = &lt;!-- Politics -----------------&gt;
| government_footnotes     = 
| government_type          = 
| leader_title             = 
| leader_name              = 
| leader_title1            = &lt;!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --&gt;
| leader_name1             = 
| leader_title2            = 
| leader_name2             = 
| leader_title3            = 
| leader_name3             = 
| leader_title4            = 
| leader_name4             = 
| established_title        = &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
| established_date         = 
| established_title2       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (town) --&gt;
| established_date2        = 
| established_title3       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (city) --&gt;
| established_date3        = &lt;!-- Area    ---------------------&gt;
| area_magnitude           = 
| unit_pref                = Imperial &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--&gt;
| area_footnotes           = 
| area_total_km2           = &lt;!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_land_km2            = &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_water_km2           = 
| area_total_sq_mi         = 
| area_land_sq_mi          = 
| area_water_sq_mi         = 
| area_water_percent       = 
| area_urban_km2           = 
| area_urban_sq_mi         = 
| area_metro_km2           = 
| area_metro_sq_mi         = 
| area_blank1_title        = 
| area_blank1_km2          = 
| area_blank1_sq_mi        = &lt;!-- Population   -----------------------&gt;
| population_as_of         = 2018 Estimate
| population_footnotes     = 
| population_note          = 
| population_total         = 
| population_density_km2   = 
| population_density_sq_mi = 
| population_metro         = 
| population_density_metro_km2 = 
| population_density_metro_sq_mi = 
| population_urban         = 
| population_density_urban_km2 = 
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 
| population_blank1_title  = Ethnicities
| population_blank1        = 
| population_blank2_title  = Religions
| population_blank2        = 
| population_density_blank1_km2 = 
| population_density_blank1_sq_mi = &lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
| timezone                 = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset               = +2
| timezone_DST             = 
| utc_offset_DST           = 
| coordinates              = {{coord|13|33|00|S|23|07|00|E|region:ZM|display=inline,title}}
| elevation_footnotes      = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
| elevation_m              = 
| elevation_ft             = &lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others --------&gt;
| postal_code_type         = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
| postal_code              = 
| area_code                = 
| blank_name               = 
| blank_info               = 
| blank1_name              = 
| blank1_info              = 
| website                  = 
| footnotes                = 
}}
[[Image:ZM-Zambezi.png|right|225px|Location of Zambezi in Zambia]]
'''Zambezi''' be a town insyd de North-Western Province of [[Zambia]], lying on de Zambezi River, west of Kabompo. E be at de western end of de M8 road. E be known for de palaces of de chiefs of de Lunda den Lovale people. Until about 1966 e was called ''Balovale'' after de dominant chief (den ein village within de town be still known by dat name) but de name was changed insyd an attempt to defuse tensions between de main groups den de government of de newly independent country.

De Chinyingi Suspension Bridge spans de river just to de north-west of de town.
==Climate==
Zambezi features a humid subtropical climate (Köppen:''Cwa'')&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |date=23 October 2023 |title=Table 1 Overview of the Köppen-Geiger climate classes including the defining criteria. |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-023-02549-6/tables/1 |journal=Nature: Scientific Data |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; plus distinct wet den dry seasons. De hottest period of de year be from September to November. Winters are cooler, plus warm days den cold nights. De wet season, from October to March, experiences significant rainfall. De dry season, from April to October, be marked by minimal precipitation.&lt;ref name=&quot;WMONormals&quot;/&gt; 
{{Weather box
 | width       = auto
 | collapsed   = 
 | metric first = yes
 | single line = yes
 | location    = Zambezi (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1961–2020)
 | Jan record high C = 35.6
 | Feb record high C = 35.3
 | Mar record high C = 34.6
 | Apr record high C = 34.7
 | May record high C = 34.5
 | Jun record high C = 32.4
 | Jul record high C = 33.0
 | Aug record high C = 39.2
 | Sep record high C = 40.1
 | Oct record high C = 41.0
 | Nov record high C = 37.6
 | Dec record high C = 36.5
 | year record high C = 
 | Jan high C = 29.4
 | Feb high C = 29.5
 | Mar high C = 29.9
 | Apr high C = 30.3
 | May high C = 29.4
 | Jun high C = 27.6
 | Jul high C = 27.5
 | Aug high C = 31.0
 | Sep high C = 34.2
 | Oct high C = 34.4
 | Nov high C = 31.3
 | Dec high C = 29.6
 | year high C = 30.3
 | Jan mean C = 23.8
 | Feb mean C = 23.7
 | Mar mean C = 23.7
 | Apr mean C = 22.6
 | May mean C = 19.7
 | Jun mean C = 17.3
 | Jul mean C = 17.0
 | Aug mean C = 20.3
 | Sep mean C = 24.2
 | Oct mean C = 25.8
 | Nov mean C = 24.6
 | Dec mean C = 23.9
 | year mean C = 22.2
 | Jan low C = 18.1
 | Feb low C = 17.9
 | Mar low C = 17.5
 | Apr low C = 14.8
 | May low C = 10.0
 | Jun low C = 6.9
 | Jul low C = 6.4
 | Aug low C = 9.5
 | Sep low C = 14.1
 | Oct low C = 17.1
 | Nov low C = 17.9
 | Dec low C = 18.2
 | year low C = 14.0
 | Jan record low C = 9.2
 | Feb record low C = 12.3
 | Mar record low C = 11.0
 | Apr record low C = 6.5
 | May record low C = 2.4
 | Jun record low C = -2.2
 | Jul record low C = -2.0
 | Aug record low C = 1.4
 | Sep record low C = 6.0
 | Oct record low C = 8.6
 | Nov record low C = 10.2
 | Dec record low C = 9.2
 | year record low C = 
 | precipitation colour = green
 | Jan precipitation mm = 235.9
 | Feb precipitation mm = 191.7
 | Mar precipitation mm = 159.0
 | Apr precipitation mm = 38.8
 | May precipitation mm = 2.4
 | Jun precipitation mm = 0.8
 | Jul precipitation mm = 0.0
 | Aug precipitation mm = 0.4
 | Sep precipitation mm = 4.8
 | Oct precipitation mm = 75.1
 | Nov precipitation mm = 140.9
 | Dec precipitation mm = 218.1
 | year precipitation mm = 1067.9
|Jan humidity = 78.1
|Feb humidity = 78.9
|Mar humidity = 77.4
|Apr humidity = 68.9
|May humidity = 62.2
|Jun humidity = 58.1
|Jul humidity = 51.9
|Aug humidity = 45.7
|Sep humidity = 40.5
|Oct humidity = 56.6
|Nov humidity = 65.1
|Dec humidity = 75.5
|year humidity = 63.2
|Jan sun = 170.5
|Feb sun = 156.8
|Mar sun = 195.3
|Apr sun = 255.0
|May sun = 297.6
|Jun sun = 291.0
|Jul sun = 306.9
|Aug sun = 303.8
|Sep sun = 273.0
|Oct sun = 248.0
|Nov sun = 189.0
|Dec sun = 167.4
|year sun = 2854.3
 | source 1 = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] (humidity and sun 1961–1990)&lt;ref name=&quot;WMONormals&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-1-WMO-Normals-9120/Zambia/CSV/Zambezi_67531.csv
|title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991-2020 — Zambezi
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|access-date = January 24, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name= NOAA&gt;{{Cite FTP | url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG__I/ZA/67531.TXT
| server = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
| title = Zambezi MET Climate Normals 1961–1990
| access-date = April 5, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Populated places in North-Western Province, Zambia]]
[[Category:Zambezi River]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>105024</id>
      <parentid>105023</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-25T17:21:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
        <id>1645</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Dey add category</comment>
      <origin>105024</origin>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="9680" sha1="ey895g5l3znlht4a9su5laeqlrbzast" xml:space="preserve">{{about|the town|the river|Zambezi River|other uses|Zambezi (disambiguation)}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2009}}
{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;| official_name            = Zambezi
| other_name               = 
| native_name              = &lt;!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --&gt;
| nickname                 = 
| settlement_type          = [[List of populated places in Zambia|Town]]
| motto                    = &lt;!-- images and maps  -----------&gt;
| image_skyline            = 
| imagesize                = 
| image_caption            = 
| image_flag               = 
| flag_size                = 
| image_seal               = 
| seal_size                = 
| image_shield             = 
| shield_size              = 
| image_blank_emblem       = 
| blank_emblem_type        = 
| blank_emblem_size        = 
| image_map                = 
| mapsize                  = 
| map_caption              = 
| image_map1               = 
| mapsize1                 = 
| map_caption1             = 
| image_dot_map            = 
| dot_mapsize              = 
| dot_map_caption          = 
| dot_x                    = 
| dot_y                    = 
| pushpin_map              = Zambia&lt;!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map --&gt;
| pushpin_label_position   = left
| pushpin_map_caption      = Location in Zambia
&lt;!-- Location ------------------&gt;| subdivision_type         = Country
| subdivision_name         = [[Image:Flag of Zambia.svg|25px]] [[Zambia]]
| subdivision_type1        = [[Provinces of Zambia|Province]]
| subdivision_name1        = [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western Province]]
| subdivision_type2        = [[Districts of Zambia#North-Western Province|District]]
| subdivision_name2        = [[Zambezi District]]
| subdivision_type3        = 
| subdivision_name3        = 
| subdivision_type4        = 
| subdivision_name4        = &lt;!-- Politics -----------------&gt;
| government_footnotes     = 
| government_type          = 
| leader_title             = 
| leader_name              = 
| leader_title1            = &lt;!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --&gt;
| leader_name1             = 
| leader_title2            = 
| leader_name2             = 
| leader_title3            = 
| leader_name3             = 
| leader_title4            = 
| leader_name4             = 
| established_title        = &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
| established_date         = 
| established_title2       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (town) --&gt;
| established_date2        = 
| established_title3       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (city) --&gt;
| established_date3        = &lt;!-- Area    ---------------------&gt;
| area_magnitude           = 
| unit_pref                = Imperial &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--&gt;
| area_footnotes           = 
| area_total_km2           = &lt;!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_land_km2            = &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_water_km2           = 
| area_total_sq_mi         = 
| area_land_sq_mi          = 
| area_water_sq_mi         = 
| area_water_percent       = 
| area_urban_km2           = 
| area_urban_sq_mi         = 
| area_metro_km2           = 
| area_metro_sq_mi         = 
| area_blank1_title        = 
| area_blank1_km2          = 
| area_blank1_sq_mi        = &lt;!-- Population   -----------------------&gt;
| population_as_of         = 2018 Estimate
| population_footnotes     = 
| population_note          = 
| population_total         = 
| population_density_km2   = 
| population_density_sq_mi = 
| population_metro         = 
| population_density_metro_km2 = 
| population_density_metro_sq_mi = 
| population_urban         = 
| population_density_urban_km2 = 
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 
| population_blank1_title  = Ethnicities
| population_blank1        = 
| population_blank2_title  = Religions
| population_blank2        = 
| population_density_blank1_km2 = 
| population_density_blank1_sq_mi = &lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
| timezone                 = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset               = +2
| timezone_DST             = 
| utc_offset_DST           = 
| coordinates              = {{coord|13|33|00|S|23|07|00|E|region:ZM|display=inline,title}}
| elevation_footnotes      = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
| elevation_m              = 
| elevation_ft             = &lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others --------&gt;
| postal_code_type         = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
| postal_code              = 
| area_code                = 
| blank_name               = 
| blank_info               = 
| blank1_name              = 
| blank1_info              = 
| website                  = 
| footnotes                = 
}}
[[Image:ZM-Zambezi.png|right|225px|Location of Zambezi in Zambia]]
'''Zambezi''' be a town insyd de North-Western Province of [[Zambia]], lying on de Zambezi River, west of Kabompo. E be at de western end of de M8 road. E be known for de palaces of de chiefs of de Lunda den Lovale people. Until about 1966 e was called ''Balovale'' after de dominant chief (den ein village within de town be still known by dat name) but de name was changed insyd an attempt to defuse tensions between de main groups den de government of de newly independent country.

De Chinyingi Suspension Bridge spans de river just to de north-west of de town.
==Climate==
Zambezi features a humid subtropical climate (Köppen:''Cwa'')&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |date=23 October 2023 |title=Table 1 Overview of the Köppen-Geiger climate classes including the defining criteria. |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-023-02549-6/tables/1 |journal=Nature: Scientific Data |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; plus distinct wet den dry seasons. De hottest period of de year be from September to November. Winters are cooler, plus warm days den cold nights. De wet season, from October to March, experiences significant rainfall. De dry season, from April to October, be marked by minimal precipitation.&lt;ref name=&quot;WMONormals&quot;/&gt; 
{{Weather box
 | width       = auto
 | collapsed   = 
 | metric first = yes
 | single line = yes
 | location    = Zambezi (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1961–2020)
 | Jan record high C = 35.6
 | Feb record high C = 35.3
 | Mar record high C = 34.6
 | Apr record high C = 34.7
 | May record high C = 34.5
 | Jun record high C = 32.4
 | Jul record high C = 33.0
 | Aug record high C = 39.2
 | Sep record high C = 40.1
 | Oct record high C = 41.0
 | Nov record high C = 37.6
 | Dec record high C = 36.5
 | year record high C = 
 | Jan high C = 29.4
 | Feb high C = 29.5
 | Mar high C = 29.9
 | Apr high C = 30.3
 | May high C = 29.4
 | Jun high C = 27.6
 | Jul high C = 27.5
 | Aug high C = 31.0
 | Sep high C = 34.2
 | Oct high C = 34.4
 | Nov high C = 31.3
 | Dec high C = 29.6
 | year high C = 30.3
 | Jan mean C = 23.8
 | Feb mean C = 23.7
 | Mar mean C = 23.7
 | Apr mean C = 22.6
 | May mean C = 19.7
 | Jun mean C = 17.3
 | Jul mean C = 17.0
 | Aug mean C = 20.3
 | Sep mean C = 24.2
 | Oct mean C = 25.8
 | Nov mean C = 24.6
 | Dec mean C = 23.9
 | year mean C = 22.2
 | Jan low C = 18.1
 | Feb low C = 17.9
 | Mar low C = 17.5
 | Apr low C = 14.8
 | May low C = 10.0
 | Jun low C = 6.9
 | Jul low C = 6.4
 | Aug low C = 9.5
 | Sep low C = 14.1
 | Oct low C = 17.1
 | Nov low C = 17.9
 | Dec low C = 18.2
 | year low C = 14.0
 | Jan record low C = 9.2
 | Feb record low C = 12.3
 | Mar record low C = 11.0
 | Apr record low C = 6.5
 | May record low C = 2.4
 | Jun record low C = -2.2
 | Jul record low C = -2.0
 | Aug record low C = 1.4
 | Sep record low C = 6.0
 | Oct record low C = 8.6
 | Nov record low C = 10.2
 | Dec record low C = 9.2
 | year record low C = 
 | precipitation colour = green
 | Jan precipitation mm = 235.9
 | Feb precipitation mm = 191.7
 | Mar precipitation mm = 159.0
 | Apr precipitation mm = 38.8
 | May precipitation mm = 2.4
 | Jun precipitation mm = 0.8
 | Jul precipitation mm = 0.0
 | Aug precipitation mm = 0.4
 | Sep precipitation mm = 4.8
 | Oct precipitation mm = 75.1
 | Nov precipitation mm = 140.9
 | Dec precipitation mm = 218.1
 | year precipitation mm = 1067.9
|Jan humidity = 78.1
|Feb humidity = 78.9
|Mar humidity = 77.4
|Apr humidity = 68.9
|May humidity = 62.2
|Jun humidity = 58.1
|Jul humidity = 51.9
|Aug humidity = 45.7
|Sep humidity = 40.5
|Oct humidity = 56.6
|Nov humidity = 65.1
|Dec humidity = 75.5
|year humidity = 63.2
|Jan sun = 170.5
|Feb sun = 156.8
|Mar sun = 195.3
|Apr sun = 255.0
|May sun = 297.6
|Jun sun = 291.0
|Jul sun = 306.9
|Aug sun = 303.8
|Sep sun = 273.0
|Oct sun = 248.0
|Nov sun = 189.0
|Dec sun = 167.4
|year sun = 2854.3
 | source 1 = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] (humidity and sun 1961–1990)&lt;ref name=&quot;WMONormals&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-1-WMO-Normals-9120/Zambia/CSV/Zambezi_67531.csv
|title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991-2020 — Zambezi
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|access-date = January 24, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name= NOAA&gt;{{Cite FTP | url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG__I/ZA/67531.TXT
| server = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
| title = Zambezi MET Climate Normals 1961–1990
| access-date = April 5, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Populated places in North-Western Province, Zambia]]
[[Category:Zambezi River]]
[[Category:AWC2026]]</text>
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      <id>105026</id>
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        <username>Tenaciuos Ntaawa</username>
        <id>1645</id>
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      <text bytes="9692" sha1="r75bsyr3m1c2dpta327xim23mnhro7g" xml:space="preserve">{{Databox}}
{{about|the town|the river|Zambezi River|other uses|Zambezi (disambiguation)}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2009}}
{{Infobox settlement
&lt;!--See the Table at Infobox Settlement for all fields and descriptions of usage--&gt;
&lt;!-- Basic info  ----------------&gt;| official_name            = Zambezi
| other_name               = 
| native_name              = &lt;!-- for cities whose native name is not in English --&gt;
| nickname                 = 
| settlement_type          = [[List of populated places in Zambia|Town]]
| motto                    = &lt;!-- images and maps  -----------&gt;
| image_skyline            = 
| imagesize                = 
| image_caption            = 
| image_flag               = 
| flag_size                = 
| image_seal               = 
| seal_size                = 
| image_shield             = 
| shield_size              = 
| image_blank_emblem       = 
| blank_emblem_type        = 
| blank_emblem_size        = 
| image_map                = 
| mapsize                  = 
| map_caption              = 
| image_map1               = 
| mapsize1                 = 
| map_caption1             = 
| image_dot_map            = 
| dot_mapsize              = 
| dot_map_caption          = 
| dot_x                    = 
| dot_y                    = 
| pushpin_map              = Zambia&lt;!-- the name of a location map as per http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Location_map --&gt;
| pushpin_label_position   = left
| pushpin_map_caption      = Location in Zambia
&lt;!-- Location ------------------&gt;| subdivision_type         = Country
| subdivision_name         = [[Image:Flag of Zambia.svg|25px]] [[Zambia]]
| subdivision_type1        = [[Provinces of Zambia|Province]]
| subdivision_name1        = [[North-Western Province, Zambia|North-Western Province]]
| subdivision_type2        = [[Districts of Zambia#North-Western Province|District]]
| subdivision_name2        = [[Zambezi District]]
| subdivision_type3        = 
| subdivision_name3        = 
| subdivision_type4        = 
| subdivision_name4        = &lt;!-- Politics -----------------&gt;
| government_footnotes     = 
| government_type          = 
| leader_title             = 
| leader_name              = 
| leader_title1            = &lt;!-- for places with, say, both a mayor and a city manager --&gt;
| leader_name1             = 
| leader_title2            = 
| leader_name2             = 
| leader_title3            = 
| leader_name3             = 
| leader_title4            = 
| leader_name4             = 
| established_title        = &lt;!-- Settled --&gt;
| established_date         = 
| established_title2       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (town) --&gt;
| established_date2        = 
| established_title3       = &lt;!-- Incorporated (city) --&gt;
| established_date3        = &lt;!-- Area    ---------------------&gt;
| area_magnitude           = 
| unit_pref                = Imperial &lt;!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--&gt;
| area_footnotes           = 
| area_total_km2           = &lt;!-- ALL fields dealing with a measurements are subject to automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_land_km2            = &lt;!--See table @ Template:Infobox Settlement for details on automatic unit conversion--&gt;
| area_water_km2           = 
| area_total_sq_mi         = 
| area_land_sq_mi          = 
| area_water_sq_mi         = 
| area_water_percent       = 
| area_urban_km2           = 
| area_urban_sq_mi         = 
| area_metro_km2           = 
| area_metro_sq_mi         = 
| area_blank1_title        = 
| area_blank1_km2          = 
| area_blank1_sq_mi        = &lt;!-- Population   -----------------------&gt;
| population_as_of         = 2018 Estimate
| population_footnotes     = 
| population_note          = 
| population_total         = 
| population_density_km2   = 
| population_density_sq_mi = 
| population_metro         = 
| population_density_metro_km2 = 
| population_density_metro_sq_mi = 
| population_urban         = 
| population_density_urban_km2 = 
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 
| population_blank1_title  = Ethnicities
| population_blank1        = 
| population_blank2_title  = Religions
| population_blank2        = 
| population_density_blank1_km2 = 
| population_density_blank1_sq_mi = &lt;!-- General information  ---------------&gt;
| timezone                 = [[Central Africa Time|CAT]]
| utc_offset               = +2
| timezone_DST             = 
| utc_offset_DST           = 
| coordinates              = {{coord|13|33|00|S|23|07|00|E|region:ZM|display=inline,title}}
| elevation_footnotes      = &lt;!--for references: use &lt;ref&gt; tags--&gt;
| elevation_m              = 
| elevation_ft             = &lt;!-- Area/postal codes &amp; others --------&gt;
| postal_code_type         = &lt;!-- enter ZIP code, Postcode, Post code, Postal code... --&gt;
| postal_code              = 
| area_code                = 
| blank_name               = 
| blank_info               = 
| blank1_name              = 
| blank1_info              = 
| website                  = 
| footnotes                = 
}}
[[Image:ZM-Zambezi.png|right|225px|Location of Zambezi in Zambia]]
'''Zambezi''' be a town insyd de North-Western Province of [[Zambia]], lying on de Zambezi River, west of Kabompo. E be at de western end of de M8 road. E be known for de palaces of de chiefs of de Lunda den Lovale people. Until about 1966 e was called ''Balovale'' after de dominant chief (den ein village within de town be still known by dat name) but de name was changed insyd an attempt to defuse tensions between de main groups den de government of de newly independent country.

De Chinyingi Suspension Bridge spans de river just to de north-west of de town.
==Climate==
Zambezi features a humid subtropical climate (Köppen:''Cwa'')&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |date=23 October 2023 |title=Table 1 Overview of the Köppen-Geiger climate classes including the defining criteria. |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-023-02549-6/tables/1 |journal=Nature: Scientific Data |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; plus distinct wet den dry seasons. De hottest period of de year be from September to November. Winters are cooler, plus warm days den cold nights. De wet season, from October to March, experiences significant rainfall. De dry season, from April to October, be marked by minimal precipitation.&lt;ref name=&quot;WMONormals&quot;/&gt; 
{{Weather box
 | width       = auto
 | collapsed   = 
 | metric first = yes
 | single line = yes
 | location    = Zambezi (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1961–2020)
 | Jan record high C = 35.6
 | Feb record high C = 35.3
 | Mar record high C = 34.6
 | Apr record high C = 34.7
 | May record high C = 34.5
 | Jun record high C = 32.4
 | Jul record high C = 33.0
 | Aug record high C = 39.2
 | Sep record high C = 40.1
 | Oct record high C = 41.0
 | Nov record high C = 37.6
 | Dec record high C = 36.5
 | year record high C = 
 | Jan high C = 29.4
 | Feb high C = 29.5
 | Mar high C = 29.9
 | Apr high C = 30.3
 | May high C = 29.4
 | Jun high C = 27.6
 | Jul high C = 27.5
 | Aug high C = 31.0
 | Sep high C = 34.2
 | Oct high C = 34.4
 | Nov high C = 31.3
 | Dec high C = 29.6
 | year high C = 30.3
 | Jan mean C = 23.8
 | Feb mean C = 23.7
 | Mar mean C = 23.7
 | Apr mean C = 22.6
 | May mean C = 19.7
 | Jun mean C = 17.3
 | Jul mean C = 17.0
 | Aug mean C = 20.3
 | Sep mean C = 24.2
 | Oct mean C = 25.8
 | Nov mean C = 24.6
 | Dec mean C = 23.9
 | year mean C = 22.2
 | Jan low C = 18.1
 | Feb low C = 17.9
 | Mar low C = 17.5
 | Apr low C = 14.8
 | May low C = 10.0
 | Jun low C = 6.9
 | Jul low C = 6.4
 | Aug low C = 9.5
 | Sep low C = 14.1
 | Oct low C = 17.1
 | Nov low C = 17.9
 | Dec low C = 18.2
 | year low C = 14.0
 | Jan record low C = 9.2
 | Feb record low C = 12.3
 | Mar record low C = 11.0
 | Apr record low C = 6.5
 | May record low C = 2.4
 | Jun record low C = -2.2
 | Jul record low C = -2.0
 | Aug record low C = 1.4
 | Sep record low C = 6.0
 | Oct record low C = 8.6
 | Nov record low C = 10.2
 | Dec record low C = 9.2
 | year record low C = 
 | precipitation colour = green
 | Jan precipitation mm = 235.9
 | Feb precipitation mm = 191.7
 | Mar precipitation mm = 159.0
 | Apr precipitation mm = 38.8
 | May precipitation mm = 2.4
 | Jun precipitation mm = 0.8
 | Jul precipitation mm = 0.0
 | Aug precipitation mm = 0.4
 | Sep precipitation mm = 4.8
 | Oct precipitation mm = 75.1
 | Nov precipitation mm = 140.9
 | Dec precipitation mm = 218.1
 | year precipitation mm = 1067.9
|Jan humidity = 78.1
|Feb humidity = 78.9
|Mar humidity = 77.4
|Apr humidity = 68.9
|May humidity = 62.2
|Jun humidity = 58.1
|Jul humidity = 51.9
|Aug humidity = 45.7
|Sep humidity = 40.5
|Oct humidity = 56.6
|Nov humidity = 65.1
|Dec humidity = 75.5
|year humidity = 63.2
|Jan sun = 170.5
|Feb sun = 156.8
|Mar sun = 195.3
|Apr sun = 255.0
|May sun = 297.6
|Jun sun = 291.0
|Jul sun = 306.9
|Aug sun = 303.8
|Sep sun = 273.0
|Oct sun = 248.0
|Nov sun = 189.0
|Dec sun = 167.4
|year sun = 2854.3
 | source 1 = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] (humidity and sun 1961–1990)&lt;ref name=&quot;WMONormals&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/2.2/data/0-data/Region-1-WMO-Normals-9120/Zambia/CSV/Zambezi_67531.csv
|title = World Meteorological Organization Climate Normals for 1991-2020 — Zambezi
|publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
|access-date = January 24, 2024}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name= NOAA&gt;{{Cite FTP | url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG__I/ZA/67531.TXT
| server = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
| title = Zambezi MET Climate Normals 1961–1990
| access-date = April 5, 2015}}&lt;/ref&gt;
}}

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
[[Category:Populated places in North-Western Province, Zambia]]
[[Category:Zambezi River]]
[[Category:AWC2026]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Congo Basin</title>
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      <text bytes="926" sha1="ehgt26gjq8e267gp02flb46ky2un5mm" xml:space="preserve">&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course and drainage basin of the Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;</text>
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      <id>105032</id>
      <parentid>105028</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-25T17:38:10Z</timestamp>
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      <text bytes="2317" sha1="7q5k33slsjsfggw6wd4vy4z0bi83glk" xml:space="preserve">&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;  

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="2815" sha1="rkmevhc6858g66yakw134i5glm51dj7" xml:space="preserve">&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==</text>
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      <text bytes="2828" sha1="240axok5uiji42a37urxs4j8462o66y" xml:space="preserve">&lt;nowiki&gt;{Short description|Sedimentary basin of de Congo River insyd Central Africa}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
{{Use British English|date=April 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}}

{{other uses|Congo (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Congobasinmap.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Course den drainage basin of de Congo River]]
De '''Congo Basin''' be de sedimentary basin of de [[Congo River]]. De Congo Basin be located insyd [[Central Africa]], insyd a region known as west equatorial Africa. De Congo Basin region be sometimes known simply as d'''e Congo'''. E contains sum of de largest tropical rainforests insyd de world den be an important source of water used insyd agriculture den energy generation.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|date=2012-09-28|title=Climate Change Impacts on the Congo Basin Region|url=https://www.wur.nl/en/Publication-details.htm?publicationId=publication-way-343335333530|access-date=2021-09-20|website=WUR|language=en-us}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De rainforest insyd de Congo Basin be de largest rainforest insyd Africa den second only to de Amazon rainforest insyd size, plus 300 million hectares compared to de 800 million hectares insyd de Amazon.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAO 2011&quot;&gt;{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2247e/i2247e00.pdf |title=The State of Forests in the Amazon basin and Southeast Asian |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FOA) |isbn=978-92-5-106888-5 |location=Brazzaville, Republic of Congo |access-date=14 April 2012}}&lt;/ref&gt; Because of its size den diversity de basin's forest be important for mitigating climate change insyd its role as a carbon sink.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=The Congo Rainforest Is Losing Ability to Absorb Carbon Dioxide. That's Bad for Climate Change.|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/congo-rainforest-losing-ability-absorb-carbon-dioxide-thats-bad-climate-change|access-date=2021-09-20|website=Pulitzer Center|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, deforestation den degradation of de ecology by de impacts of de climate change may increase stress on de forest ecosystem, insyd turn making de hydrology of de basin more variable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pulitzercenter.org&quot; /&gt; A 2012 study found dat de variability insyd precipitation wey cause by climate change will negatively affect economic activity insyd de basin.&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt; 

Eight sites of de Congo Basin are inscribed on de World Heritage List, five being sanso on de list of World Heritage insyd Danger (all five located insyd [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]]). Fourteen percent of de humid forest be designated as protected.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|title=Natural World Heritage in the Congo Basin|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/conservation-congo-basin/|access-date=2021-05-13|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Geology ==
== References ==</text>
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    <title>Pangani River</title>
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&lt;templatestyles src=&quot;Module:Infobox/styles.css&quot;&gt;&lt;/templatestyles&gt; 

De '''Pangani River'''  (''Mto Pangani'', in Swahili), (wey edey  call '''Luffu''' den '''Jipe Ruvu''', especially in older sources, den probably once called '''Rhaptus''') ebe de major river of northeastern [[Tanzania]]. It has two main sources:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Entry &quot;Pangani&quot; in the German Koloniallexikon |url=http://www.ub.bildarchiv-dkg.uni-frankfurt.de/Bildprojekt/Lexikon/php/suche_db.php?suchname=Pangani |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011083932/http://www.ub.bildarchiv-dkg.uni-frankfurt.de/Bildprojekt/Lexikon/php/suche_db.php?suchname=Pangani |archive-date=2014-10-11 |access-date=2011-12-10}}&lt;/ref&gt; de Ruvu, which rises as [[Lumi River (East Africa)|Lumi]] at Kilimanjaro, passes through Lake Jipe, de empties into the Nyumba ya Mungu Reservoir,  den de Kikuletwa River, coming from the west and mainly fed by rivers of Mount Meru in Arusha Region, which also enters into the Nyumba ya Mungu Reservoir in Kilimanjaro Region. Just after leaving the reservoir the stream becomes the main Pangani, which empties into the Indian Ocean in Tanga Region at the Tangan port town of Pangani.&lt;ref name=&quot;INTELLIGENCER1852&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rhYFAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=RA93 |title=THE CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY INTELLIGENCER |year=1852 |edition=Now in the public domain. |pages=93– |access-date=8 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

For much of its length de river wey flows along de regional borders of Kilimanjaro Region den Manyara Region, before flowing into Tanga Region, which contains the 68&amp;nbsp;MW Pangani Power Station and de Pangani Falls Dam. There are several inhabited islands dey within de river. De river wey full of crocodiles; hippopotami are scarcer ein its lower parts.

== Etymology ==
A main source of Pangani originates dey on Kilimanjaro, where u go fi find for  River Lumi.wey Lake Jipe may be considered a backwater of the Lumi.&lt;ref name=&quot;Meyer1891&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Meyer |first=Hans |url=https://archive.org/details/acrosseastafric00meyegoog |title=Across East African glaciers: an account of the first ascent of Kilimanjaro |publisher=G. Philip &amp; son |year=1891 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/acrosseastafric00meyegoog/page/n431 321]– |access-date=11 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below Lake Jipe and above the falls, the river is referred to as &quot;Ruvu&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;BritainShaw1875&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=New |first=Charles |year=1875 |title=Journey from the Pangani, via Wadigo, to Mombasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_nQMAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA318 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=317–323 |doi=10.2307/1799979 |jstor=1799979}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Formerly u fi call de main course towards de sea  called &quot;Ruvu&quot; den &quot;Pangani&quot;. Nowadays that has been settled as &quot;Pangani&quot; from  de Nyumba ya Mungu reservoir to the Ocean. While the Swahili call it &quot;''Pangani''&quot; (meaning distribute or arrange),&lt;ref name=&quot;Hodd2002&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Hodd |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wCFrdRKB8hYC&amp;pg=PA383 |title=East Africa handbook |date=22 March 2002 |isbn=978-1-900949-65-1 |pages=383– |access-date=11 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; it is called &quot;''Luffu''&quot; by de [[Wasambara]] (indigenous to de Nderema area, on the three ridges nearer the coast) and the Zigua (who live on the river's islands).&lt;ref name=&quot;INTELLIGENCER1852&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rhYFAAAAQAAJ&amp;pg=RA93 |title=THE CHRISTIAN MISSIONARY INTELLIGENCER |year=1852 |edition=Now in the public domain. |pages=93– |access-date=8 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;BritainShaw1875&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal |last=New |first=Charles |year=1875 |title=Journey from the Pangani, via Wadigo, to Mombasa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_nQMAAAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA318 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of London |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=317–323 |doi=10.2307/1799979 |jstor=1799979}}&lt;/ref&gt; Almost all authorities agree that the river &quot;Rhaptus&quot; of Ptolemy's topographical maps is the Pangani of modern maps.&lt;ref name=&quot;Proceedings1891&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zv4QAQAAIAAJ&amp;pg=PA524 |title=Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and monthly record of geography |publisher=Edward Stanford |year=1891 |edition=Now in the public domain. |pages=524– |access-date=8 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

One source of de river rises in Kilimanjaro, dey about 120 miles (190 km) from the sea.Wey known as de Lumi in dis area, its course runs dey go Lake Jipe. De other wey dey at Mount Meru in the west den is known as the Kikuletwa. Like all African rivers, its depth varies with de season. De river is highest around May den lowest around October. Another source is de Saunyi River in Kilindi District.

Ebe navigable for small craft dey between de lake den de Höhnel Cataracts, a series of rapids.&lt;ref name=&quot;Lewin1924&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Lewin |first=Evans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajWmBSO_vH8C |title=Africa |publisher=Clarendon press |year=1924 |edition=Now in the public domain. |page=108 |access-date=11 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Below de Höhnel Cataracts, eget numerous tributaries, den many islands with villages on them.  The stream is strongest above [[Koleni]], within 5 miles of the Pangani Falls, where de river be narrow. Dis section eno be  navigable for any considerable distance on account of de falls, which are about 30 miles (48 km) from de mouth. Approximately 4 miles (6.4 km) from the mouth, dense mangrove swamp covers de flatland Dey between de hills on either side. In dis area, near Teufelsfelsen, are higher land, a fertile area, den de arid Masai Steppe.&lt;ref name=&quot;iwmnet.eu&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pangani Basin |url=http://www.iwmnet.eu/index.php/research/pangani-basin |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218024206/http://www.iwmnet.eu/index.php/research/pangani-basin |archive-date=18 February 2012 |access-date=12 October 2011 |publisher=IWMNet}}&lt;/ref&gt;  On this bank is Mount Kovu Kovu, 360 feet (110 m) in height, while on de south bank wey ridge 400 feet (120 m) high. [[Pombwe]], one of de principal settlements on de river, wey situated about 1 mile (1.6 km) west of Kovu Kovu. Above Pombwe, de West African oil palm grows, while below Pombwe, de trees are chiefly areca and coconut palms.&lt;ref name=&quot;AfricaPilot1916&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=United States. Hydrographic Office |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_O9MNAQAAMAAJ |title=Africa Pilot: South and east coasts of Africa from Cape of Good Hope to Ras Hafun |publisher=Hydrographic office under the authority of the secretary of the navy |year=1916 |edition=Now in the public domain. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_O9MNAQAAMAAJ/page/n402 392]– |access-date=8 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; De village of Lemkuna den de hamlet of Ngage are on de river's west bank, while Mvungwe den Meserani are on its eastern bank.&lt;ref name=&quot;Catchment&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QmHvdkVNLEgC&amp;pg=PA34 |title=Catchment ecosystems and downstream water : the value of water resources in the Pangani basin, Tanzania |publisher=IUCN |isbn=978-955-8177-49-5 |pages=34– |access-date=11 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De mouth wey located 52 kilometres (32 mi) south of Tanga.&lt;ref name=&quot;Hodd2002&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Hodd |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wCFrdRKB8hYC&amp;pg=PA383 |title=East Africa handbook |date=22 March 2002 |isbn=978-1-900949-65-1 |pages=383– |access-date=11 October 2011}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFHodd2002&quot;&gt;Hodd, Michael (22 March 2002). &lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; De river ebe tidal for a distance of 22 miles (35 km) from de entrance.&lt;ref name=&quot;AfricaPilot1916&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=United States. Hydrographic Office |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_O9MNAQAAMAAJ |title=Africa Pilot: South and east coasts of Africa from Cape of Good Hope to Ras Hafun |publisher=Hydrographic office under the authority of the secretary of the navy |year=1916 |edition=Now in the public domain. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_O9MNAQAAMAAJ/page/n402 392]– |access-date=8 October 2011}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFUnited_States._Hydrographic_Office1916&quot;&gt;United States. &lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; De southern side of de entrance wey marked by a perpendicular bluff named Bweni, about 200 feet (61 m) high; there is a village of de same name, Bweni, situated here. De northern side wey de entrance is a flat sandy beach dat extends from de head of de bay. There are several settlements at de entrance, two on de northern den two on de southern bank. Historically, de town of Pangani, on de river's left bank, had a reputation for fevers.&lt;ref name=&quot;Africapilot1878&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Great Britain. Hydrographic Office |url=https://archive.org/details/africapilot02offigoog |title=Africa pilot: South and east coasts of Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to Cape Guardafui, including the islands in Mozambique Channel |publisher=Printed for the Hydrographic Office, Admiralty |year=1878 |edition=Now in the public domain |pages=[https://archive.org/details/africapilot02offigoog/page/n339 327], 328– |access-date=8 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; At its estuary, by Pangani town, de river ebe about 600 feet (180 m) in breadth, den 12–15 feet (3.7–4.6 m) deep.

; Tributaries

Several tributaries coming from de Pare Mountains, de Usambara Mountains den de [[Wasegiia]] wilderness join de Pangani in its course. These include de Kibaya, Komkuza, Kwachigulu, Kwamwadyau den Mnyusi.&lt;ref name=&quot;Journal1959&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w6xLAQAAIAAJ |title=Journal of tropical medicine and hygiene |publisher=Staples and Staples, Ltd. |year=1959 |page=40 |access-date=8 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Hydrometry ==
Average monthly wey flow of Pangani measured at de hydrological station in Korogwe Estate, about 110&amp;nbsp;km above de mouth in m³ / s (1959–77). De Pangani flows stimulate time-dependent, like most rivers in the region.&lt;timeline&gt;
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&lt;/timeline&gt;De Pangani Basin (PB) ebe one of Tanzania's nine drainage basins. Extending from de northern highlands to Tanzania's north-eastern coastline, de PB is approximately 56,300 square kilometres (21,700 sq mi) ein size, of which 4,880 square kilometres (1,880 sq mi) is within Kenya.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Bhatt |first=Yogesh Chandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O9qZIXK-XtIC&amp;pg=PA10 |title=Smallholder system innovations in integrated watershed management (SSI): Strategies of water for food and environmental security in drought-prone tropical and subtropical agro-ecosystems |last2=Bossio |first2=Deborah |last3=Enfors |first3=E. |last4=Gordon |first4=L. |last5=Kongo |first5=V. |last6=Kosgei |first6=J. R. |last7=Makurira |first7=H. |last8=Masuki |first8=K. |last9=Mul |first9=M. |publisher=[[International Water Management Institute]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-92-9090-634-6 |page=10 |access-date=8 October 2011}}&lt;/ref&gt; Five sub-basins comprise de basin: de Pangani River (43,650 square kilometres (16,850 sq mi)), de Umba River (8,070 square kilometres (3,120 sq mi)), the Msangazi River (5,030 square kilometres (1,940 sq mi)), de Zigi River, den de Mkulumuzi River plus other coastal rivers (2,080 square kilometres (800 sq mi)).&lt;ref name=&quot;MiniGrids&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pangani Basin Water Board |url=http://www.minigrids.go.tz/en/Directory/Details/c4c1761f-fdb3-41d1-9aff-a79876e21663 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200327112041/http://www.minigrids.go.tz/en/Directory/Details/c4c1761f-fdb3-41d1-9aff-a79876e21663 |archive-date=27 March 2020 |access-date=1 July 2018 |publisher=Mini Grids Information Portal}}&lt;/ref&gt; All of these empty into the Indian Ocean.&lt;ref name=&quot;PBWB&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pangani Basin |url=http://www.panganibasin.com/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021212915/http://www.panganibasin.com/# |archive-date=2011-10-21 |access-date=9 October 2011 |publisher=Pangani Basin Water Board}}&lt;/ref&gt;

De [[Pangani Basin Water Board]] (PBWB) was established in July 1991 under de Water Utilization (Control den Regulation) Act No. 42 of 1974. Its headquarters is in de Moshi municipality in de Kilimanjaro Region. Its other two offices are in Arusha den Tanga.&lt;ref name=&quot;PBWB&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pangani Basin |url=http://www.panganibasin.com/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021212915/http://www.panganibasin.com/# |archive-date=2011-10-21 |access-date=9 October 2011 |publisher=Pangani Basin Water Board}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation web cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;&quot;&gt;[https://web.archive.org/web/20111021212915/http://www.panganibasin.com/# &quot;Pangani Basin&quot;]. &lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt; De PBWB consists of ten professionals from public institutions den private sector LGAs, UWSAs, den other committees. &lt;sup class=&quot;noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact&quot; style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;&amp;#x5B;''&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2018)&quot;&gt;citation needed&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;''&amp;#x5D;&lt;/sup&gt;

De river system wey dey under pressure because of conflicting water uses den major overallocations of its water. Many farmers dey rely on de river for irrigation. Damming projects along de river have reduced de river's flow from several hundred cubic metres per second to less dan 40 cubic metres per second (1,400 cu ft/s). Dis has affected coastal communities, which have seen large reductions in fish populations and saltwater intrusion&lt;ref name=&quot;IUCN&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |title=Pangani River Basin |url=http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/water/wp_where_we_work/wp_our_work_projects/wp_our_work_pan/ |access-date=1 July 2018 |publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 2002, de [[Pangani River Basin Management Project]] was established to manage de basin's water resources. It receives technical assistance from de International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), de SNV Netherlands Development Organisation, de [[GIZ German Development Organisation]] den de local non-governmental organization [[PAMOJA]].&lt;ref name=&quot;IUCN&quot; /&gt; De project also receives funds from de government of Tanzania, IUCN, de European Commission, den de Global Environment Facility through de United Nations Development Programme.&lt;ref name=&quot;IUCN&quot; /&gt;

There is a good deal of trade here, dhows loading den unloading on de river. Produce wey brought down de river, principally on rafts made of de Moale palm, which are then broken up den become articles of commerce. In 1878, de most common crop cultivated on de river's banks was reported to be sugar.&lt;ref name=&quot;Africapilot1878&quot;&gt;{{Cite book |last=Great Britain. Hydrographic Office |url=https://archive.org/details/africapilot02offigoog |title=Africa pilot: South and east coasts of Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to Cape Guardafui, including the islands in Mozambique Channel |publisher=Printed for the Hydrographic Office, Admiralty |year=1878 |edition=Now in the public domain |pages=[https://archive.org/details/africapilot02offigoog/page/n339 327], 328– |access-date=8 October 2011}}&lt;cite class=&quot;citation book cs1&quot; data-ve-ignore=&quot;&quot; id=&quot;CITEREFGreat_Britain._Hydrographic_Office1878&quot;&gt;Great Britain. &lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;
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